Remote Tutoring – A Choice for Deaf College Students:
An Action Research Study
by
LINDA M. BRYANT
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Supervised by
Professor Martha Mock
Margaret Warner Graduate School of Education and Human Development
University of Rochester
Rochester, New York
2011
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS ii
Abstract
Today‘s deaf college students are expected to succeed academically despite language and
learning challenges (Paul, 2009). As a support service, the benefits of tutoring have been well
documented; however, research using remote tutoring with deaf college students is lacking. This
Action Research study examined the activities (actions and interactions) that occurred during
twenty-two remote-tutoring sessions with nine deaf students in my English class. Using
Dimensional Analysis (Schatzman, 1991), the dimensions used to narrate the remote tutoring
process with deaf college students served to inform relevant theory and answered the research
question: How does using remote tutoring with deaf college students affect my tutoring
practices? Findings pointed to choices as the central perspective revealing students desire
options for supplemental learning. These included choice of time for tutoring; choice of type of
tutoring (traditional or remote); choice of remote tutoring (asynchronous versus synchronous);
choice of remote technologies (webcam, chat, email or videophone); choice of communication
(ASL, SimCom or Speech); choice of tutor; and choice of course (e.g., math, English, science).
Relevant dimensions included transitioning, benefits and sharing experiences. Analysis also
revealed theory suggesting that remote tutoring is comparable to traditional tutoring using
technologies as the mediating tool. Whether it‘s provided in one‘s office or through a
webconferencing site, both are similar in delivery of instruction and perceived benefits. An
action plan for delivering remote tutoring to deaf college students in other English classes is
outlined. Implications for tutors, deaf educators and distance educators are discussed and future
research considerations are proposed.
Keywords:
Deaf, tutoring, action research, dimensional analysis, distance learning, remote tutoring
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS iii
CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................x
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One –Overview
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Personal Philosophy of Tutoring ..............................................................................2
1.3 Statement of the Educational Problem ......................................................................3
1.4 Goal of the Study ......................................................................................................5
1.5 Theoretical Frameworks ...........................................................................................5
1.6 Research Questions ...................................................................................................8
1.7 Action Research as the Appropriate Methodology ...................................................8
1.8 Action Research Methodology ...............................................................................10
1.9 Significance and Contributions of the Study ..........................................................12
1.10 Organization of the Dissertation ...........................................................................12
Chapter Two – Literature Review
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................14
2.2 Exploring the Educational Problem ........................................................................16
2.2.1 Language and Academic Challenges ...................................................................16
2.2.2 Diverse Communication Modes ..........................................................................19
2.2.3 Deaf Identity and Development ...........................................................................21
2.2.4 Benefits of Tutoring .............................................................................................23
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS iv
2.2.5 Contribution to Remote Tutoring.........................................................................25
2.3 Theoretical Frameworks .........................................................................................28
2.3.1 Sociocultural Theory ............................................................................................29
2.3.2 Activity Theory ....................................................................................................31
2.3.3 New Literacy Studies ...........................................................................................33
2.4 Addressing the Educational Problem ......................................................................36
2.4.1 Technical Considerations .....................................................................................37
2.4.2 Communication Considerations ...........................................................................40
2.4.3 Pedagogical Considerations .................................................................................41
2.4.4 Deaf Identity Development ..................................................................................43
2.4.5 Users‘ Satisfaction ...............................................................................................44
2.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................45
Chapter Three – Research Design
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................47
3.2 Choice of Methodology ..........................................................................................47
3.3 Context ....................................................................................................................50
3.4 Overall Design ........................................................................................................51
3.4.1 Remote-tutoring Formats .....................................................................................51
3.4.2 An Action Research Cycle ...................................................................................53
3.4.3 Positionality within Action Research ...................................................................53
3.4.4 Participants‘ Recruitment.....................................................................................55
3.4.5 Intervention and Data Sources .............................................................................57
3.4.5.1 Remote-Tutoring Sessions ................................................................................57
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS v
3.4.5.2 Remote-Tutoring Questionnaire .......................................................................57
3.4.5.3 Remote-Tutoring Transcripts ............................................................................58
3.4.5.4 Students‘ Evaluations........................................................................................58
3.4.5.5 Researcher‘s Summaries ...................................................................................58
3.4.5.6 Student Interviews ............................................................................................58
3.4.5.7 Researcher‘s Memos .........................................................................................59
3.4.6 Data Collection Timeline .....................................................................................59
3.5 Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................59
3.5.1 The Importance of Video Data ............................................................................60
3.5.2 Incorporating the Student‘s Voice .......................................................................61
3.5.3 The Transcription Log .........................................................................................62
3.5.4 Unit of Analysis ...................................................................................................63
3.5.4.1 Study Activities, Actions and Interactions........................................................63
3.5.5 Method of Analysis ..............................................................................................65
3.5.5.1 The Explanatory Matrix ....................................................................................67
3.5.6 Steps of Analysis..................................................................................................68
3.6 Methodology Check ................................................................................................70
3.7 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................70
Chapter Four –Findings
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................71
4.1.1 Research Questions ..............................................................................................71
4.2 General Findings .....................................................................................................72
4.2.1 Characteristics of Eligible Participants ................................................................72
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS vi
4.2.2 Utilization of Remote Tutoring ............................................................................73
4.3 Research Findings ...................................................................................................74
4.3.1 Researcher‘s Assumptions ...................................................................................75
4.3.2 Central Perspective - Choices ..............................................................................76
4.3.2.1 Central Perspective – Dimension 1: Choice of Times for Tutoring .................77
4.3.2.2 Central Perspective – Dimension 2: Reasons for Choosing Remote Tutoring .78
4.3.2.3 Central Perspective – Dimension 3: Choice of Remote Tutoring Mode ..........79
4.3.2.4 Central Perspective – Dimension 4: Choice of Remote Technologies .............82
4.3.2.5 Central Perspective – Dimension 5: Technical Configurations that Affected
Choices Research Sub-question 1 .....................................................................83
4.3.2.6 Central Perspective – Dimension 6: Choice of Communication Mode
Research Sub-question 2 ...................................................................................89
4.3.2.7 Central Perspective – Dimension 7: Offering Additional Choices/Suggestions ..
...........................................................................................................................92
4.3.2.8 Summary of Central Perspective - Choices ......................................................96
4.3.3 The Three Relevant Dimensions ..........................................................................96
4.3.4 Transitioning Dimension .....................................................................................97
4.3.4.1 Transitioning Dimension - Property 1: Tutor‘s Perspective of Transitioning
with Technology ................................................................................................97
4.3.4.2 Transitioning Dimension – Property 2: Tutor‘s Perspective of Transitioning
with Instruction. Research Sub-question 3 .....................................................100
4.3.4.3 Transitioning Dimension - Property 3: Students‘ Perspectives of Transitioning
..........................................................................................................................106
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS vii
4.3.5 Benefits Dimension. Research Sub-question 5 .................................................113
4.3.5.1 Benefits Dimension – Property 1: Tutor‘s Perspective of Benefits ................114
4.3.5.2 Benefits Dimension – Property 2: Students‘ Perspectives of Benefits ...........116
4.3.6 Sharing Experiences Dimension. Research Sub-question 4 .............................119
4.3.6.1 Sharing Experiences Dimension – Property 1: Meeting Obligations .............120
4.3.6.2 Sharing Experiences Dimension – Property 2: Informing Others ..................121
4.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................124
Chapter Five – Impact of Action Research
5.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................126
5.2 Action Research Cycles ........................................................................................126
5.2.1 Cycle One – Adobe® Connect Pro 7
TM system ..................................................127
5.2.2 Cycle Two – IdeaToolsTM
system ......................................................................128
5.3 Next Stages of Action Research ...........................................................................131
5.4 Implications on My Tutoring Practices.................................................................133
5.4.1 Technical Impacts ..............................................................................................133
5.4.2 Communication Impacts ....................................................................................135
5.4.3 Pedagogical Impacts ..........................................................................................137
5.4.4 Socio-affective Impacts .....................................................................................140
5.5 Action Plan - Piloting Remote Tutoring in English Classes .................................143
5.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................146
Chapter Six - Conclusions
6.1 Study Highlights ...................................................................................................147
6.2 Study Implications ................................................................................................150
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS viii
6.3 Study Opportunities and Limitations ....................................................................153
6.4 Further Research Considerations ..........................................................................155
6.5 Final Thoughts ......................................................................................................158
References ........................................................................................................................160
Appendix A Remote Tutoring Questionnaire .................................................................184
Appendix B Student Evaluation Form ............................................................................186
Appendix C Tutor Evaluation Form ...............................................................................187
Appendix D Glossary of Terms ......................................................................................188
Appendix E Snapshots of Webconferencing Systems ...................................................189
Appendix F Dimensional Analysis Definitions .............................................................192
Appendix G Initial and Pre-existing Codes ....................................................................193
Appendix H Tutor Actions Related to Remote-Tutoring Systems ..................................197
Appendix I Instructional Strategies used in Select Sessions ..........................................198
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS ix
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Remote Tutoring Activity System ................................................................33
Figure 3.1. Action Research Cycle ..................................................................................48
Figure 3.2. Remote Tutoring Action Research Cycle .....................................................54
Figure 3.3. Dimensional Analysis Steps..........................................................................67
Figure 4.1. Explanatory Matrix .......................................................................................77
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS x
List of Tables
Table 3.1. Intervention and Data Source Collection Timeline ........................................60
Table 3.2. Video Transcription Log .................................................................................62
Table 4.1. Participant Utilization: Number of Sessions and Remote-tutoring System ....74
Table 4.2. Communication and Language Choices for Varying Remote-tutoring
Formats ...........................................................................................................91
Table 4.3. Properties of Transitioning Dimension ..........................................................98
Table 4.4. Session Characteristics with Student Evaluations ........................................102
Table 4.5. Instructional Strategies Unique to Remote Tutoring ....................................104
Table 4.6. Properties of Benefits Dimension .................................................................113
Table 4.7. Properties of Sharing Experiences Dimension .............................................120
Table 5.1. Remote Tutoring Sessions by Cycle and Format ..........................................127
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS xi
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to my advisor, Dr. Martha Mock, for her guidance and helpful feedback
throughout all stages of this dissertation: coursework, proposal, study, analysis and reporting. I
am also grateful for assistance from Dr. Joane Larson and Dr. Christopher Kurz. All three
committee members are amazing teachers, researchers and individuals, and their influences
permeate this dissertation.
I would like to give thanks to my current supervisor, Dr. Robb Adams; my former supervisor,
Dr. Ellie Rosenfield, who left this world too soon in 2010; Dr. Katie Schmitz, Chair of the
department where I teach; and all of the wonderful students I am privileged to interact with
everyday. It never feels like ―work‖ when you love what you are doing.
I want to thank my family, friends and co-workers who encouraged me along the way. Your
inquiries and words of support gave me the motivation to persevere.
Finally, I am most grateful to my wonderful husband, Gary. You were my biggest fan and I
could not have accomplished this without your support. I dedicate this dissertation to you!
The journey is not so much about the destination,
but what the traveler finds along the way.
Lisa Meloncon, 2007
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 1
Chapter One
Overview
1.1 Introduction
Today‘s deaf college students are expected to do well academically despite language and
learning challenges (Paul, 2009). While delays in language acquisition and resulting academic
underachievement may presumably to be related to deafness, research indicates that ineffective
communication between parents and children and a later mismatch between home and school are
more likely to blame (Holcomb, T.K., 2010; Spencer & Marschark, 2010). In fact, ―quality
parent-child communication may be the single best predictor of language development, and it is
clearly a central factor in later academic success‖ (Marschark, Lang & Albertini, 2002, p. 91).
Even though intelligence is distributed normally in the deaf population (Swisher, 1989), learning
to successfully read and write in English without knowing or using its primary (spoken) form is a
challenge profoundly deaf children face in today‘s educational milieu (Berent, 1996; Knight &
Swanwick, 2002). As advancements in computer technologies provide additional access to
information, the demands on literacy skills will increase. At the same time, opportunities to
transform current support services, such as tutoring, using computers and related technologies
exist. This is important to consider when examining literacy interventions that go beyond
instruction in functional literacy skill development to those that enable deaf students to make use
of technology to construct new knowledge and facilitate participation in lifelong learning.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 2
D/deaf1 students who attend college and are enrolled in writing classes may choose to
take advantage of tutoring services to help them organize, draft and edit their papers. Innovative
tutoring systems, such as synchronous remote tutoring, have the potential to provide increased
access to tutoring as a support service for these students. In remote tutoring, presenting
information in multimodal formats (signed and written) offers tutees opportunities to interact and
learn through familiar technologies, such as webcams, videophones, webconferencing software
and Instant Messaging. While advancements in technologies cannot solely eradicate the
difficulties deaf students experience with print literacy, research in remote tutoring may result in
strategies that can be utilized to supplement classroom and distance learning. As a result, in this
Action Research study, I strive to understand how using remote tutoring with deaf college
students enrolled in my English classes affects my tutoring practices in order to increase the
credibility of remote tutoring as a support service for this population, and inform others in the
fields of tutoring, deaf education and distance learning.
1.2 Personal Philosophy of Tutoring
Effective tutoring supports students in their personal journey to becoming successful,
independent learners (Gordon, Morgan, O‘Malley & Ponticell, 2007; Ritter, Barnett, Denny &
Albin, 2009). It calls for new approaches and mediating tools that capture the complex cognitive
and social processes that produce better readers and writers (Rose, 1985). Ideally, tutoring should
not emphasize deficit areas using remedial approaches but incorporate what students already
know as assets to learning and construct writing from there (Gutierrez, Morales & Martinez,
2009). Using this approach, tutoring serves as a form of re-mediation, ―that is, changing the
1 In this paper, the word Deaf with an upper-case ―D‖ refers specifically to those who claim membership in the Deaf
community whose primary language is American Sign Language (ASL) and who affiliate with Deaf culture. The
word deaf with a lower-case ―d‖ refers to anyone who is profoundly deaf or hard-of-hearing including those who
sign as well as whose primary language is English and use speech, speechreading and audition for communication.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 3
environment & the means through which students are taught the material they had not mastered
before‖ (Rose, 2008, para. 14) by providing a personalized, supportive environment with which
to interact and learn beyond what students would acquire alone.
In my philosophy of tutoring, I believe tutoring should be student-centered, strength-
based, scaffolded, interactive, holistic, respectful of diversity and differences, and that tutors
should maintain high expectations while providing successful experiences for learners. Using a
learner-centered approach, a tutor can facilitate instruction by engaging students in activities of
discovery and meaning making. Ideally, the tutor‘s goal should be to create opportunities for
students to participate as active co-constructors of meaning while attending to students‘
communication and learning preferences in the effort to promote English literacy. Typically,
good tutoring sessions consist of asking the tutee what content they desire to focus on, allowing
student writers to discuss their topics and writing processes, and tutors encouraging students to
provide information (Lang, Biser, Mousley, Orlando, & Porter, 2004). Recognizing the balance
of power in a teacher-student relationship, I also postulate tutors should foster personal and
professional relationships with students while providing constructive feedback as a way to
support each student‘s journey to becoming a better reader and writer. In sum, these are the
beliefs I profess as I approach delivering remote tutoring with students in my English classes.
1.3 Statement of the Educational Problem
Distance learning is on the rise due to the availability of digital technologies and the
affordances of increased enrollments and profits for universities (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Fuks,
Gerosa & Pereira de Lucena, 2002; Menchaca & Bekele, 2008; Miller, Martineau & Clark,
2000). Studies show that deaf college students who take distance learning courses are just as
capable of adapting to this form of education as their hearing peers (Long, Mallory, Fasse &
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 4
Marchetti, 2010; Richardson & Woodley, 1999).While there is a significant amount of research
addressing how to teach courses online (e.g., Bach, 2007; Bullen & Janes, 2007; Hewett &
Ehmann, 2004; Ko, 2001; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw & Liu, 2006);
how to moderate posted discussions (Hanna, Glowacki-Dudka & Conceicao-Runlee, 2000;
Palloff & Pratt, 2007; Salmon, 2000) and how to use computer technologies to facilitate the
composing process to teach writing to deaf students (Geoffrion, 1982; Johnson, Griffith &
Barton, 1988; Lieberth, 1988; Nash & Nash, 1982), there is limited scholarship addressing the
use of one-to-one remote tutoring with deaf college students.
At the present time, there are a range of educational support service options available to
school-age deaf students, such as, teachers of the deaf, interpreters, note takers, assistive
listening devices, resource rooms and tutoring services. As a result, deaf students who attend
college may take advantage of college-sponsored tutoring programs. Although, there has been
limited research addressing tutoring with deaf students (Lang, Biser, Mousley, Orlando, et al.,
2004; Orlando, Gramly & Hoke, 1997); it is presumed that the ―most effective way for Deaf
students to keep up with their class work is to provide them with tutorial services‖ (Livingston,
Duda & Lucas, 2000). However, according to Gallaudet Research Institute 2007-08 Regional
and National Survey (November, 2008), less than ten percent of deaf and hard-of-hearing
students in K – 12 programs receive tutoring as support service for instruction (p. 9). Those who
accessed and benefitted from tutoring in high school are more likely to continue with the service
in college (Eilers-crandall [sic], 2009; Orlando, Gramly & Hoke, 1997). Regardless, an accurate
number of deaf students who access tutoring in college is unknown (Lang, 2002). This is further
complicated when considering offering tutoring remotely.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 5
Recent digital technologies have paved the way for a variety of online communication
systems (e.g., blogs, instant messaging/chat, and webcams). Web 2.0 tools and webconferencing
software applications provide the landscape to create engaging distance learning environments
that allow real-time collaborations (Meloncon, 2007). Remote tutoring systems could make
tutoring more accessible, affordable and flexible for a broad range of users (children, college
students, adult learners, and people with disabilities).With this in mind, providing remote
tutoring to deaf students seem advantageous; however, the benefits are not fully understood.
Consequently, ―the success of these students may depend in part on how research may be applied
to optimize the conditions for learning in a timely manner‖ (Lang, 2002, p. 268). Research could
help clarify how innovative learning opportunities, such as remote tutoring, may improve
academic access and success for students who are deaf. Therefore, I argue that the need to
investigate the process of providing remote tutoring as a support service for deaf college students
is warranted.
1.4 Goal of the Study
Due to the unique communication and learning needs of deaf students, specially-trained
tutors using remote technologies have the potential to provide a much needed support service to
deaf college students in today‘s online environment. Therefore, the goal of this study is to
document the process of providing one-to-one remote tutoring to deaf students in my English
class. It is also my hope to disseminate knowledge gained to others who tutor remotely and/or
serve this population.
1.5 Theoretical Frameworks
Research shows that ―Emerging technologies are changing current practices in online
distance learning and influencing theoretical frameworks‖ (Beldarrain, 2006, p. 147).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 6
Consequently, I draw from and integrate sociocultural theory, activity theory and new literacy
studies (NLS) to help understand the process of using remote tutoring services with deaf college
students since these theories provide insights into literacy development in the 21st century.
Sociocultural theory illuminates the ways in which learning occurs through social interactions;
activity theory describes how knowledge produces tools that later become useful for social
interaction; and new literacy studies addresses new forms of literacy made possible by
developments in digital technologies.
Proponents of sociocultural theory (SCT) believe that real-life learning occurs in socially
and culturally constructed contexts where students learn with more knowledgeable individuals
(Brown, 1994; Houge & Geier, 2009). Applying SCT, teachers serve as agents utilizing
strategies and tools for instructing, modeling, coaching, facilitating and scaffolding learning.
Using this theory, co-participation and guided practice form the basis of interactive and
collaborative discourse (Englert, Mariage & Dunsmore, 2006). To this end, literacy
development is enhanced by applying sociocultural strategies and techniques when providing
remote tutoring to deaf students in my classes.
Computer-mediated instruction uses a technical medium to facilitate human-to-computer,
human-to-content and human-to-human interactions. The conceptual framework of activity
theory (AT) provides a descriptive tool in which the relationship between subjects and objects
are mediated by analyzing the actions and interactions between artifacts within an historical and
cultural context. It also requires that people actively explore and transform their environments.
AT emphasizes the social factors and the interactions between people who invent or improve
tools as a way to gather and construct social knowledge (Engestrom, 2000; Jonassen & Rohrer-
Murphy, 1999; Nardi, 1996). To this end, AT principles provide a broad conceptual framework
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 7
with which to understand the goal-oriented, socially and culturally influenced work practices of
humans using digital technologies and is used as a lens to understand the actions and interactions
revealed in remote tutoring.
A new literacy studies (NLS) perspective illustrates how current computer-based
technologies foster new literacies that can be used to ―construct authentic reading and writing
pedagogy based on every day practices‖ (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006, p. 22). It asserts
differentiated learning experiences using preferential engagement with an emphasis on
constructing meaning to allow better learning outcomes (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009). ―It is clear
that the nature of literacy is changing rapidly as new ICTs [Information and Computing
Technologies] appear, requiring new literacies…‖ (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro & Cammack, 2004,
p. 1583). This shift supports new approaches to teaching reading and writing to those who are
not able to process sound by providing instruction through the increased use of multimodal
formats and technologies. Through remote tutoring, literacy can be enhanced by successfully
integrating computer and communication technologies with best tutoring practices to help
students ―learn how to learn‖ at their optimal achievement level (Gordon, et.al, 2007, p. 176)
with a goal of enabling students to become self-directed learners. ―By this definition, tutoring is
a collaborative process in which tutors guide students toward ownership of their own learning‖
(Gourgey, 1994, p. 87), serving as a bridge between classroom instruction and independent
learning (Cope and Kalantzis, 2009).
When addressing remote tutoring with deaf college writers, ―Meeting the needs of the
21st Century learner may require a multi-theory approach‖ (Beldarrain, 2006, p. 148). For this
reason, I am applying sociocultural theory, activity theory and new literacy studies lenses to the
questions asked, the analysis of the data gathered, and the interpretations formed.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 8
1.6 Research Questions
Digital and communication technologies are available to provide remote tutoring as a
support service to deaf college students in English classes. Current webconferencing software
with webcams, desktop sharing capabilities and Instant Messaging/Chat features make it feasible
to interact with students who depend on communicating mainly through vision (whether it is
through reading text, reading lips or using sign language). However, the process of delivering
tutoring remotely with this population is not fully understood. Consequently, the overarching
research question addressed in my study is: How does using remote tutoring with deaf college
students affect my tutoring practices?
Subquestions include:
1. In what ways do technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote-tutoring
environment?
2. In what ways do the diverse language and communication practices of deaf students
influence the remote-tutoring process?
3. What instructional strategies meet the needs of students participating in tutoring remotely?
4. In what ways, if any, do students‘ identities influence their participation in remote tutoring?
5. What determines student satisfaction with the remote-tutoring experience?
These are the questions that were used to decide the intervention and data sources, assist in
coding and analyzing data, and interpret the findings of this study.
1.7 Action Research as the Appropriate Methodology
Action Research, as a methodology, dates back to the 1940‘s when Kurt Lewin, a
social psychologist and educator, engaged in it and coined the phrase (Ferrance, 2000).
Simply stated, action research for teachers/tutors involves action or cycles of action and
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 9
reflection with a goal of improving one‘s own practice (Herr & Anderson, 2005). Often,
action research is a collaborative activity among colleagues searching for solutions to
everyday, real problems experienced in schools, or looking for ways to improve
instruction and increase student achievement (Ferrance, 2000). At its center, the action
researcher is ―directly involved in the research setting and in the experience itself and has
direct impact on the events being studied‖ (McPherson & Nunes, 2004, p. 8). The results
of action research include a better understanding of oneself as an instructor, increased
knowledge of the issues explored and a potential for sharing with others in the field
(Burgess, 2006).
In contrast to other forms of research, action research is cyclical process of inquiry, data
collection and interpretation, action, reflection and transformation. It links aspects of theory,
practice, and problem solving; thereby allowing the researcher to apply new knowledge and
problem solving using a futuristic lens (McFarland & Stansell, 1993). Herr and Anderson (2005)
argue that teachers can use action research to inform changes in real time. Using action research,
I was able to examine remote tutoring with students in my English classes by gathering data,
reflecting on the process and applying changes based on students‘ feedback.
In conclusion, action research is used to understand complex social situations and ―is
particularly appropriate for investigating learning situations since they constitute very complex
social settings‖ (McPherson & Nunes, 2004, p. 87). Due to the intricate actions and interactions
involved in providing one-to-one remote tutoring to deaf college students, action research is an
appropriate methodology for investigating the affects tutoring remotely has on my tutoring
practices.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 10
1.8 Action Research Methodology
In this section, I provide an overview of the context, interventions, data sources and
analysis that were applied to the study. A more detailed explanation of each component will be
provided in Chapter Three.
The study took place at a post-secondary institution where there are a significant number
of deaf students. Only students who were enrolled in my English course were eligible for the
study. In this class, students could choose from a number of tutoring sources including:
traditional tutoring with me by appointment or during office hours, one-to-one remote tutoring
with me by appointment or during evening hours, and traditional tutoring with paid tutors
provided by the college‘s Learning Center during posted hours. Students‘ participation in the
research portion of this class was voluntary and they could cease participation at any time
without impact on their grade or status in the class. Students who did not want to participate in
the study could still choose remote tutoring from me as option for this course; however, their
data would not be included in the analysis.
Using webconferencing software, remote tutoring was offered in an online meeting space
that students could access using an internet browser during posted remote-tutoring hours. With
this software, I was able to display coursework and student drafts while simultaneously
providing instruction and feedback all while communicating using Instant Messaging and/or sign
language using webcams. For those who wanted to communicate with me directly, videophone
tutoring was also offered. And lastly, students could access tutoring support from me
asynchronously through email, if desired.
In this study, a number of data sources were used to examine the affects of remote
tutoring on my practices. During the first week of the course, all students enrolled in the class
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 11
were asked to complete a brief questionnaire regarding their past uses of tutoring and their
current interests in accessing traditional and remote tutoring from the instructor (Appendix A).
Since this questionnaire also included questions about students‘ access to computers, webcams
and videophones, this information was helpful in determining optimal tutoring configurations for
each student. Each remote-tutoring session was digitally recorded using HyperCam 3 desktop
recording software. These recorded sessions were used to identify technological, pedagogical
and communication actions and interactions that occurred during the remote-tutoring process.
Student feedback was requested at the end of each remote-tutoring session to obtain immediate
reactions regarding what they liked, didn‘t like, what they wanted to do differently, and what
they wanted to do in the future (Appendix B). Simultaneously, I summarized and evaluated each
session in order to identify technological, pedagogical and communication issues as well as to
develop action plans for the delivery of future tutoring sessions and to facilitate students‘
progress in the class (Appendix C). At two times during the study (5th
week and 10th
week), I
conducted interviews with students who had received remote tutoring from me to collect
additional feedback regarding their views and ideas. The digitally-recorded interviews took place
on campus during non-instructional times. Recording these interviews was necessary to perform
analysis since all students used sign language to communicate. Finally, recorded fieldnotes and
reflections were used as data and method triangulation as the ten-week study moved through two
action research cycles. A description of what constitutes a cycle will be provided in Chapter
Three.
Once collected, I transcribed, coded and analyzed written and recorded data to examine
the technological, pedagogical and communication actions and interactions encountered in
remote-tutoring instruction. Applying grounded dimensional analysis (Kools, McCarthy,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 12
Durham & Robrecht, 1996; Schatzman, 1991), the dimensions and properties associated with the
remote tutoring process were identified. Utilizing an explanatory matrix created from this
analysis, the affects of remote tutoring were narrated revealing the theory that emerged. A
complete description of the data analysis and findings will be provided in Chapters Three and
Four.
1.9 Significance and Contributions of the Study
Due to the fact that evolving technologies continue to influence online distance
education, research on new approaches such as remote tutoring with deaf college students
warrants further exploration. It is my belief that tutoring provided remotely utilizing the proper
tools and instructional techniques has the potential to provide quality support services to deaf
college writers in today‘s educational environment. It is my hope that the results of this study
will advise the way I deliver remote tutoring services to deaf students in my classes so that I
might improve its delivery and inform others in the fields of tutoring, deaf education, and
distance learning.
1.10 Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One provided a statement of the educational problem and why it merits further
investigation. A multi-theory framework was described as a way to view the research questions
and data. A rationale for using action research methodology was provided as well as a brief
description of the context, intervention and data sources considered for the study. Lastly,
potential contributions for the researcher and the field of deaf education were stated.
Chapter Two will present a summary of what is understood about remote tutoring with
deaf college students. Aspects of three theoretical frameworks (sociocultural theory, activity
theory and new literacy ttudies) are presented to illustrate how they were utilized to frame the
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 13
study. Finally, an explanation of how the educational problem is addressed by this study will be
detailed.
Chapter Three will describe the interventions, data sources and analysis that was used in
the study. A description of Action Research as the appropriate methodology for this study will
also be included.
Chapter Four will present the findings of the study. Results will be narrated using an
explanatory matrix created from dimensional analysis and tailored to address research questions.
General findings will also be included as they relate to the context and culture of remote tutoring
with deaf college students.
Chapter Five will describe the action research cycles that occurred and how they
influenced remote tutoring. The next cycle will be proposed. The influences of this study on my
current and future tutoring practices will also be presented. An action plan for piloting remote
tutoring services to deaf college students in English classes will be outlined.
Chapter Six will present the highlights and implications of the study. The study‘s
opportunities and limitations will be addressed. Future research in remote tutoring will also be
included.
Appendices are included to provide additional information for the dissertation. Included
are the Remote Tutoring Questionnaire (Appendix A), student evaluation form (Appendix B),
tutor evaluation form (Appendix C), a glossary of terms associated with deafness and hearing
loss (Appendix D), snapshots of webconferencing systems (Appendix E), Dimensional Analysis
definitions (Appendix F), initial and pre-existing codes (Appendix G), a list of tutor actions
related to remote-tutoring systems (Appendix H), and instructional strategies used in selected
sessions (Appendix I).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 14
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Throughout history, scholars have viewed tutoring as an alternative to substandard
schools or as an ideal approach to educating the individual child (Gordon, 1989). Although
different methods and philosophies of tutoring have prevailed over time, current tutoring
traditions continue to provide support in core subjects, such as, mathematics, reading and
writing, as well as to certain populations, such as, athletes and students with physical and/or
learning disabilities (Maxwell, 1994). In 2002, a federal tutoring program known as
Supplemental Education Services (SES) was mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. As
a result, the demand for tutoring services was expected to rise (Gordon, Morgan, O‘Malley, &
Ponticell, 2007).
There are various types of tutors and tutoring services ranging from teachers, adult
volunteers, homework hotlines, peer tutors, franchised learning centers, university support
centers, internet sites, and offshore and private tutoring services (Gordon, et.al., 2007). There are
also programs that deliver online tutoring support to institutes of higher education, such as, the
SmarThinking™
program (Burrell, 2000) and eTutoring.org (2010). The list is extensive because
tutoring is an effective instructional tool that provides students with individualized instruction
and more time on task (Gordon, 2005).
Tutoring is one of several support services offered to deaf students. There are over 30,000
deaf and hard-of-hearing students currently enrolled in over 50% of two- and four-year
postsecondary institutions in the U.S. (Marschark, Sapere, Convertino & Pelz, 2008). Common
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 15
tutoring practices available for deaf college students include traditional tutoring from an
instructor or from on-campus service providers; computer-mediated programs for grammar,
vocabulary and mathematics; and asynchronous online services for writing assignments.
However, according to their most recent survey, only 33% of deaf and hard-of-hearing students
accessed tutoring services (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1994, p. 21). Speculation
as to why deaf students may not access tutoring services may include, but not be limited to, the
perception that tutoring is a sign of weakness, having had a negative or neutral tutoring
experience, not knowing it is available or because tutors don‘t know sign language. A possible
explanation why students may not use online tutoring services is due to their lack of familiarity
with the concept. While today‘s tech-savvy generation are familiar with computers and
electronics for personal use, they may not be experts at using these technologies in academic
settings (Oblinger, 2003). Thus, using technologies for instruction needs to be demonstrated and
explained to those who have never been exposed to learning through them, if benefits are to be
perceived. As a result, current computer and telecommunication technologies have the potential
to provide synchronous remote-tutoring services using webconferencing software; course
management systems; videoconferencing software, such as Skype; and videophones for Deaf
students who use American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate. Offering one-to-one remote
tutoring from tutors who are aware of deaf students‘ unique learning and communication needs
and trained in online instruction may be a viable way to increase its use with this population.
In this chapter, I will explore the literature related to what is known and unknown about
providing one-to-one remote tutoring to deaf college students. First, I will describe the issues
that affect deaf students and include evidence of the potential merits of tutoring in general and
specifically with deaf college students. Then, I will describe the theoretical frameworks used to
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 16
address the educational problem as well as how they apply to the study. Finally, I will describe
how this action research study addresses the limited scholarship regarding the use of one-to-one
remote tutoring with deaf college students. Postulating that knowledge is socially constructed
and mediated and that current technologies can support literacy development for deaf students
using distance learning technologies and best practices, this action research study examines how
providing remote tutoring to deaf college students in my English classes affects my tutoring
practices.
2.2 Exploring the Educational Problem
Important dimensions of the human experience are language, education, identity and
community. When examining the provision of remote tutoring services to deaf college students,
there are a number of factors to consider in the context of this study. The first factor is related to
the challenges deaf students face learning to read and write English. The second factor is the
range of communication methods used by deaf and hard-of-hearing people and the influence of
Deaf culture. The third factor is deaf students‘ identification with hearing and Deaf communities.
The fourth factor is the known benefits of tutoring and the fifth factor addresses the contributions
of remote tutoring in distance learning. In this section, these factors are described to better
understand the complex process of delivering remote tutoring to deaf college students.
2.2.1 Language and academic challenges.2
Linguistic input determines what and how any child will learn a language. Deaf children
experience linguistic input differently and uniquely. Factors such as degree of hearing loss, age
of onset and identification, type of schooling (deaf program, mainstreamed or special education),
language(s) spoken at home and use of amplification (hearing aid or cochlear implant) influence
2 A glossary of terms associated with deafness and hearing loss is located in Appendix D
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 17
the way deaf children learn to communicate. In the absence of auditory input, prelingually
deafened children are not likely to acquire language in the way that hearing children do
(Holcomb & Peyton, 1992; McAnally, Rose, & Quigley, 1999; Michaud, McCoy & Pennington,
2000; Quigley & King, 1980). In contrast, deaf children born to Deaf parents acquire ASL as a
first language parallel to hearing children‘s development of spoken languages (Newport &
Meier, 1985). For these children, English is learned as a second language (Mayer, 2009; Moores,
1996).
Children who are born profoundly deaf have unique educational needs. In the United
States, children who have a significant hearing loss and are not able to process speech auditorally
may have difficulty accessing and therefore acquiring spoken English (Evans, 2004; King, 1981;
Luetke-Stahlman, 1982; Paul, 1996). Since 90 – 95% of deaf children are born to hearing
parents, their access to spoken communication can be hindered (Paul, 2009). Children who are
prelingually deaf may not be able to sufficiently process spoken communication (auditorally) and
their parents may not be able to facilitate their children‘s language development (visually) using
American Sign Language (ASL), especially in the early developmental years. As a result, deaf
children may miss the critical period for language development in either modality resulting in the
inability to fully participate in the communication mode used first in homes and later when they
enter mainstreamed schools (DeLana, Gentry & Andrews, 2007; Schmitz, 2005). Since deaf
children have limited access to the phonological code of spoken English, they may find it
especially difficult to achieve grade-appropriate reading and writing skills because for them,
printed words are not connected to sounds (Holcomb & Peyton, 1992; Paul, 1996). This is
needed to create an understanding of how phonemes in speech link to the graphemes in
corresponding print; both necessary for learning to read and write English as a first or second
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 18
language (Freeman & Freeman, 2004; Paul, 1996). For a deaf child, conversational proficiency
in spoken English is particularly challenging adversely affecting text-based literacy development
(Mayer, 2009).
The early experiences with language as a social and cultural tool may have implications
later in life. Studies indicate Deaf children of Deaf families, who are exposed to sign language,
are more successful readers and writers than deaf children of hearing families (Humphries &
Allen, 2008). These findings also report better performance on tests of academic achievement
and social development. According to Israelite and Ewoldt (1992), ―native ASL users have
higher English literacy abilities than deaf children who learn ASL later in life‖. This reinforces
the need to provide deaf children with access to ASL to facilitate English literacy development
by providing a language base (Simms & Thumann, 2007). This can also be a factor in school
when the task is to transfer knowledge from a first language to learn a second language, such as
ASL to English (Mayer, 2009; Moores, 1996).
Notwithstanding the fact that intelligence is normally distributed in this population
(Braden, 1992; Swisher, 1989), the lack of a first-language base can lead to academic challenges
throughout deaf students‘ elementary and secondary education resulting in academic delays,
especially in reading and writing (Berent, 1996; Keenan & Bowers, 1988; Knight & Swanwick;
2002; Perfetti & Sandak, 2000). Between 1993 – 2001, the percentage of students with hearing
impairments who graduated with a standard high school diploma was 60.8% (U.S. Department of
Education, 2003). Reportedly, those who graduate from high school have an average fourth-
grade reading level and have writing skills similar to ―hearing‖ 9-10 year olds (Albertini &
Schley, 2003; Paul, 1998, 2009; Quigley & Paul, 1987; Traxler, 2000); 37% attend college (U.S.
Department of Education, 2003); 60% are inadequately prepared for college and only 8%
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 19
graduate from college nationally (Commission on Education of the Deaf, 1988). A university
that specializes in post-secondary education for the deaf, however, reported having an overall
40% graduation rate between 1968 – 2007, with the majority (56%) receiving associate degrees
(Hands & Voices, 2009).
Despite a variety of past and present approaches to educate deaf children in the U.S. (e.g.,
oral, total communication, cued speech, ESL, inclusion and bilingual-bicultural methods), there
is a lack of empirical studies to support particular practices (Luckner, Sebald, Cooney, Young
III, and Muir, 2005/2006). In fact, the Commission on Education of the Deaf (established by the
Education of the Deaf Act, 1986) concluded that over 175 years of research on the teaching of
English literacy to deaf children has been unproductive (Bowe, 1991). Siegel (2000) proposed
that laws, policies, and programs that recognize and respect deaf and hard-of-hearing children‘s
need to communicate are necessary to ensure the provision and coordination of a quality
education for deaf students; otherwise ―Deaf and hard of hearing children are at significant risk
for outcomes far below their potential and remain at high risk for poor academic achievement,
dropping out of school, and delays in the development of language and critical-thinking skills‖
(p. 69). In sum, past approaches to teaching the majority of deaf and hard-of-hearing students
have been unsuccessful and effective ways to improve the academic success of these learners is
needed.
2.2.2 Diverse communication modes.
Deaf and hard-of-hearing people communicate in a variety of ways. For some, speech,
lipreading and audition are their main mode of communication in one-to-one situations. In group
situations, oral interpreters and captions can be used to facilitate spoken communication. In
cases where the person‘s speech is not understood, writing or texting may be used to understand
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 20
the spoken or written messages. Deaf and hard-of-hearing people may also use a form of sign
language to communicate with other deaf people. These include American Sign Language
(ASL), contact signing, fingerspelling or an English language sign system, such as, Manually
Coded English or Signing Exact English (Scheetz, 1993). In mixed groups of hearing and deaf
people, a deaf person may use a combination of speech with sign (Simultaneous Communication
or SimCom), or a sign language interpreter may be employed to facilitate communication.
Typically, deaf people utilize a range of communication, switching from spoken or written
English to Simultaneous Communication or ASL, depending on whom they are speaking with,
the context and setting.
In the Deaf community, communication is not taken for granted. It is so highly valued
that it is the core of the conflict between the Deaf community and the dominant society
(Jankowski, 1997). Prior to 1960, 80% of deaf children attended residential schools (Lane,
Hoffmeister and Bahan, 1996) whereas in the 2007, over 95% attended traditional or
mainstreamed schools (Walter, 2010). Even when faced with the oralist movement (1880‘s –
1960‘s), deaf students used sign language in the dormitories and religious venues while Deaf
adults and teachers promoted its use in Deaf clubs and captured its elite in films (Burch, 2000).
These interactions created and sustained a Deaf culture where a different mode of
communication was the basis of a language (ASL) and a community (Kannapell, 1982) and
deafness ―refer[ed] to what is fundamentally a cultural and linguistic, rather than audiological,
feature‖ (Reagan, 2002, p. 45). Using this perspective, culturally Deaf peoples‘ difficulties with
acquiring literacy in English are considered to have linguistic, cultural, and educational rather
than pathological roots (e.g., Charrow & Wilbur, 1975; Johnson, Liddell & Erting, 1989; Padden
& Humphries, 1988).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 21
Since language is both the medium and the message of socialization, access to
communication is extremely important, especially for students who are Deaf ASL users
(Albertini, 1993). This is particularly important in Deaf culture (Gannon, 1981; Wilcox, 1989)
since ASL has always been a cherished part of the daily lives of Deaf students in residential
schools and because it is a modality shared primarily with other Deaf, it binds them closer
together (Lane, 2005; Moores, 1996; Padden & Humphries, 1988). Knowing that deaf students
have varying levels of literacy skills, language preferences (English or ASL), communication
abilities (spoken or signed) and affiliations is critical to instructing them effectively in classroom
or tutoring situations.
2.2.3 Deaf identity and development.
As a group, Deaf and hard-of-hearing people identify with hearing loss differently. For
instance, people who are hard-of-hearing or late-deafened tend to use amplification,
speechreading and text (captions) to accommodate their hearing loss. They mainly use English as
their primary language and identify most with members of the ‗hearing‘ culture. Culturally Deaf
people, on the other hand, depend on either sign language or interpreters to communicate. They
also self-identify as members of the Deaf community (Padden & Humphries, 1988).
Exposure to family and educational systems are the two most important socialization
agents in a deaf child‘s identity development (Leigh, 2009). Thus, their identity, and idea of self,
is shaped by their day-to-day interactions with others, both hearing and deaf. Hearing family‘s
views of deafness are often shaped by members of the health profession and educators. These
professionals are compelled to "correct the defect" in an attempt to make the deaf hear in order to
assimilate them into the dominant (hearing/English speaking) culture (Jankowski, 1997;
Komesaroff, 2008). As a result, hearing families treat deafness as a disability and assume a
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 22
negative view. In contrast, deaf children born into Deaf families experience greater acceptance
and higher self-esteem (Bat-Chava, 1994).
There are several racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. A known way to
strengthen one‘s identity within a culture is to have access to and interact with members of its
community (Parasnis, 1991). Unlike members of ethnic communities whose members are able
to help shape the identity and self-esteem of their youth, young deaf children do not always have
access to Deaf role models. As a result, a deaf child, born into a hearing family, may have
difficulty accessing the hearing community due to the absence of hearing as well as difficulty
accessing the Deaf community due to the absence of sign language skills. Consequently, deaf
children ―face an identity paradox‖ (Grande, 2000, p.492) as they struggle to fit into both the
Deaf and hearing worlds. This reinforces the importance of providing deaf children with access
to other Deaf people to aid in the development of a healthy deaf identity.
Children with disabilities or from minority cultures are often viewed as ―inferior‖
because they do not conform to the dominant culture‘s perception of normal (Wrigley, 1996). In
the dominant (hearing) culture, where speech is the primary mode of communication, it is almost
impossible to imagine communicating without it. It is even more difficult to imagine anyone
rejecting speech as a preferred mode of communication (Padden, 1980). This condescending
behavior, referred to as audism in the Deaf community, results in deficit thinking toward Deaf
people; treating them as disabled individuals; a devaluation of signed languages; and an
emphasis on the ability to speak and lipread (Gertz, 2003, p. 317). On the contrary, many Deaf
people are content with their membership in the Deaf community and do not feel the need to
fully integrate into the hearing world (Gertz, 2003). In spite of services available for people with
hearing losses, which are justified for some, continued efforts to pathologize culturally Deaf
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 23
people in fact disables them. This in turn makes it difficult for this minority culture to maintain
their Deaf identity (Lane, 1984).
A critical deaf studies view of deafness highlights the fact that the language of the Deaf
community (ASL) is acquired visually and forms the foundation for a shared culture and identity
(Bosso & Kuntze, 1994; Ladd, 2003). Therefore, constructing Deaf people as individuals with a
disability ignores their status as minority language bilinguals. A critical deaf studies view also
acknowledges the struggles Deaf people have experienced as an oppressed social group and how
educators can position themselves to provide appropriate instruction (Gertz, 2003).Consequently,
my approach to deaf education has been strongly influenced by this context and has guided my
understanding and support for the language and culture of Deaf people.
2.2.4 Benefits of tutoring.
Research indicates that tutoring is an effective instructional tool (Gordon, Morgan,
O‘Malley & Ponticell, 2007) that ―helps students engage in activities that build community, self-
esteem, and responsibility along with academic and social skills‖ in a variety of contexts (Foster-
Harrison, 1997, p. 12). Salmon (2000) boasts synchronous tutoring as a way for students to feel
connected and stay motivated. While there are numerous findings supporting the benefits of
tutoring children in early educational intervention programs (Vellutino, Scanlon, Sipay, Small,
Pratt & Chen, 1996; Wasik & Slavin, 1993), its effectiveness with students at a higher grade
levels has been argued (Shanahan, 1998). Nevertheless, various models and theories promote
tutoring as an effective teaching strategy. ―The cognitive model posits that college students are,
or should be, active participants, autonomous, and good strategy users‖ (Stahl, Simpson &
Hayes, 1992, p. 3, emphasis added). Similarly, ―…constructivists hold the learning community
and the impact of social and cultural influences as key pieces in student development and
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 24
learning‖ (Gordon et al. 2007, p. 47, emphasis added). As such, constructivism posits that
―knowledge is acquired through social negotiation, experience and reflection, i.e., resulting from
the construction of meaning from interaction with specific contexts‖ (McPherson & Nunes,
2004, p. 4). These perspectives stress the social construction of meaning through interaction and
negotiation (Yager, 2000) and can be an effective alternative to the deficit model of tutoring
instruction (Stahl, Simpson & Hayes, 1992). When learning is seen as a process of socially
constructed understanding, the learner must be surrounded by a rich learning environment that
provides resources to support the communication and negotiation processes between members of
the learning community (Zucchermaglio, 1993). Social activities with mentors promotes skill
development via guidance provided when interacting with skilled others (Rogoff, 1990). In just
so happens that this type of collectivism is a dominant cultural pattern in the Deaf community
(Siple & Holcomb, 2004).
In spite of difficulties caused by delayed exposure to language or learning English as a
second language, deaf college students are expected to read and write well in college (Anderson,
1993; Lang & Meath-Lang, 1992; Marschark, Lang & Albertini, 2002; McAnally, Rose &
Quigley, 1987; Paul, 2009; Schmitz, 2008). In fact, success in college often depends on their
ability to obtain proficiency in English (Berent, Kelly, Aldersley, Schmitz, Khalsa, Panara &
Keenan, 2007). To assist deaf students, colleges offer a variety of access and support services
where ―Tutoring ranks with interpreting and notetaking as one in a triad of fundamental
academic support services for deaf and hard of hearing students at the postsecondary level,
particularly among those in mainstreamed settings‖ (Orlando, Gramly & Hoke, 1997, p. 1).
Nevertheless, studies have shown that while the majority of two-and-four-year colleges offer
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 25
tutoring as a support service to deaf and hard-of-hearing students, the quality of tutoring was not
examined in the analysis (Lang, et al., 2004; Orlando, Gramly & Hoke, 1997).
Deaf college students report several reasons for accessing tutoring including failing
grades, missing class, difficulty understanding class lectures, and problems with reading and
writing assignments. Similar to their hearing peers, deaf students reported the benefits of tutoring
to their overall academic success (Lang, Biser, Mousley, Orlando & Porter, 2004). Notably,
deterrents to accessing tutoring by deaf college students included poor time management,
difficulty matching availability with tutors, and tutors lack of attentiveness especially in group
sessions (Scherer & Binder, 1989). With widespread computer access and evolving digital
technologies, computer-mediated and online tutoring systems could make tutoring more
accessible, affordable and flexible for a broad range of users (Gardner III, Nobel, Hessler, Yawn
& Heron, 2007).
2.2.5 Contributions to remote tutoring.
Across the United States, colleges are increasingly offering distance learning education to
meet students‘ demands for flexible schedules, to provide access to college for students who
would otherwise not have it, to make more courses available, and to increase revenue and student
enrollment (Fuks, Gerosa & Pereira de Lucena, 2002; Menchaca & Bekele, 2008).
Unfortunately, the provision of tutoring to support students enrolled in online courses has not
kept up with this increase (Rabinovich, 2009). Valdes-Corbeil and Corbeil (2007) claim that
colleges themselves are at fault since in the rush to get distance courses online, the infrastructure
needed to support tutoring for online students was lacking. This is in spite of the fact that these
students ―pay fees which partially fund tutoring services‖ (p. 2121). In addition, there is limited
scholarship addressing the role of the distance language tutor and the attributes and skills needed
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 26
to be competent in this role: ―There is a need to explore the ways in which language tutor
attributes and expertise develop and change, not only as tutors acquire more experience, but as
they enter new environments, particularly online environments and virtual support networks‖
(Shelley, White, Baumann & Murphy, 2006, p. 12). The provision of remote tutoring and the
process of examining factors that satisfy the needs of users could address this gap.
In order to provide remote tutoring to college students, institutions must have appropriate
technology, technical support and trained tutors; and students must have access to technology
used by the remote-tutoring service. Modern web-based technologies have paved the way for a
variety of synchronous and asynchronous online learning opportunities. In recent years, phone
tutoring, asynchronous tutoring, computerized tutoring, webconferencing and videotutoring
systems have all been used to tutor students (Coogan, 1995; Jordan-Henley & Maid, 1995;
Crump, 1994; Nichol & Watson, 2000). The use of webconferencing and videotutoring has the
obvious advantage of removing locational constraints while allowing face-to-face contact with
deaf students. In their analysis of videotapes and related data, Nichol and Watson (2000)
confirmed that videoconferencing technology provided an effective medium for tutoring hearing
students at a distance. Houge and Geier (2009) reported that one-to-one, synchronous tutoring
with hearing students using videoconferencing technologies (including audio, video and
chalkboard features) was an effective way to deliver literacy instruction and ―shows great
promise‖ (p. 162). Bello, Knowlton and Chaffin (2007) suggested that instruction with hearing
students through interactive videoconferencing resulted in increased student motivation and
improved understanding of key concepts when compared to classroom instruction. Houge,
Peyton, Geier and Petrie (2007) found no significant difference for low readers (hearing
students) who benefitted from literacy instruction regardless of whether it was delivered
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 27
traditionally or online using webcam technologies. While these findings are encouraging, studies
with deaf students suggest that online tools need to be improved for ease, quality and reliability.
For tutoring deaf students remotely, Mallory and Laury (2001) reported success using Desktop
Video Conferencing with a QuickCam™ Desktop camera. However, they found the video aspect
of the camera to be too slow for communicating through sign language but useful for viewing
facial expressions and gesturing. More recently, four pilots using remote tutoring with deaf
middle-and-high school students were reported (Baker, 2010). These projects found issues with
video transmission; problems with using videophones with additional software applications;
computer crashes and students needing an on-site teacher to assist with course content intended
for delivery online. All four projects used different configurations in an attempt to determine
their viability with a deaf-student population. Overall, student and tutor comments about the
experience were positive making the potential use of webconferencing software for remote
tutoring promising but there was no optimal configuration. Consequently, delivering tutoring
remotely using webconferencing software still poses many challenges. Therefore, the need to
examine remote tutoring using video technologies with deaf college students needs further
exploration.
In conclusion, the availability and advancements of telecommunication technologies
(e.g., telephones for text messaging and the fourth generation iPhone for video calls) and
webconferencing technologies (i.e., Adobe Connect, ooVoo, Skype, GoToMeeting and
DimDim), provide people with hearing losses equal access to the same technologies used by
their hearing peers. Familiarity and ease of use makes these technologies ideal for
complementing much needed remote-tutoring services for deaf students. Even though it is
presumed that the ―most effective way for Deaf students to keep up with their class work is to
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 28
provide them with tutorial services‖ (Livingston, Duda & Lucas, 2000), there has been little
research conducted on remote tutoring with deaf college students (Lang, Biser, Mousley,
Orlando, et al., 2004; Orlando, Gramly & Hoke, 1997). With current trends in distance
technologies, the ability to provide quality remote-tutoring services to deaf college students
seems plausible. However, due to the limited number of qualified tutors who are able to use a
variety of communication modes used by deaf students and knowledgeable in their unique
learning needs, factors that promote satisfactory remote-tutoring experiences with deaf college
students still needs to be explored. The desire to identify these factors led me to investigate how
using remote tutoring with students in my English classes affected my tutoring practices.
2.3 Theoretical Frameworks
Theories, frameworks and models can be used as conceptual lenses through which to
view the world. They help us to identify ideas worth studying and by providing insight into the
nature and relationships between people, language, learning and objects. As technologies
advance and become an integral part of society and culture, theoretical frameworks can further
help us understand the complex contexts in which people and technologies interact. Since
remote tutoring with deaf college students is a complex, multifaceted domain; no single
framework can be used to view the technological, pedagogical and communication issues that
promote remote tutoring as a viable teaching strategy with deaf college students. Consequently, I
used aspects of sociocultural theory (SCT), activity theory (AT) and new literacy studies (NLS)
to pose research questions, design methodologies, collect evidence, and for analyzing and
interpreting data in this study.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 29
2.3.1 Sociocultural Theory.
Sociocultural theory (SCT) is a theory of mediated cognitive development where
meaning is constructed by the convergence of individuals, cultures and activities (Lantolf &
Throne, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978, 1987). Supportive environments that foster social interactions
provide the opportunity for a child to learn beyond what he/she would acquire alone. Tutoring
embraces elements of the sociocultural theory as it emphasizes learning with the help of a
mediator. From a sociocultural perspective, the tutor can serve as a model in an academic setting
in order to create a supportive learning environment with which to interact. Similarly, the learner
can be an active observer thereby employing and practicing new skills. Since students learn
through observation, modeling can be used, particularly at times when teaching something
new. Once the learner encodes the appropriate behavior and it is no longer necessary to model it,
the role of the teacher shifts to coaching the student to a higher level of learning.
Learning as a sociocultural activity also builds on the concept of scaffolding, whereby
students use their existing knowledge to help them bridge the gap between known and unknown
information (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). This method allows students to grasp information
that may be slightly above their current ability level by using what they know to inform what
they need to know. This phenomenon is known as the zone of proximal development (Lightbown
and Spada, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, scaffolded instruction can move students to their zone
of proximal development or extend it (Vygotsky, 1987). While the types and characteristics of
scaffolding in traditional classroom and tutoring settings have been identified (Roehler &
Cantlon, 1997), this concept needs to be reconsidered in contexts mediated by technology
(McLoughlin, 2002).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 30
Vygotsky‘s sociocultural theory of learning ―influenced the development of the
constructivist movement‖ (Jaramillo, 1996, p. 1). The processes and main elements that support
effective tutoring, such as social constructivism, succeed when mutual help and reciprocal
treatment is fostered (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998). Group learning, where pairs and small groups
of students learn together through social interaction, is considered one of the key constructivist
learning techniques.
Others include: a) encouraging student initiation of ideas, b) promoting student
self regulation and action, c) using students‘ experiences and interests in lessons
and offering multiple ways to learn, d) using open-ended questions and
encouraging students to elaborate, and e) allowing adequate time for reflection
and analysis (Yager, 2000, pp. 44 - 45).
Constructivism recognizes that learning occurs through interaction with others and that
the individual‘s cognitive growth is a direct result of timely and appropriate assistance
(Vygotsky, 1987). Consistent with sociocultural and constructivist pedagogies, tutoring
dialogues should be interactive and collaborative. When information resonates with the social
and cultural awareness of the user, it makes the learning experience more effective and increases
the probability of putting new knowledge into practice (Shulman, 1986). Appropriate language
use in relevant cultural contexts is required if learners are to become capable of using language
outside the classroom (Beebe, 1988; Valdes, 1986).
Vygotsky‘s work with handicapped children is less widely known than his sociocultural
views on learning (Gindis, 1995). He viewed deafness as a social abnormality, rather than a
sensory deficit and advocated teaching deaf children using a ―positive differential approach‖
building on students‘ strengths using social activities with peers and adults. Applying
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 31
sociocultural theory, the focus of instruction should be to accommodate the deaf child‘s ―unique
way of acculturation through acquiring different symbolic systems‖ (p. 79). Additionally,
pedagogical practices that use strategies connected to students‘ cultural patterns should be
utilized. (DeLana, Gentry & Andrews, 2007; Lantolf & Appel, 1994). As such, today‘s web and
video technologies could be used to mediate instruction for deaf college students.
In conclusion, a sociocultural theory can be applied to the strategies and techniques used
to deliver tutoring services since it emphasizes learning with the help of a mediator. A mediator
can be a teacher, peer, computer or writing lab staff member. Proponents of this theory believe
that real-life learning occurs in context within socially and culturally constructed situations
where learners are seen as active constructors of meaning and individual differences are valued
(Brown, 1994). Consequently, a socioculturalist views students as learning from more
knowledgeable individuals and reading and writing are seen as social processes in which tutors
and tutees learn from one another (Hough & Geier, 2009, p. 156). This theory will be applied to
the instructional strategies used in delivering remote tutoring sessions as well as to the
interpretation of data collected from this study.
2.3.2 Activity Theory.
Online instruction can benefit from utilizing activity theory (AT), a framework that
originated from a sociocultural theoretical framework. Leontiev (1978) defined activity as
something motivated by a culturally constructed need, such as the need to be literate. Literacy
development occurs as part of everyday activities in and out of school. The material and/or
thinking tools that are redesigned during an activity carry with them their cultural and historical
remainings. AT emphasizes the social factors and the interactions between people who invent or
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 32
improve tools as a way to gather and convey social knowledge. Therefore, AT requires that
people actively explore and transform their environments.
The cultural-historical theory of activity (CHAT), initiated by Russian psychologists
Vygotsky, Leont‘ev and Luria in the 1920s - 1930s, is considered ―a model of artifact-mediated
and object-orientated action‖ (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 40). Yrjo Engestrom (1987) described a model
of human activity as one of social mediations characterized by the interactions between subjects,
objects, the community, the divisions of labor, and the rules which are all necessary to produce
an outcome (Figure 2.1). To illustrate, a model of activity for remote tutoring could be described
as follows: The subject is the tutor and the object is the tutee who produce a reciprocal
relationship with one another. Tools may include distance learning technologies, the course
management system, course materials and students‘ drafts. The community consists of the
instructor and all enrolled students. The division of labor for transforming the object includes
the students‘ roles. And finally, the rules regulate access to the system stipulated by the
instructor and/or course boundaries, how outcomes are measured and how students are rewarded.
Ultimately, outcomes produce constructed knowledge as the result of the activity.
Whereas animals mediate through instinct, human beings mediate activities using man-
made artifacts (Luria, 1976). The online tutor uses the tools of technology and instructional
strategies to coordinate their actions towards students and vice versa. This praxis continues and
changes as new ways of doing things evolve. Using activity theory and human-computer
interaction (HCI) frameworks, Bodker (1991), Engestrom (2000) and Nardi (1996) studied areas
supported by computer technologies, ―By understanding the cyclical components involved in an
activity, the HCI professional can better predict what user groups the software should support
and some of the information needs of these user groups as well as explain the larger issues that
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 33
influence how people use and interact with computers…‖ (Nardi, 1996, p. 75). Together, activity
theory and sociocultural theory emphasize ways in which a tutor and student interact socially to
Figure 2.1. Remote tutoring Activity System
Figure 2.1. This figure illustrates the activity system for remote tutoring
develop literate practices and thinking skills. Activity theory principles can provide a broad
conceptual framework with which to understand the learner-centered, socially and culturally
influenced work practices of humans using computers and the sociocultural theory principles can
provide a framework with which to understand that students and teachers create, process and
share thoughts and ideas within today‘s distance learning environments.
2.3.3 New Literacy Studies.
Literacy is critical to functioning well in school (Ramsey & Padden, 1998) but how
literacy is defined is largely contested. Traditional literacy instruction has confined itself to
Technologies
Tutee Tutor
Educational
Rules Educational
Community Students‘
roles
Constructed
knowledge
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 34
forms of print-based language (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009). In contrast, new literacy studies (NLS)
are seen as an opportunity for defining ―text‖ in a broader way, especially in light of new
technologies (Kuntz, 2008). As such, information can be presented in multimodal formats with
the use of technology (e.g., graphics, sound, video, sign language plus print). NLS embraces an
emerging view that literacy is multiple and is an integral part of the sociocultural lives of
individuals and communities (Gee, 1996; Paul, 2006). As a result, NLS supports deaf students‘
use of multiple sources to access information and develop higher cognitive skills in all ways of
instruction, including tutoring.
Lankshear and Knobel (2006) describe New Literacy Studies using a socially-oriented
view of literacy, ―Understanding literacies from a sociocultural perspective means that reading
and writing can only be understood in the contexts of social, cultural, political, economic,
historical practices to which they are integral, of which they are a part‖ (p. 2). One way to
facilitate this view is to bridge the gap between in-school expectations and out-of-school
experiences thereby capitalizing on what students know and use (Larson & Marsh, 2005). Brian
Street (2003) refers to NLS as literacy as a social practice whose ideological model recognizes
that different cultures have different literacies. Consequently, the ways in which tutors and tutees
interact is a social practice that influences literacy development. Gee (1996) claims that
―discourses are intimately related to the distribution of social power and hierarchical structure in
society, which is why they are always and everywhere ideological‖ (p. 132). Since Discourses3
identify membership in a particular group, sensitivity to diverse literacy practices forms the
foundation of this ideological model of literacy.
3 Here, discourse with a capital ―D‖ is used to indicate discourse related to a community‘s everyday literacy
activities (Gee, 1996).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 35
Amidst technical, social, economic, political and cultural changes, understanding new
literacies has implications for sociotechnical practices (Gee, Hull and Lankshear, 1996)
especially since they change regularly as technology evolves (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro & Cammack,
2004). Due to the ubiquitousness of computers in classrooms and homes, there has been a shift
from ―the dominance of the medium of the book to the dominance of medium of the screen‖
(Kress, 2003, p. 1). Consequently, there are benefits from a shift in mode caused by changes in
media because all modes offer different affordances and are useful for different purposes. A
multiplicity of modes, or ―multimodality‖, can occur simultaneously, such as, image and sound;
and communication with text can be interactive, such as, Instant Messaging (Kress, 2003). The
effect is a reassessment of what writing is and how it can be taught:
It becomes clear that there is a deep difference in the potentials of image
and writing, with the latter –as alphabetic writing—still retaining its strong
relation to sound and its potentials, and the former with its use of light,
space and vision and their potentials (Kress, 2003, p. 10)
As a result, this shift justifies new approaches to teaching writing to those who do not use sound
by providing instruction through the increasing use of multimodal technologies.
In the case of distance learning, instruction no longer occurs in classroom space and time,
but instead occurs in online space at user-controlled times (Leander, 2006). As such, new
literacy studies can be applied to show the way current (and future) computer-mediated
technologies produce new literacies that can be used to ―construct authentic reading and writing
pedagogy based on every day practices‖ (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006, p. 22). A multiliteracy
approach can also foster ―learners as agents in their own knowledge processes‖ (Cope and
Kalantzis, 2009, p. 7) learning to practice and perform certain tasks independently.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 36
In conclusion, literacy today does not only mean the ability to read and write, it ―is
perceived to be social by nature…inescapably ideological…relative… and situation-specific…‖
(Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004, p. 36). As a result, a new literacies perspective and a pedagogy of
multiliteracies allow for differentiated learning experiences using preferential engagement with
an emphasis on constructing meaning to allow better learning outcomes (Cope & Kalantzis,
2009). To this end, my goal is to enhance literacy by successfully integrating digital technologies
with social constructivist tutoring practices and activity theory principles with deaf students in
my English classes.
In conclusion, when addressing remote tutoring with deaf college students, ―Meeting the
needs of the 21st Century learner may require a multi-theory approach‖ (Beldarrain, 2006, p.
148). Sociocultural theory will be applied to the instructional strategies used during remote
tutoring sessions. Activity theory will be used to assess the activity under study; in particular
how the subject/objects interact using an array of mediated instruments (webconferencing
software, webcams, videophones, electronic documents, etc.). New literacy studies will be
applied to tutoring sessions with a focus on using multimodal technologies and a ―learning by
doing‖ approach to instruction. These theories form the lenses for analyzing how remote tutoring
with deaf college students affects my tutoring practices.
2.4 Addressing the Educational Problem
In order to address the educational problem, a number of issues need to be considered.
These include technical issues, pedagogical issues, communication issues, as well as students‘
acceptance to and perceived benefits of receiving tutoring remotely. In this section, each of these
issues will be addressed, identifying themes in the literature for use in analyzing the data
collected in this study.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 37
2.4.1 Technical considerations.
Computer, communication, and access technologies have changed the routines and
practices in most areas of life, including how we teach and learn (Shank & Cleary, 1995). In
education, the appearance of high-speed internet, webconferencing software, course management
systems, webcams and videophones brings with it opportunities to reconstruct learning via
synchronous and asynchronous computer interface formats. Distance technologies hold great
promise for the practical use of remote tutoring with deaf college students; however,
understanding the opportunities and limitations is important when selecting a specific distance
tutoring format with this population. Baker (2010) assessed four different remote tutoring
configurations with deaf middle-and-high-school students and determined ―Once the issues
related to technology are resolved, pedagogical considerations and student outcomes can be more
purposefully studied‖ (p. 22). In particular, there were problems due to insufficient bandwidth to
support video-based communications over the internet. Additional barriers to video transmission
included freezing, desynchronized audio/video and blackouts due to firewalls or too much
internet traffic.
The process of selecting the right distance tutoring tool is crucial to implementing a
remote-tutoring program for deaf college students that will result in improved academic success,
retention and satisfaction by its users (Valdes-Corbeil & Corbeil, 2007). First, there is the need to
be able to communicate with one another online. Choices include: text-to-text, face-to-face, or a
combination. When using webconferencing to support distance learning, there are several details
to consider: the number of participants, the webconferencing room layout, whether the
combination of products will be used on a desktop computer or laptop, and whether or not end
users will be interacting with instructional materials. In particular, some deaf tutees would
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 38
benefit from voice transmission, while others would not. Including a video component within
the webconferencing system would support sign language for ASL and SimCom users as well as
spoken communication for those who depend on lipreading. In addition, collaboration using
shared documents would ideally occur during tutoring sessions fostering a higher degree of
interactivity. This requires ―share‖ features (documents, windows and desktops) that allow both
people to have access to the interface. All of these technical issues need to be considered when
designing an optimal remote-tutoring system for deaf students.
As previously stated, issues that hampered using webconferencing software tools have
been reported, such as, problems with video and audio transmissions, problems with the
uploading functions, errors in displaying images and general system instability (Ciano, 2007; Liu
& Ko, 2007). Unfortunately, the restricted bandwidth of current web-based video technology
degrades the signal to the point where natural sign language can be difficult to ―read‖ forcing
signers to slowdown their rate in order to be better understood. When using sign language as the
primary mode of communication, videophones transmit a better video signal and thus could also
be used for remote tutoring. The problem identified during this study involved webcam conflicts
that occurred trying to contact the tutor using a videophone when the tutor was already logged
into the webconferencing site. In this case, the student would get a message that they could not
connect. I n this study, a webconferencing site was used in order to allow document sharing and
collaboration; therefore, if a student wanted to use a videophone for remote tutoring, they had to
contact the teacher to set up the call thereby adding a step to accessing remote tutoring with the
instructor. Perhaps remote tutoring with deaf college students using videophones could be used
instead of webconferencing software since some videophone software programs also have chat
features for texting and display features that allow users to share desktop documents. Whether it
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 39
would be possible to co-collaborate using course materials was not evaluated during this study
and thus needs to be investigated. Or perhaps, better video technologies that maintain the video
signal within a web-based conferencing application will emerge in the near future.
Another technical issue related to remote tutoring with deaf college students is the skills
and attributes of remote tutors. Specifically, and different from traditional tutoring, online tutors
are responsible for technical as well as content instruction. ―Technical roles, possibly the most
daunting for academics, involve becoming familiar, comfortable and competent with the ICT
systems and software that compose the e-learning environment. Additionally, this role includes
supporting the students in becoming competent and comfortable themselves by providing
technical guidance…‖ (Rabinovich, 2009, The Role of the Online Tutor, para 3). To aid the
transition to and/or acceptance of online learning, to maximize online learning environments, and
to deliver effective instruction, online tutors need adequate technical training (McPherson &
Nunes, 2004). A tutor‘s comfort and technical skill is best realized when the practical
application occurs between parties. This could be facilitated by training tutors to teach remotely
using distance technologies.
In conclusion, using telecommunication and computer technologies as the mediating
tools to facilitate remote tutoring with deaf college students can allow real-time, face-to-face
tutoring to occur from a distance. Further research will also determine if students can interact
successfully with technologies and thereby benefit from this learning environment. This study
addresses the technological issues affecting the process of delivering tutoring to deaf college
students by examining in the ways technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote
tutoring environment (sub-question 1).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 40
2.4.2 Communication considerations.
Deaf and hard-of-hearing people communicate in a variety of ways. Knowing this can aid
tutors in facilitating communication by selecting technologies that support students‘ preferred
communication modes and utilizing communication strategies effectively. For those whose
primary language is English, a combination of speaking, speechreading, listening and writing
may be used. When communication breakdowns occur, adding common gestures, rephrasing
instead of repeating statements, spelling words and using writing can be used to facilitate
communication when instructing deaf students who don‘t know sign language (Mahshie,
Moseley, Lee & Scott, 2005). Other strategies include speaking at a normal pace; and if possible,
using words that may be easier to lipread or more familiar to students. Other deaf or hard-of-
hearing may use Signed English, Cued Speech or Simultaneous Communication to communicate
while culturally Deaf people prefer to use ASL with each other (Padden & Humphries, 1988).
Knowing this can aid in selecting and training tutors in order to meet the diverse communication
modes of students who depend on sign language. In all cases, when instructing students whose
primary receptive mode is vision, it is important to communicate using one mode of
communication at a time in the tutoring session. For example, when referring to printed course
materials, allow sufficient time for students to read it before discussing it. Also important, is
checking for understanding and clarifying what was spoken or signed to ensure
misunderstandings did not occur.
For remote tutoring to be successful with a deaf student population, the tutor must be able
to meet the diverse communication preferences of students. Therefore the tutor should be skilled
in communicating using ASL, SimCom, English and writing. Scherer and Binder (1989) reported
deaf and hard-of-hearing college students preferred tutors who were able to use a variety of
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 41
communication modes (ASL, simultaneous communication and writing). Providing tutors who
can deliver instruction across this diverse communication range is challenging further supporting
the need to explore remote tutoring using qualified tutors. This study addresses the
communication issues that affect the process of delivering tutoring to deaf college students by
examining the diverse language and communication practices that affect the remote tutoring
process (sub-question 2).
2.4.3 Pedagogical considerations.
The challenge to delivering remote tutoring is to create opportunities for students to
participate as active co-constructors of meaning, in a supportive environment that fosters social
interactions, using familiar technologies in an unfamiliar forum. To be consistent with
sociocultural and constructivist pedagogies, tutoring dialogues should be interactive and
collaborative (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998; Lang, Biser, Mousley, Orlando, & Porter, 2004).
Juel (1996) found that the most successful tutors engaged in scaffolded interactions with their
tutees. In addition, effective tutoring sessions were characterized by students doing most of the
talking, focusing on content and organization rather than grammar, negotiating meaning from
readings and writings, and tutors asking questions (inductive instruction) rather than giving
answers (deductive instruction) (Weigle & Nelson, 2004, p. 203).
One-to-one interactions can provide students with access to language adjusted to their
level of understanding as well as instruction specific to their learning needs. Feedback delivered
in tutoring serves many purposes. Ciano (2007) discussed the effectiveness of tutor feedback for
learning and stated that corrective (fixing), suggestive (hinting) and reinforcing (praising)
feedback types were most effective. Feedback can also serve as a stimulus for the student to
imitate. Ideally, good tutoring programs help students ―learn how to learn‖ at their optimal
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 42
achievement level (Gordon et al., 2007, p. 176) thereby enabling students to become self-
directed learners. ―By this definition, tutoring is a collaborative process in which tutors guide
students toward ownership of their own learning‖ (Gourgey, 1994, p. 87). In a writing class, the
goal of remote tutoring is to produce a better writer, not simply a better paper (Murphy &
Sherwood, 1995).
From a social constructivist point of view, interactions between a tutor and a tutee are
essential since they can help the writer focus on form and identify problems. In a writing class,
―The function of writing becomes the representation and communication of thought in a
community of writers, and, by focusing on content and process, the writer learns to communicate
more clearly and effectively‖ (Albertini & Schley, 2003, p. 124). From a second language
acquisition framework, the inclusion of the students‘ primary language and culture to motivate
students to generate their own knowledge is a constructive language model (Strong, 1992).
Lerner (1997) found that this type of tutoring significantly improved performance in writing
courses with second-language learners.
In conclusion, the remote tutor must be able to demonstrate skills in planning and
organizing the delivery of instruction, be competent in the content area and be able to instruct
online, utilize scaffolding in learning activities, match diverse communication and learning
styles, and utilize effective feedback (Gerrard, 2002). Livingston (1997) recommends tutors use
a collaborative writing approach when working with deaf writers. Employing a Socratic
dialogue, tutors and tutees can actively construct meaningful texts to promote students‘ cognitive
growth. Through active participation, the mechanics of writing can be provided to show deaf
students how to confirm what they know and encourage them to express themselves further
(Keenan & Bowers, 1988). Asking for clarification, giving feedback and using modeling
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 43
techniques during individual tutoring sessions can help students expand on their own texts. The
frequent use of collaborative conferencing also can minimize the student‘s sense of isolation
often felt when writing alone. In this study, I examine how instructional strategies meet the needs
of students participating in remote tutoring (sub-question 3).
2.4.4 Deaf identity development.
Language, literacy and identity development are embedded in social and cultural
practices (Lane, 2005). As stated in Chapter One, there are many factors that shape deaf identity
formation and transition including degree of hearing loss, communication access and skills,
family and educational experiences, and even technology. Bat-Chava (1994) categorized three
possible identities for deaf people: culturally Deaf, culturally hearing, and biculturally Deaf.
According to Glickman (1993), most prelingually deaf begin with a culturally hearing identity
due to early exposure to English-only/oral-only methods. The movement towards culturally and
biculturally Deaf is a process influenced by exposure to sign language and the Deaf community.
Consequently, if the formation of one‘s identity is influenced by relations with others through
socially meaningful activities (Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004), then a deaf person may identify with
either the Deaf community or the hearing community depending on his/her relationships over
his/her lifetime. However, in order to become a true member of the Deaf community, which is
founded on a shared language (ASL) and culture, a Deaf person conscientiously self-identifies
with the culturally Deaf community (Padden & Humphries, 1988).
With the emergence of new technologies come new identity formations (Leigh, 2009).
Therefore there is a need to consider how digital technologies and literacies affect deaf identity
formation, and vice versa. As such, this study will consider in what ways, if any, do students‘
identities influence their participation in remote tutoring (sub-question 4).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 44
2.4.5 Users’ satisfaction.
Presently, educators have an opportunity to improve literacy skills using computer and
web technologies already familiar to many college students. For example, remote tutoring can
utilize webconferencing, include web links to the course management system, and integrate
video for students who depend on lipreading and sign language. However, it is important to
consider students‘ readiness and attitudes toward remote tutoring to determine if this type of
learning environment meets their needs. Liu and Ko (2007) collected and analyzed data from
online tutors‘ reflective journals, discussions and interviews. With regards to the quality of
instruction, tutors reported they were able to customize instruction to meet students‘ needs.
However, students perceptions of online learning environments and their affects on learning are
less known (Gilbert, Morton & Rowley, 2007). This information would be beneficial to the
instructional design process and measures of user satisfaction (Menchaca & Bekele, 2008).
Anecdotally, students may prefer classroom instruction, perhaps due to the fact they have
not yet experienced distance learning, yet studies show online learning can be as effective (e.g.,
Cook, Levinson, Garside, Dupras, Erwin & Montori, 2008; Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-
Rivas, 2000; Frydenberg, 2007) and in some cases, more effective than classroom learning
(Redding & Rotzien, 1999; Maki, Maki, Patterson & Whittak, 2000; Sitzmann, Kraiger, Stewart
& Wisher, 2006). To transition students to remote tutoring and motivate them to try it, a tutor can
demonstrate and explain the process of remote tutoring in a nonthreatening way allowing
students the opportunity to experience it before attempting to learn through it. Time and
experience with tutoring remotely will tell if the perceived benefits of remote tutoring outweigh
those attributed to traditional tutoring.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 45
The best tutors possess desirable qualities, such as, enthusiastic, approachable, honest,
encouraging, friendly and respectful (Murphy, Shelley, White & Baumann, 2006). Scherer and
Binder (1989) reported deaf and hard-of-hearing college students preferred professional tutors
over peer tutors, tutors who were able to use a variety of communication modes, tutors who were
empathetic, had good teaching skills and were knowledgeable in the subject matter. I believe all
of these skills factor into whether a student is satisfied with the remote-tutoring experience and
may determine whether they return. Consequently, in addition to being competent in the content
area and being able to instruct online, remote tutors need to be positive, proactive, patient and
persistent with their tutees in their tutoring sessions (Shepherd, 2003). Asking users for their
input and incorporating their ideas into the design gives students a sense of ownership and may
result in greater satisfaction. In summary, students‘ comfort with digital technologies will
determine their willingness to try remote tutoring and their satisfaction with it will determine
whether it meets their needs as an appropriate support service. Consequently, in this study, I look
for what determines student satisfaction with the remote tutoring experience (sub-question 5).
2.5 Conclusion
When considering the provision of remote tutoring services to deaf college students, a
number of factors emerged. First, there are a variety of digital tools to examine and pilot.
Second, knowledge of deaf students‘ diverse communication preferences and unique learning
styles need to be considered. Third, there are pedagogical approaches concerning best practices
for teaching writing to deaf and hard-of-hearing students as well as best practices for teaching
them remotely that need to be examined. Fourth, being aware of students‘ affiliation with the
Deaf community and noticing the affects it may have on the remote tutoring process should also
be recognized. Last, there are the unknowns related to students‘ reactions and perceptions of
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 46
remote tutoring and if or how it satisfies their needs. Even though there is evidence that tutoring
can improve academic performance and that today‘s web 2.0 tools and conferencing applications
can support remote tutoring, the factors discussed above warrant further investigation into the
process of delivering one-to-one remote tutoring to deaf college students.
In Chapter Three, the interventions, data sources and analysis that were used in the study
are described. An explanation of action research and why it was an appropriate methodology for
this study is also included.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 47
Chapter Three
Research Design
3.1 Introduction
It is my belief that remote tutoring utilizing proper communication, technology and
instructional techniques has the potential to provide a much needed support service to deaf
college students in today‘s online environment. In order to better understand its use with this
population, the purpose of this study is to document how remote tutoring affects my tutoring
practices. In this chapter, I will first explain why action research is the methodology that was
applied to the study. I will then detail its overall design. Next, I will provide a rationale for each
intervention. Finally, I will detail how data were collected and analyzed relative to the research
questions and theoretical frameworks presented in Chapters One and Two.
It is my hope that this action research study will lead to a better understanding of the
remote tutoring process with deaf college students, increase the credibility of remote tutoring as
a support service for this population, and inform others in the fields of tutoring, deaf education
and distance learning.
3.2 Choice of Methodology
Stated simply, action research involves cycles of planning, acting, observing and
reflecting with a goal of improving one‘s own practice (Herr & Anderson, 2005; Kemmis, 1982;
Lewin, 1948). ―Action research is used for various purposes: school-based curriculum
development, professional development, and systems planning‖ (Ferrance, 2000, p. 28). The
action researcher is ―directly involved in the research setting and in the experience itself and has
direct impact on the events being studied‖ (McPherson & Nunes, 2004, p. 8). Since action
research happens as and where the action is taking place, immediate reactions can occur. The
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 48
results of action research include a better understanding of oneself as an instructor, increased
knowledge of issues explored and a potential for sharing with others in the field (Burgess, 2006).
In contrast to linear forms of research, action research is an ongoing process of inquiry,
data collection and interpretation, action, evaluation and transformation (Figure 3.1). It links
aspects of theory, practice, and problem solving; thereby allowing the researcher to apply new
knowledge and problem solving using a futuristic lens (McFarland & Stansell, 1993). Since
Figure 3.1. Action Research Cycle
Figure 3.1. This figure illustrates the cyclical process of action research. (Ferrance,
2000, p. 9). (Used with permission from The Education Alliance at Brown
University).
Gather data
Interpret data
Act on evidence
Evaluate results
Plan next steps
Identify the
problem
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 49
an action research design emerges and evolves, it allows the researcher to identify a problem and
implement changes using a reflective process (Ferrance, 2000; Herr & Anderson, 2005). Since
action research is often used to understand complex social situations, ―…this type of research is
particularly appropriate for investigating learning situations since they constitute very complex
social settings‖ (McPherson & Nunes, 2004, p. 87). Providing remote tutoring to deaf college
students occurs in a complex social setting since many factors exist due to overlapping technical,
pedagogical, and communication activities. Applying this method, I hope to identify the affects
remote tutoring has on my tutoring practices; thereby increasing an understanding of myself as
tutor/researcher. These actions and interactions will be described in greater detail in the data
analysis segment of this chapter.
One reason action research was chosen as the methodology for this study is because it
allowed me to develop an action plan for an activity I was already providing, that is, tutoring as a
supplemental service to students in my classes. The main difference, however, was that I was
providing it remotely as opposed to traditionally. In order to measure how remote tutoring
affected my tutoring practices, students in my classes were offered remote tutoring in the
evening. Examining remote tutoring using action research allowed me to systematically analyze
the process as well as ascertain student satisfaction in order to better understand my practice and
improve its delivery. A second reason action research was chosen is because it allowed for the
creation of new knowledge - ―one of its major strengths‖ (Herr & Anderson, 2005, p. 6). Due to
the complicated nature of providing remote tutoring to deaf college students, action research
methodology allowed me to analyze and reflect on the delivery of remote-tutoring instruction
and apply new knowledge obtained in cycle one to cycle two as well as develop an action plan
for the implementation of remote tutoring in my college.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 50
3.3 Context
Each quarter, I teach two sections of English to approximately twenty-four deaf college
students. Classes meet for 50 minutes, four consecutive days a week over a 10-week period. The
four-tiered English curriculum offered at the college is developmental (I-II-III-IV) and integrates
both reading and writing skill development with a focus on writing. The course I teach serves
students placed in level II. Students are placed into this class in one of two ways. The first way is
determined by the scores students receive on reading and writing course-placement tests given
during new-student orientation. The second way is by passing a pre-requisite course.
To better understand the population eligible for this study, the following information
provides characteristics of deaf students who attend the university. Specific details regarding
actual participants will be provided in Chapter Four. In order to qualify for admission to the
university, deaf students must have a 70 dB or greater hearing loss and have obtained a general
or regents high school diploma. The gender distribution of deaf students at the university consists
of 50% male and 50% female students. Since the majority of students who take this class are
first-and-second-year students, the mean age is 21 years (mean age of entering students for the
past five years). The race/ethnicity distribution of the deaf student population at the university
consists of 10% African –American, 10% Latino-American, 8% Asian, 1% Native-American,
68% Caucasian students, and 3% unknown (―Institution‖ Annual Report, 2009). Relative to
communication preference, 15% of the university‘s deaf student population use spoken
communication, 39% use a combination of spoken and signed English (SimCom), and 40% use
American Sign Language (ASL) as their primary mode of communication (Bryant, Caccamise,
Nelson, Scott, MacLeod, Wellin & Weymann, 2010). The only criterion for selection to
participate in this study was that students be enrolled in my English classes. Consequently,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 51
offering remote tutoring to them was ideal for the purposes of studying the remote tutoring
process with a diverse deaf college student population using digital technologies.
3.4 Overall design
As previously stated in Chapter Two, the educational problem this study addressed was
the limited research supporting the use of remote tutoring with deaf college students. In order to
study this process using action research, the overarching research question was: How does using
remote tutoring with deaf college students affect my tutoring practices?
Sub-questions included:
1. In what ways do technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote-tutoring
environment?
2. In what ways do the diverse language and communication practices of deaf students
influence the remote-tutoring process?
3. What instructional strategies meet the needs of students participating in tutoring remotely?
4. In what ways, if any, do students‘ identities influence their participation in remote tutoring?
5. What determines student satisfaction with the remote-tutoring experience?
3.4.1 Remote-tutoring formats.
Choosing the best available online formats to provide remote tutoring to deaf college
students in this study was a challenging endeavor since there are several webconferencing
providers who tout their usefulness for distance tutoring. While most appear to be affordable or
free, they lack the required video component needed to support sign language and lipreading.
(For a brief review, see Online Tutoring World, 2006). Videoconferencing, on the other hand, is
well-equipped to deliver high quality video; however, high-end sophisticated telepresence
technology (e.g., Cisco System Inc, Polycom Inc) can cost as much as $250,000 to install and
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 52
support. (For an overview, see Video Conferencing Review, 2008). Low-cost, one-to-one video
conferencing for the general public is also currently available, such as, Skype, Yahoo!
Messenger and iChat. Some even allow users to transfer files and may or may not allow
audio/video recordings for classroom or research use. Nevertheless, finding an affordable, high-
quality, open-source webconferencing system for use in this study presented a challenge.
After a thorough review, Adobe® Connect Pro 7
TM was chosen as the webconferencing
system used to deliver synchronous remote tutoring during the first five weeks of this study. It
consists of layouts and pods that allow the host to display content using a variety of features
including: document/window/screen share, chat, video/audio, notes, whiteboard, weblinks, and
polls. It is easy to utilize since it does not require special equipment or additional software
downloads since the required Adobe® Flash
® Player is already installed in most PC and Mac
computers. Similarly, there is no cost to individuals who want to use the Adobe®
ConnectNowTM
version from this company; however, institutions pay a modest price for the licensed Connect
ProTM
version.
As the study progressed and issues prevented users from achieving satisfactory remote
tutoring experiences, a change in webconferencing system was needed. Specifically, I looked for
a system that could be integrated with the course‘s Learning Management System (idea3) and
allowed both tutor and tutee to co-construct on shared documents. This became particularly
important since the focus of tutoring in this course centered on students drafting outlines and
paragraphs for homework. Co-constructing with students allowed me to utilize best tutoring
practices while empowering students to take ownership of their writing. For this reason, during
weeks 6 – 10, the IdeaToolsTM
Video Chat room was substituted for Adobe® Connect Pro 7
TM.
Snapshots of both remote tutoring systems are provided in Appendix E. Details of the
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 53
technological issues encountered and the action research cycles will be provided in Chapter Four
(Findings) and in Chapter Five (Action Research Cycles).
3.4.2 An action research cycle.
One of the challenges of using action research is determining what constitutes a complete
cycle (plan-act-observe-reflect). My overall plan was to provide remote tutoring to students
based on their academic needs, accommodate them using their preferred mode of communication
and differentiate instruction based on their knowledge of the task and goals for each session. The
action portion included everything that was involved with delivering the tutoring session: what
happened from a technical perspective, what occurred pedagogically and how communication
transpired. The observation component involved reviewing student and session evaluations and
instructional outcomes. Finally, all of this was taken into consideration when making changes
(See Figure 3.2). During a cycle, mini-cycles occurred involving technological, pedagogical
and/or communication issues. When decisions resulted in a change in technological systems, a
subsequent cycle was initiated. Thus, through this process of planning, acting, observing and
reflecting, I documented how the remote tutoring services I provided to deaf students in my
classes affected my tutoring practices. Ideally, the process of providing remote tutoring and
reflecting on this practice would allow me to create, modify and improve the delivery of remote
tutoring services in the future.
3.4.3 Positionality within action research.
In action research, positionality is an important consideration since explaining one‘s
position within the organization and study provides the context from which to evaluate research
validity and researcher bias and ethics. Since I am studying my remote tutoring practices with
students in my classes, I am considered an insider; however, Herr and Anderson (2005) state that
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 54
researchers can hold multiple positions simultaneously (p. 44). Therefore, as a participatory
researcher, I am also an outsider since I am a ―digital immigrant‖ as I was ―not born into the
digital world‖ (Prensky, 2001, p.1) even though I have always been fascinated by technologies
and strived to become knowledgeable in their uses, especially those that relate to education. I am
also an outsider because I am a professor which inherently places me in a position of power
(even though tutoring is not a required activity in this course) and because I am a ―hearing‖
person which precludes me from being a member of the Deaf community. Nonetheless, I identify
with Deaf cultural beliefs and values by maximizing students‘ access to communication using
Figure 3.2. Remote Tutoring Action Research cycle.
Figure 3.2. This figure illustrates the steps that occurred in an action research cycle
In this study.
•Analyze sessions, evaluations, and interviews
•Reflect on the remote tutoring process
•Provide remote tutoring & collect data
•Design a way to provide remote tutoring
PLAN ACT
OBSERVEREFLECT
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 55
visual and auditory modes (signed and spoken). In addition, I possess near-native signing skills
as measured by the Sign Language Proficiency Interview scale which allows me to communicate
directly with my students. I also believe Deaf students, who have learned language visually,
experience life differently and that this should be maximized. Failure to do so ignores the
circumstances that relate to the developing identity of an individual (Lippi-Green, 2004).
Over the years, my ―own understanding of language, literacy, and [deafness as a] culture
has shifted‖ (Nieto, 2006, p. 316). Consequently, as a hearing instructor whose second language
is ASL, I negotiate from a position of both insider and outsider as a researcher/practitioner who
has a desire to evaluate my teaching practices and then share the knowledge generated from this
study with others.
3.4.4 Participants’ recruitment.
Students enrolled in my English class typically read at a sixth-grade level as measured by
the California Test of Reading Comprehension. Many of these students have difficulty reading
for meaning and ―they often make vocabulary and structural errors that include omitting or
confusing articles, prepositions, and verb tense markers, and they have difficulty with complex
structures such as complements and relative clauses‖ (Holcomb & Peyton, 1992, p. 1). The focus
of this class is to develop vocabulary and grammar in context, understand paragraphs, and write
six different types of paragraphs (process, descriptive, compare-contrast, classification, cause-
effect and opinion). In the past, approximately 20% of students have taken advantage of tutoring
from me or from the college‘s learning center. It was my hope that offering tutoring remotely
would increase utilization.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 56
Due to students‘ diverse communication and learning styles, the remote tutoring session
must be capable of meeting their individual needs. The first step in recruitment was to make it
easy and clear for students to access remote tutoring. To ensure this, students were instructed on
how to access the online meeting space. This was accomplished by providing them with the web
address on the syllabus as well as a link within the course management system. Since the concept
of meeting with the teacher on the web was new for many, I used a laptop to demonstrate how to
access the site while using the classroom PC to display what it looked like when they logged in.
Performing this allowed students to see first-hand what the site looked like and how to get there.
Judging by their questions and feedback, students appeared more comfortable considering its
access and potential use. Students were also given an opportunity to ask questions about the
service and were reminded of all the tutoring options offered for the course.
Recruitment for the study took place during the first week of class. Students received an
Information Letter describing the types of tutoring services offered for the course. These
included traditional tutoring with the instructor by appointment or during office hours, traditional
tutoring with paid tutors provided by the college‘s Learning Center during posted hours, and
remote tutoring with the instructor by appointment or during evening hours. The Information
Letter also described what was required of participants. Details of the study were discussed,
emphasizing that subjects‘ participation in remote-tutoring research was voluntary and that they
could cease participation at any time without impact on their grade or status in the class. The
study proceeded when subjects accessed the online meeting space, emailed the teacher or
contacted the instructor via videophone for remote tutoring. Students were reminded that their
sessions would be digitally recorded for later analysis. Students were also informed that if they
did not want to be part of the study, they could still choose remote tutoring with the me and their
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 57
sessions would not be recorded. All nine participants provided permission by agreeing to have
sessions recorded and by completing session evaluations.
3.4.5 Intervention and data sources.
The provision of remote tutoring and six data sources were utilized to address the
overarching research question and sub-questions for this study. Data sources included a
questionnaire, session transcripts, participant evaluations, participant interviews, researcher
session summaries, and researcher reflections. In this section, I will briefly detail how they were
introduced and applied. An overview of data collection and data analysis processes follows later
in this chapter.
3.4.5.1 Remote-tutoring sessions.
The intervention for this study was synchronous and asynchronous remote tutoring with
the instructor. This was offered as a choice to all interested students enrolled in the course.
Students also had the option of receiving traditional tutoring with the instructor or with tutors
from other campus resources. Since receipt of tutoring with the teacher was voluntary, no grade
or other value was placed on receiving any form of tutoring as part of this course.
3.4.5.2 Remote-tutoring questionnaire.
Prior to recruiting participants for this study, all students enrolled in the class were asked
to complete a questionnaire to collect information about their past uses of tutoring and their
current interests in accessing traditional and remote tutoring with the instructor (Appendix A).
This data also provided information about students‘ preference for tutoring times, their access to
computers, and their preferred communication mode. Specifically, this information was used to
plan remote-tutoring configurations for students who chose remote tutoring via the
webconferencing site.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 58
3.4.5.3 Remote-tutoring transcripts.
Remote-tutoring sessions were digitally video recorded for later analysis using
HyperCam 3TM
desktop recording software. Recordings were necessary in order to capture what
occurred during remote-tutoring sessions and in particular, what was communicated through sign
language. Participants‘ recorded sessions were transcribed by the researcher used to analyze the
affects of remote-tutoring instruction. In order to protect the confidentiality of the participants,
remote-tutoring transcripts did not contain any references to students. Pseudonyms were used in
place of students‘ names and all identifying information was removed from final reports.
3.4.5.4 Students’ evaluations.
After each remote tutoring session, participants were asked to complete an online
evaluation (Appendix B). This feedback was collected from students to obtain immediate
reactions regarding what went well and what didn‘t go well. Participants‘ feedback on tutoring
sessions was also reviewed with regards to how well the tutoring session met their instructional
needs.
3.4.5.5 Researcher’s summaries.
After each tutoring session, remote tutoring practices were summarized and evaluated by
the researcher using an online reflection form grounded in the action research cycle (plan, act,
observe, reflect) (Appendix C). This allowed me to document any technological, instructional or
communication issues encountered in order to determine future action research cycles as well as
identify future instructional goals for individual students.
3.4.5.6 Student interviews.
At two times during the study (5th
and 10th
week), a total of five participants were
interviewed to discuss their remote tutoring experiences (3 and 2, respectively). Interview
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 59
questions attempted to further uncover students‘ opinions of remote tutoring as well as solicit
their ideas for improvement. These digitally-recorded interviews took place on campus during
non-instructional times. Students‘ interviews were transcribed and analyzed by the researcher to
identify affects of remote tutoring sessions. Rationale for recording these sessions was due to the
fact that all of the students used sign language to communicate. Therefore, it was necessary to
capture what was communicated during interviews for optimal analysis. As a precaution and to
ensure confidentiality, interview transcripts did not contain any references to the participants.
3.4.5.7 Researcher’s memos.
Finally, researcher memos were generated throughout the study in order to document
events and monitor changes in practice while participating in two action research cycles:
identify problem – gather data – interpret data – act on evidence – evaluate results – determine
next steps (Ferrance, 2000). All data sources were used to evaluate the affects remote tutoring
had on my tutoring practices constituting a valid, unbiased and ethical approach.
3.4.6 Data collection timeline.
An intervention and data-source-collection timeline for the study is displayed in Table
3.1. The left-hand column lists course topics while the right-hand column lists the study
intervention and data sources. Although many of the study interventions repeated from week to
week; course topics and strategies varied, supporting the need to provide ongoing tutoring.
3.5 Data Analysis
In this section, I will describe the data analysis process use in this study. All aspects
pertaining to this process will be addressed. In particular, the method and steps of analysis will
be explained. This, coupled with Action Research methodology, serves to inform how remote
tutoring affects my tutoring practices.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 60
Table 3.1
Intervention and Data Source collection Timeline
3.5.1 The importance of video data.
This study utilized digitally-recorded video data. Compared to audio-only recordings,
video captures activities as they occur; provides more detail and thus, richer data; shows
interactions between people and objects; and is used to triangulate other qualitative methods of
analysis (Knoblauch, Schnettler, Raab & Soeffner, 2006; Schnettler & Raab, 2008). Considering
the multiple and simultaneous levels of interactions that occurred in remote tutoring sessions,
Course Topics (from syllabus) Study Intervention and Data Sources
Week 1
Course overview
Orientation to course
management system (Idea3);
Elements of a good paragraph
Explained all tutoring choices
Administered tutoring questionnaire
Explained study and how to access remote
tutoring
Recruited participants
Note: did not provide remote tutoring this week
Weeks 2 - 5
Descriptive paragraphs
Process paragraphs
Vocabulary/grammar
development in context
Provided remote tutoring using Adobe Connect
Administered online evaluations to students who
participated in remote tutoring sessions
Completed summaries of each tutoring session
Interviewed three students who had participated
in remote tutoring sessions
Transcribed sessions and coded all data
Analyzed and reflected on issues related to
remote tutoring
Implemented changes
Weeks 6 - 10
Compare-contrast paragraphs
Classification paragraphs
Cause-effect paragraphs
Opinion paragraphs
Review all paragraph types
Vocabulary/grammar
development in context
Provided remote tutoring using IdeaTools
Administered an online evaluation to students
who participated in remote tutoring sessions
Completed a summary of each tutoring session
Interviewed two additional students who had
participated in remote tutoring sessions
Transcribed sessions and coded all data
Analyzed and reflected on issues related to
remote tutoring
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 61
videotaping was necessary to capture everything that happened in order to interpret its affects on
my tutoring practices.
Goldman (2007) discusses the affordances of using video technologies and how they ―are
changing every part of the research process‖ (p. 5). Hall (2007) states, ―We need new practices
as much as we need new media for doing and talking about research on learning and teaching‖
(p. 663). As a result, analyzing video, coding and reporting can be used as an epistemological
tool for displaying the tutoring process as teachers and students engage in learning.
3.5.2 Incorporating the student’s voice.
A transcript is anything but transparent but it holds the evidence from which themes
emerge and meaning is derived. Describing the way transcription is conducted and reported is a
necessary component of qualitative research and should therefore not be minimized. Linguistic
anthropologists view translation as a form of analysis (Ochs, 1979). Therefore, I believe it is
important to include the original speaker‘s voice in transcribed sessions and interviews. This
originates from my understanding of the Critical Deaf Studies‘ view of the struggles culturally
Deaf people have experienced in an English-only/speech-only society (Gertz, 2003).
Consequently, documenting an English-only translation makes a significant ideological
statement about the power of English to represent everyone and everything. My awareness of the
oppression Deaf community members have experienced has led me to incorporate the ASL
message when creating transcripts involving ASL participants. Hence, transcripts created from
tutoring sessions and interviews contained both an ASL glossed message as well as an English
translation. However, since ASL has no written form; an unofficial one known as ―glossing‖ can
be used to transcribe ASL for analysis purposes (Buisson, 2007). Since all of the students who
received remote tutoring in this study communicated using sign language, the signed data was
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 62
transcribed using adapted conventions developed by SignStreamTM (Neidle, 2002). SignStreamTM
annotations include a corpus of signs that are frequently used constructions in ASL. These
conventions were created specifically for ASL Linguistic Research projects and their annotations
are standard throughout sign linguistic literature (Neidle, 2007).
3.5.3 The transcription log.
For each tutoring session, a transcription log was created with four columns (see Table
3.2). Since I was most concerned with the actions and interactions that occurred in tutoring
sessions, I established that as my first column. The ASL (glossed transcription) and English
translation column were placed next. The second-to-last column indicated the time-code on the
video counter and the final column contained questions, comments, hypotheses and session
notes. In order to ensure accuracy, transcripts were also evaluated by a critical friend who is a
native signer and full-time ASL instructor. For coding and reporting purposes, the English
translations were used and indicated in [brackets].
Table 3.2.
Video Transcription Log
Action/
Interaction
Gloss-Transcription
[English translation]
Video
counter
Researcher’s comments:
Tabby
signing
Topic fs-OUTLINE
1P WANT KNOW 1P RIGHT
1P:SHOW:2P (yes/no q
eyebrows raised)
[I want to make sure I did the
outline right. Can I show
you?]
00:15 Reason for tutoring – help
with classification outline.
Wants to upload his draft.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 63
3.5.4 Unit of analysis
A unit of analysis is the main entity to be analyzed (Babbie, 1998). They are ―things we
examine in order to create summary descriptions… and to explain differences among them‖
(p. 93). To understand the process of remote tutoring, the unit of analysis for this study was the
activity that occurred in remote tutoring sessions. These included human-to-human, human-to-
content (course matter) and computer-to-computer actions and interactions that occurred during
remote-tutoring sessions. Activity was chosen as the unit of analysis since it could be analyzed
within the context of remote tutoring while acknowledging the link between individuals and
social systems (Kuutti, 1991). Applying Activity Theory to remote tutoring, the central subject-
object (tutor-tutee) relationship is mediated by tools which can be an instrument or an artifact,
such as the internet, a computer or laptop, a videophone or webcam, course materials, previous
knowledge, instructional strategies, or a shared document (Engestrom, 1987). To better
understand the relations between individuals and their environment, the community (e.g., the
university, its members, grade policies, classroom structures) is added along with its mediating
tools of rules and divisions of labor. Finally, the resulting outcome (learning, satisfaction,
recurring remote tutoring) is analyzed to better understand the remote tutoring process. Thus,
analyzing data using remote-tutoring activities as the unit of analysis provided an appropriate
mechanism to better understand the remote-tutoring process in order to effectively implement
changes identified in action research cycles.
3.5.4.1 Study activities, actions and interactions.
Web technologies offer new choices, opportunities and complications. Since online
learning is spatial in nature, a tutor‘s ability to provide tutoring in online formats poses many
technical, educational and communication challenges requiring they develop a repertoire of new
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 64
practices (Anderson, 2004; Jackson, 1994). The shift involves several transitions in instructional
materials (paper text to electronic text), the learning environment (same location to distant
location), and how activities occur through the internet, videophone and email (Meloncon, 2007).
As a result, distance tutoring can provide opportunities for increased interaction, in particular
between instructor and student, which are recognized as an essential characteristic of a quality
education (Williams, Howell, Laws & Metheny, 2006).
During one-to-one remote tutoring activities, actions and interactions originate from
different individuals (subjects-objects) and sources (tools) resulting in a variety of outcomes
influenced by the activity‘s rules and divisions of labor. Using descriptions associated with
asynchronous distance education interactions (Trentin, 2000), I modified and expanded the types
of interactions that occurred in synchronous and asynchronous remote tutoring sessions.
(1) Modified from asynchronous distance education interactions (Trentin, 2000):
learner-content interactions – interacting with course materials online
learner-tutor interactions – students asking questions, responding to feedback, expressing
understanding, etc
learner-interface interactions – students using chat or sign language to communicate
online and for co-constructing on their homework documents
learner-learner interactions –students interacting with one another during remote tutoring
sessions
(2) Three additional types of interactions attributed to synchronous remote tutoring were
identified:
Tutor-content interactions – reviewing course documents and integrating comments on
students‘ documents
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 65
Tutor-learner interactions – giving praise, feedback, providing information, etc.
Tutor-interface interactions - using chat or sign language for communication and co-
constructing on student‘s homework documents
(3) Finally, two more types of interactions typically associated with asynchronous distance
learning were also identified.
Learner-email interactions – student-initiated emails to tutor
Tutor- email interactions – tutor responses to student‘s email and tutor‘s emails to class
In addition to the types of interactions that were coded, specific actions were identified
during remote tutoring sessions. These included steps for opening sessions, steps for displaying
documents, interacting with documents, steps for saving and returning students‘ drafts, and steps
for closing sessions. Since technical, educational and communication activities occurred
simultaneously, identifying the various types was necessary for analyzing them as units.
3.5.5 Method of analysis.
The goal of data analysis in action research is to ―enable participants to clearly
understand the nature of events that are the focus of the research process‖ (Stringer, 2008, p. 88).
In order to capture participants‘ perspectives, an appropriate mode of analysis must be chosen so
that remote tutoring outcomes can be used to explain activities and inform theory. I spent a great
deal of time searching for a method of analysis that would help me transform generated data into
meaningful interpretation in a systematic way. In an effort to formulate theory from data, I chose
a form of grounded theory that includes analytic reasoning and reflection inherent in Action
Research. Therefore, in order to analyze the activities that occurred during remote tutoring
sessions, dimensional analysis was used as the guiding framework (Schatzman, 1991). Using this
method of analysis, data can be described according to its attributes (dimensions and properties).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 66
Since it is embedded in symbolic interactionism and the construct of dimensionality, this type of
analysis allows researchers to formulate the dimensions and properties (context, conditions,
actions/processes and outcomes) associated with complex social phenomena using participants‘
perspectives (Bowers, Esmond & Canales, 1999; Kools, McCarthy, Durham & Robrecht, 1996).
Through dimensionality, meaning can be interpreted by analyzing the component parts of the
phenomenon resulting in a better understanding of all that is involved. Appendix F contains
definitions of terms commonly used with dimensional analysis.
When applying dimensional analysis, there are three influential steps (Kools, et al.,
1996):
1. First the researcher creates or designates dimensions and their properties and then continues
to subdimensionalize or categorizes them in order to expand data to reveal provisional
concepts. This part of early analysis is concerned with identification and logistics since
codes take the form of dimensions related to a social phenomenon. This process of
dimensionalizing continues until a critical mass of dimensions and properties are reached
(similar to open coding in Grounded Theory).
2. Using these dimensions, the researcher develops an explanatory matrix through
differentiation. Using different perspectives, I attempted to attribute greater value to some
dimensions while dismissing others (similar to constant comparison in Grounded Theory). In
the process of determining the central perspective, each dimension was elevated to that level
and ―The dimension that provides the greatest explanation for the relationship among
dimensions is ultimately selected as the central or key perspective from which to organize or
‗choreograph‘ the data‖ (Kools, et al., 1996, p. 319). Any remaining dimensions are then
relegated as salient, relevant, marginal, or irrelevant‖ (Schatzman, 1991).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 67
3. Finally, the integrated central perspective is used to explain the patterns and relationships
between dimensions of the phenomenon via an explanatory matrix thereby revealing
everything that is involved. Figure 3.3 illustrates these steps.
Figure 3.3. Dimensional Analysis Steps
Step 3 Integrating
(transforming dimensions
into theory)
Narrate central perspective
Select a central perspective
Designate concepts
Dimensions -Properties
subdimensions -properties subdimensions -properties
subdimensions –properties subdimensions properties
subdimensions –properties subdimensions –properties
subdimensions –properties subdimensions –properties
subdimensions –properties subdimensions –properties
Step 2
Differentiating (auditioning concepts)
Step 1
Dimensionalizing (designating concepts)
Figure 3.3 This figure illustrates the three main steps of Dimensional Analysis
(Kools, et al., 1996).
3.5.5.1 The Explanatory Matrix.
The process of using remote tutoring with deaf college students can be understood by
illustrating attributes from participants‘ perspectives and showing how they relate using an
explanatory matrix that showcases the central perspective (Caron & Bowers, 2000). In
dimensional analysis, the organization of dimensions is directed by the perspective of
Concept A
Concept BConcept C
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 68
participants and the context. Consequently, this influences which dimensions are most significant
for constructing meaning. When selecting the central perspective, the most salient dimension will
depend on the context of the activity, action or interaction. This is best understood through the
integration of context and perspective. Understanding both tutor and tutee perspectives is crucial
in order to interpret meaning for remote tutoring research and practice. By acknowledging and
understanding multiple perspectives via the explanatory matrix, it is possible to develop
meaningful knowledge that informs theory.
3.5.6 Steps of analysis.
To prepare data for analysis, content logs were created from recorded remote-tutoring
sessions (Jordan & Henderson, 1995). Activities (actions and interactions) in each session were
then analyzed using dimensional analysis (Kools, et al., 1996). Initial and pre-existing codes,
identified from providing tutoring to deaf college students, the research questions and relevant
literature, were established prior to conducting the study (Appendix G). These were expanded to
include over 270 codes identified during the first step of dimensional analysis
(dimensionalizing). For example, in this step, the pedagogy dimension was subdimensionalized
to show a range of properties, such as, tutor actions. This was then subdimensionalized to include
instructional strategies, assessment skills, cognitive support, related to site design, and
participation in co-construction. These were further subdimensionalized until their properties
could no longer be reduced. As part of the second step of dimension analysis (differentiating),
each dimension was scrutinized and auditioned for the role of central perspective. In this study,
choices was designated as the central perspective. All other salient dimensions, how they were
selected and integrated into the explanatory matrix, and how they answered the research
questions will be presented in Chapter Four.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 69
In addition to using dimensional analysis to interpret all that happened in the remote
tutoring process, constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) was used to analyze student
interviews, students‘ evaluations, researcher‘s session summaries, and researcher‘s memos.
Constructivist grounded theory assumes the researcher constructs categories and uses
participants‘ views and voices in the analysis. Thus, it takes what people say and looks for
implied meanings with a goal of making actions, interpretations and influences explicit in the
analysis. This was used to supplement and triangulate the data obtained from the actions and
interactions dimensionalized in remote-tutoring sessions.
Researcher‘s memos and ongoing reflection contributed to deriving meaning while
consciously trying to maintain a focus on answering research questions. Consistent with action
research methodology, reflecting on one‘s own practice helps to understand what has occurred.
However, efforts need to be taken to ensure validity and trustworthiness throughout a study to
reduce researcher‘s bias. This included incorporating additional data sources and activities, such
as, researcher‘s reflective journal, memoing during coding, member checking for interviews, and
sharing findings with members of my cohort. In addition, I sought guidance from deaf colleagues
for a variety of areas including: ASL translation, Deaf culture, information technology and
distance learning. This host of critical friends helped to corroborate the data and interpretation
presented from this study.
In summary, twenty-two recorded remote-tutoring sessions were transcribed by the
researcher first using sign gloss and then translated into English. These were then coded and
analyzed using dimensional analysis to better understand all that was happening during remote-
tutoring sessions. In addition, students‘ feedback was coded and compared with interpretations
obtained from these sessions. Transcribed data from students‘ recorded interviews were coded
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 70
and analyzed using constructivist grounded theory in order to verify remote-tutoring findings.
The researcher‘s journal and reflections were coded and analyzed to document decisions,
changes and outcomes to the remote-tutoring process as progressions through cycles occurred.
All of this information, along with applicable tenets of sociocultural and activity theories, and
new literacy studies, informed how the research questions were answered.
3.6 Methodology Check
I believe action research was an appropriate methodology for this study. Assessing my
remote-tutoring practices constituted action research in that it addressed a specific area of
inquiry; collected data from users of the service; analyzed it qualitatively with sociocultural,
activity and new literacies studies lenses; and used a reflective process to inform change.
Similarly, data analysis followed analytic circles of describing, categorizing and interpreting
data. An action research methodology allowed me to analyze the remote-tutoring process as it
happened, reflect on its delivery, implement changes and eventually, develop an action plan
which includes sharing the process with others.
3.7 Conclusion
Chapter Three presented an explanation for why action research was the methodology
applied to this study. The overall design of the study and rationale for interventions were
provided. Finally, details on how data were collected and analyzed were given. In the next
chapter, the findings of this data analysis will be reported.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 71
Chapter Four
Findings
4.1 Introduction
This chapter details the evolution of the explanatory matrix created from the data
collected in this study using Dimensional Analysis (Schatzman, 1991). This method was used to
identify the range of activities and the outcomes involved in remote tutoring with deaf college
students using attributes of the phenomenon. These were then abstracted into concepts which
ultimately formed into theory. To this end, remote tutoring with deaf college students is narrated
to reveal a plausible explanation unbeholden to pre-existing assumptions or theory. In this
chapter, I will first describe the general findings that emerged. This includes necessary
background information related to participants, the remote tutoring platforms and the types of
interactions that occurred during remote-tutoring sessions. Then, I will narrate the dimensions
that emerged from constructing the explanatory matrix to provide a summary of how using
remote tutoring with deaf college students affected my tutoring practices. In sum, I will explain
all that is involved in remote tutoring with deaf college students in order to answer the research
questions (repeated below) and design an action plan that will inform and enhance remote-
tutoring practices (Kools, McCarthy, Durham & Robrecht, 1996).
4.1.1 Research questions.
To serve as a reminder, the overarching research question for this study is, How does
using remote tutoring with deaf college students affect my tutoring practices? Sub-questions
include:
1. In what ways do technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote-tutoring
environment?
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 72
2. In what ways do the diverse language and communication practices of deaf students
influence the remote-tutoring process?
3. What instructional strategies satisfy the needs of students participating in tutoring remotely?
4. In what ways, if any, do students‘ identities influence their participation in remote tutoring?
5. What determines student satisfaction with the remote-tutoring experience?
4.2 General Findings
When analyzing data, findings emerge that are general in nature and do not adequately
address the research questions nor pertain to the explanatory matrix identified through
dimensional analysis. However, they establish context from which to present findings that inform
theory and therefore are important to the study. For this study, these included the characteristics
of participants and their utilization of remote tutoring.
4.2.1 Characteristics of eligible participants
In order to understand the impact the remote tutoring experience had on participants, it is
necessary to provide an overview of students‘ characteristics, their access to technologies and
their prior thoughts about it. There were twenty-four (24) eligible participants (seven females,
seventeen males) originally enrolled in my English classes. Prior to week four, three male
students withdrew from the course, none of whom had accessed traditional or remote tutoring
from me prior to withdrawing. Data collected during the first week of the study from the Remote
Tutoring Questionnaire (Appendix A) provided the following information. First, all twenty-four
students stated that they either planned to use tutoring (50%) or might use tutoring (50%) in this
class. Specifically, twenty-two (92%) indicated they either wanted to or might want to receive
traditional tutoring from the instructor (14 and 8, respectively) and one student, who said he did
not want to receive traditional tutoring from the instructor, indicated he wanted to try remote
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 73
tutoring. Second, seventeen students (71%) expressed willingness to try online tutoring with the
instructor (5 – yes, 12 – maybe). This high percentage of willingness was encouraging since I
was unsure how students would respond to remote tutoring given this option. Third, sixteen
students (67%) reported they had used traditional tutoring in high school or another college.
Additionally, three students (13%) also indicated they had used remote tutoring in high school or
college. Of these three students, only one (Saba) accessed remote tutoring from me during this
study. Upon interviewing him, it was discovered that his prior online tutoring experience
involved completing homework assignments on a computer, similar to computer-mediated
tutoring often used in mathematics or grammar practice. In his words, ―I didn‘t contact the tutor
through the computer. The computer was the tutor, not a person‖ (Interview with Saba). In sum,
this concludes relevant information collected from the Remote Tutoring questionnaire regarding
students‘ characteristics, past use of tutoring and their thoughts about using traditional and
remote tutoring.
4.2.2 Utilization of remote tutoring.
In total, twenty-two (22) remote-tutoring sessions were provided to nine different
students (38%). Specific information about students‘ perspectives will be presented when
narrating the explanatory matrix; nevertheless, the frequency and remote-tutoring format
information shared in Table 4.1 is intended to provide a framework for understanding utilization.
Particularly helpful, when comparing formats, was feedback received from three students
(Preslee, Tabby and Aarin) who experienced remote tutoring using both systems (Adobe®
Connect Pro 7TM
and IdeaTools TM
). Further details regarding these two webconferencing
systems will be provided in Chapter Five (Impact of Action Research).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 74
Table 4.1
Participant Utilization: Number of Sessions and Remote-tutoring System
Participants
(Pseudonyms) Adobe®
Connect Pro
7 TM
system
IdeaTools TM
system
Email-only Video-
phone
only
1. Lyrik (once) Session 1
2. Saba (five times) Sessions 2 &
3
Sessions 8, 9 &
22
3. Preslee (twice) Session 4 Session 12
4. Tabby (six times) Sessions 5, 6 Sessions 11, 13, 17 &
20
5. Aarin (twice) Session 7 Session 10
6. Fabi (once) Session 14
7. Ryver (once) Session
15
8. Kadren (three
times)
Sessions 16, 18 & 19
9. Easton (once) Session 21
Table 4.1. All participants‘ names are pseudonyms.
4.3 Research Findings
What follows are the results and interpretations of the data collected from the twenty-two
remote tutoring sessions, five interviews, student evaluations, researcher summaries, field notes
and memos. I begin by addressing the assumptions I held about tutoring in my office and
remotely; and then present the relevant dimensions and properties that emerged from
dimensional analysis to explain all that happened during remote tutoring with deaf college
students in my English classes and to address the research questions.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 75
4.3.1 Researcher’s assumptions.
Prior to embarking on this study, I held numerous assumptions related to students‘
opinions of tutoring in general, and remote tutoring, specifically. Anecdotally, my twenty-seven
years of teaching deaf undergraduates had revealed that fewer than twenty percent of students in
my classes took advantage of tutoring with me. When asked ―Why don‘t students use tutoring?‖,
participants responded: embarrassed, lazy, asserting independence, problems with lab tutors, and
want tutoring from teachers. In addition, I assumed students did not take advantage of tutoring
for the following reasons: stigma, poor time management, indifference, inexperience, they didn‘t
see a need for it, they didn‘t know about it or they were performing well in the class. One thing I
did know was that students who had accessed tutoring in high school were more apt to continue
using it in college (Eilers-crandall, 2009); therefore, I was anxious to see if this held true for my
participants and if it might make them more willing to try tutoring if it were offered remotely.
With regards to remote tutoring, I assumed that most of my students had never accessed it. I also
assumed that those who had accessed it would have likely used Instant Messaging, emailing or
videophoning with their tutors or instructors when seeking help. Finally, I assumed some
students might be wary of remote tutoring because they had no concept of it.
Additionally, through the process of reflecting on my tutoring practices, I realized the
importance of shifting mindsets. That is, my own – established through almost three decades of
providing tutoring to students in my classes as well as my students, who are mostly ―digital
natives‖ (Prensky, 2001, p. 1) who have grown up with computers and communication
technologies. As a result, I have to recognize the differing mindsets brought to the remote-
tutoring experience knowing they can be used to help adapt to this environment. I offer this
information to articulate the biases I held prior to analyzing remote-tutoring sessions. What
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 76
follows is the narration of why, when and how students accessed remote tutoring and how it
affected my practices as well as theory that emerged as a result of Dimensional Analysis.
4.3.2 Central perspective – Choices.
Interpretation of the social construction of remote tutoring with deaf college students
begins with a description of the central perspective of Choices and three relevant dimensions:
(1) Transitioning, (2) Benefits, and (3) Sharing Experiences. Figure 4.1 illustrates the
explanatory matrix created from dimensional analysis. In this section, I will first discuss the
central perspective of Choices and its properties. Then I will describe the three relevant
dimensions and their properties to further explain the activities, actions and interactions from
tutor and student perspectives. The central and relevant dimensions will be narrated and
supported by participant‘s quotes and actions from data sources. The narration of this analysis
captures the core dimensions of the process of remote tutoring with deaf college students and
answers the overarching research question, How does using remote tutoring with deaf college
students affect my tutoring practices?
It should come as no surprise that people like choices. Businesses spend millions of
dollars each year advertising products in the hopes that consumers will select theirs over their
competitors. In the same respect, college students want choices as well. They want to be able to
choose their course schedules, their teachers, their roommates and who, where, how and when to
receive tutoring. What follows are the attributes that define the central perspective – Choices.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 77
Figure 4.1. Explanatory Matrix
Explanatory Matrix
Central Perspective
Choices
Dimensions
Choice of times
Reasons for choosing remote tutoring
Choice of remote tutoring mode
Choice of remote technologies
Technical configurations that affected choices
Choice of communication mode
Offering additional choices/suggestions
Relevant Dimensions
Transitioning Benefits Sharing Experiences (Table 4.3) (Table 4.6) (Table 4.7)
Figure 4.1. This figure indicates the central perspective and its dimensions as well as the
three relevant dimensions identified through dimensional analysis.
4.3.2.1 Central perspective - Dimension 1: Choice of times for tutoring
Knowing students‘ preferred times for tutoring is helpful so that the service can be
offered at times that meet students‘ needs. On the Remote Tutoring Questionnaire, eligible
participants could ―check all that apply‖ when selecting days (8 am – 5 pm), nights (5 pm – 11
pm) and weekends for preferred times for tutoring. As a result, their responses varied with the
highest number preferring nights (54%) and weekends (46%). Only 4 out of 24 students (17%)
indicated a preference for tutoring during the day which typically is when most instructors offer
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 78
traditional tutoring to students enrolled in their classes. With this in mind, remote tutoring for
this study was offered Monday through Wednesday evenings (7 pm – 9 pm) as well as by
appointment on Sundays. This was in addition to the eight hours of office tutoring on weekdays.
All tutoring options were presented to students during the first week of the course/study and
throughout the course. When asked specifically about optimal times for tutoring, Tabby offered
the following preference in his interview [brackets indicate English translation],
Researcher: [This quarter, I offered online tutoring at night from 7 – 9 pm.
Would you prefer daytime also or is night better?]
Tabby: [Well, I prefer night better because I‘m in classes all day plus doing other
things so I don‘t have time so I prefer night time better.]
It should be noted that on-campus tutors, who know sign language, were also available to
students at specified hours days, nights and weekends. To keep students aware of all tutoring
choices and times offered to them, they were reminded regularly throughout the 10-week course.
In doing so, it was my hope that as we progressed through the course, students who wanted help,
would take advantage of tutoring because they had a variety of choices that could meet their
schedules and they would perceive some benefit from it.
4.3.2.2 Central Perspective - Dimension 2: Reasons for choosing remote tutoring.
The reasons students might choose remote tutoring and the actual reasons students
accessed it were also considered. In interviews, when asked, ―Why would students use remote
tutoring?‖, the following reasons were given: to get feedback, for encouragement, when campus
Learning Center tutors are busy, and to save time. In this study, students‘ actual motives for
choosing remote tutoring were (parentheses indicates number of coded sources): questions about
homework (19), for support (4), to inquire about grade (2), understand better (2), get
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 79
clarification (3), make up class (2), improve confidence (1), request redo (1), friends encouraged
me (1), and ―curious‖ (1). For example, in his online evaluation after session 2, Saba chose
tutoring for the following reason,
Question: Why did you come to tutoring today?
Answer: I came to online tutoring because I needed some help for my homework.
In a fact, it helped me a little bit. I'm sure I will come to online tutoring more
often whenever I need.
In his interview, referring to session 5, Tabby chose tutoring for a different reason,
[indicates English translation]
[I think I was working on English, finishing a draft and reading it and not feeling
confident about the spelling or other mistakes so I prefer to contact you and send
you the draft to make sure it‘s right. We read it to make sure it was correct which
is better than sending the draft and it has a lot of mistakes that affect my grade.
I prefer to take advantage of the online tutoring so I know it‘s right.]
While the majority of students in this study chose remote tutoring to get help with homework,
their specific needs varied. Some simply needed reassurance. Upon reflection, I hypothesized
that the reason some students may not submit homework is they are unsure if they are doing it
correctly or not sure what to do next. A simple note of reassurance or clarification from a tutor
could be enough to satisfy their concerns and result in homework being completed on time.
4.3.2.3 Central perspective - Dimension 3: Choice of remote-tutoring mode.
The range of student‘s preferred remote-tutoring mode exceeded my expectations. The
assumption that students would want to use video features, such as, webcams or videophones
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 80
during remote-tutoring sessions was quickly negated when a few students chose chat-only (no
webcam or videophone) and email even though they had access to webcams and videophones.
Using remote tutoring with chat-only proved to have advantages and disadvantages. On
one hand, constructing a message using chat allowed the sender to review statements prior to
posting them which may help to construct clearer sentences and avoid misunderstandings.
However, the disadvantage is the length of time it took to post exchanges using chat. Likewise,
email tutoring felt disconnected, was less interactive and was not the best means for co-
constructing documents. In addition, the amount of time elapsed between emails tended to
interrupt the flow and increase the length of time it took to meet tutoring objectives. Delays
between emails naturally occurred due to the fact I was tutoring others remotely and only
addressed emails when I was available in-between sessions. For example, during session 8 with
Saba, sixteen emails were exchanged over an hour-and-eleven-minute period. In spite of this, he
wrote in his evaluation,
Emailing each other is the best way for me to understand much better to do well on my
homework. Yes, it was helpful. I preferred email over online tutoring because that's what
I always use emails for some helping.
During session 8 with Saba, I suggested we chat online in my second emailed response to
him (8:15 pm) but he politely retorted, ―Well, not tonight. I have a lot of things to do for my
homework right now. Can we email each other for just now?‖ (8:18 pm) after which we
continued our session asynchronously through email. Notably, he had chosen remote tutoring
using chat-only twice earlier (sessions 2 & 3) and later chose tutoring through email two
additional times (sessions 9 & 22). Perhaps he was multitasking or simply liked the fact he could
access email anytime and anywhere without having to maintain a chat connection. Rather than
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 81
questioning his judgment, I accepted this as evidence of students exercising their choice and how
it can vary depending on their immediate needs.
As a practice, I routinely asked students for their preferred mode of remote tutoring as
part of each session. The following is the opening exchange from Saba‘s session 3 transcript
(chat- only):
Action/
interaction
Transcript of chat Researcher’s comments
Starting
session; LB
posting in
chat
Hi Saba! His 2nd time; opening of session
LB posting in
chat
What’s up? Requesting reason for tutoring
Saba posting
in chat
hi linda!
Saba posting
in chat
im about to do my homework
now
Reason for tutoring –
question about homework
LB posting in
chat
Do you want to add vp or
webcam?
Clarifying preferred RT mode
Saba posting
in chat
no webcam. Is that okay?
LB posting in
chat
Is chat okay? Or do you
want to use vp too?
Trying to establish optimal
communication while honoring the
student‘s request.
Saba posting
in chat
yeah, just chat.
Saba posting
in chat
i do not need to use vp
though
Confirming his choice of just chat
From this exchange, I realized while it is important to provide options and remind students of
features, it is ultimately up to them to choose the mode of tutoring they prefer to use. As digital
natives, they should be allowed to learn through a medium that supports their learning style. At
the same time, it is still the tutor‘s responsibility to routinely assess and remind students of
alternatives and follow-up options especially when considering fluctuations in access to
technologies and their improvements over time.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 82
4.3.2.4 Central perspective – Dimension 4: Choice of remote technologies.
In this study, students accessed a variety of remote technologies when receiving tutoring
from me. Responses from the Remote Tutoring Questionnaire showed all 24 students owned
computers or laptops, 20 students owned webcams for their computers and 21 students owned
videophones or videophone computer software. Students who did not have webcams were
informed of where they were provided on campus. Thus, students in this class had adequate
access to computers in order to enter the webconferencing site, if desired.
In reality, the majority of students (78%) used webcams or videophones during remote-
tutoring sessions unless something prevented them from accessing it. For example, Lyrik
(session 1) indicated she did not have her webcam set up yet and two students initially had
trouble connecting their webcams to the webconferencing video pod (sessions 4 & 5); therefore,
they chose to use chat-only during those sessions. A fourth student (Aarin – session 7) came to
the webconferencing site because her attempt to contact me through videophone failed. During
that session, she posted in chat: ―it say phone # is not found‖ (05:31 video counter). Fortunately,
she did not end her quest there and chose to access the webconferencing site for assistance. A
fifth student (Ryver – session 15) was unable to access the webconferencing site and asked me to
contact him through videophone (VP). As a result, we held our session using VP. What follows
is a portion of the transcript from that session‘s opening (session 15), [brackets indicate English
translation],
Action/
interaction
American Sign
Language (ASL) used
[English translation]
video
counter
Researcher’s comments
Opening of
session.
Dialing VP
number and
00:37/
Start
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 83
waving hello
LB signing [I’m sorry it didn’t
work. I don’t know
what the problem is.]
00:42 Apologizing
Ryver
signing
[It wouldn’t let me in.] 00:44
LB signing [on ideatools?] 00:46 Clarifying
Ryver
signing
Yes 00:46
LB signing [Did you open the link
under “Chat Room”?]
00:50 Confirming
Ryver
signing
Yes…not successful 00:54
LB signing [I see…How can I
help you with your
homework?]
00:54 Asking reason for tutoring
After completing the videophone tutoring session, I initially thought this student had been
underserved since we had not reviewed his homework online; however, in hindsight I feel that
meeting the student through videophone was an effective alternative. The session lasted
approximately five minutes, there were no technical problems and we successfully discussed the
details of his ―classification‖ outline. In addition, sign language was clear and natural. In fact,
the session felt similar to one I would have with a student in my office. Nevertheless, even
though videophones were used to deliver remote tutoring one time in this study (session 15),
integrating videophone with webconferencing software was not examined. Therefore its affects
on my tutoring practices and on students‘ choices needs further exploration.
4.3.2.5 Central perspective - Dimension 5: Technical configurations that affected
choices. Research sub-question 1: In what ways do technical configurations
contribute to a satisfying remote-tutoring environment?
Simply having technology that allows face-to-face communication through remote
technologies does not guarantee success. Technical problems influenced students‘ choices. For
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 84
example, when Preslee attempted to access remote tutoring during session 4, she tried to get her
webcam to connect for over six minutes. Consequently, the remote tutoring session was aborted
in exchange for tutoring with me in my office,
Action/
Interaction
Transcript of
chat
Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
Preslee
posting in
chat
Can you see
from me?
05:13 Problem connecting webcam
LB posting
in chat
No 05:26
LB posting
in chat
Can you see
me?
06:51 Length of time (1:26)
Preslee
posting in
chat
I can see u 07:06 There is something wrong with the way
her webcam is set up on her laptop.
LB posting
in chat
The webcam
opened but I
don’t see you…
09:07 Changed her status to Presenter to see if
that would allow her to access her
webcam. The webcam window opened,
but unfortunately, it was still a blank
screen.
Preslee in
chat
can u see me? 09:47 Preslee continues to try to activate her
webcam to no avail.
Preslee
posting in
chat
it isn’t work 11:03 Frustration
LB posting
in chat
Do you want to
come to my
office?
11:12 Suggested alternate form of tutoring.
Preslee
posting in
chat
Yes, I do 11:30 Accepted
LB posting
in chat
Okay…I will
wait for you
Affective orientation
When students could not connect their webcams, they got frustrated. Therefore, the
choice to meet in my office was offered or requested. The researcher‘s session notes provided
valuable information regarding problems encountered. As depicted in session 4 notes, the
following assessment and solution to the problems illustrate the sequence of events and the
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 85
complexities involved with meeting students‘ preferences and more importantly, their
instructional needs.
Session 4 – Researcher‘s evaluation
Description of technical problems encountered:
Preslee was unable to get her webcam to connect. This distracted her from making
progress in the session. She also had difficulty reading the displayed document
because the font was too small.
Description of communication problems encountered:
We were limited to "chat" because her webcam didn't work. [Chat] is not her
preference which added to frustration, lost time and dissatisfaction with the
experience.
Conclusion: Preslee came to my office for the remainder of the tutoring session.
After we completed discussing her homework, we attempted to find out why her
webcam wasn‘t working. Apparently, her camera is automatically ―assigned‖ to
her videophone software. I will find out what she needs to do to ―reassign‖ it to
her laptop webcam for future tutoring sessions.
While this analysis is helpful for addressing the cause of problems, it is more important
that tutoring meet the student‘s needs. If remote tutoring is not satisfying to students or if it is
frustrating them, it is imperative to have an alternate form for them to choose from. In fact,
Preslee had indicated on the Remote Tutoring Questionnaire that she was not interested in trying
remote tutoring; yet she accessed it two times during this study. When she had difficulty
connecting her webcam in session 6, she was offered the opportunity to meet me in my office.
When asked in her interview how we could make remote tutoring more successful, she did not
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 86
have any ideas; however, when asked about her feelings towards remote technologies, she signed
the following, [English translation]
Researcher: [Do you think it‘s a good idea to offer tutoring using VP or
computers, or do you think it should always be face-to-face?]
Preslee: [I prefer face-to-face over VP because the P3 software (videophone
software) has problems like it gets blurry or the screen goes black. Technology is
frustrating.]
With this in mind, remote tutors should not assume that this tech-savvy generation is expert at
using technologies in academic settings (Oblinger, 2003). However, digital natives are
motivated to learn with technologies and ―It is now clear that as a result of this ubiquitous
environment and the sheer volume of their interaction with it, today‘s students think and process
information fundamentally differently from their predecessors‖ (Prensky, 2001, p. 1).
In addition to webcam connection problems, there were issues associated with
understanding sign language using webcam video regardless of webconferencing system. The
typical webconferencing tool is designed to support spoken communication which relies heavily
on audition. Currently, the quality of the video playback can vary depending on the quality of
the webcam and the bandwidth of the internet connection. Consequently, the video feature does
not produce optimum playback to understand sign language. Even the fastest connections
produce insufficient video quality to support naturally-paced sign language conversations. As
reported here, Kadren provides his opinion of webcams for signing and speechreading during his
interview, [English translation]
Researcher: Can you think of anything you didn‘t like? Were there any problems
you can recall?
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 87
Kadren: [Sometimes I didn‘t like the signs on the webcam, I don‘t understand
them sometimes and I don‘t like that. I like using the webcam with earbuds…that
works.]
Researcher: Good, good…so you mean the sign is not clear?
Kadren: [Sometimes it‘s not clear and so I misunderstand. With the webcam, I do
understand when I read lips.]
Researcher: Yup, so when you see the face plus hear it, it‘s much easier to
understand?
Kadren: Yes
Despite poorer video quality using webcams, video playback allows communication
using sign language to occur. Depending on the quality of the webcam, computer bandwidth and
internet traffic, sign language can appear choppy and spatial cognition is hampered by the 2D
interface (Cockburn & McKenzie, 2002). Even with these drawbacks, compared to chat-only
and email sessions, video-supported sessions felt more natural, had more frequent exchanges,
and seemed to cover more material and in more depth. In his interview, Saba expressed his
desire for including sign language to support remote-tutoring sessions for deaf people even
though he preferred using email for remote tutoring,
Researcher: Imagine if you could design tutoring online…what would you want it
to look like?
Saba: [It needs more signing to make it clearer for deaf than writing, which is
confusing, you know?]
Researcher: More signing….
Saba: [More face-to-face than typing]
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 88
Nevertheless, determining exactly how poor video quality specifically impacts students‘
satisfaction with the remote tutoring experience was difficult to determine since
webconferencing produces a host of activities simultaneously, such as document sharing, co-
constructing on documents, using chat in conjunction with webcam, and using speech with
webcam for sign and speech together (SimCom). Several comments were made regarding the
advantages and disadvantages of webcams. Lyrik felt it was important to have webcams as a
backup; Tabby felt sign language via webcam was unnatural because you had to slow down to
make it clear; and Kadren, in his interview, reported improvement when he used headphones
with video during tutoring as follows,
Researcher: Remember, I used a microphone and you used your earbuds and
plugged into the computer… what did you think about that?
Kadren: [It worked]
Researcher: It worked how?
Kadren: [because without sound it‘s hard to understand sometimes. I try my best
but hearing what you say is much better.]
Researcher: Better, ok...
Kadren: [speech and hearing together improves what I‘m doing.]
Researcher: So you have listening and visual together…
Kadren: Contact
Researcher:...and typing and that seems to work?
Kadren: Yes
Regardless of these opinions, use of video enhances the tutoring experiences by
facilitating a connection. Mallory and Laury (2001) also reported success using Desktop Video
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 89
Conferencing with a QuickCam™ Desktop camera for viewing facial expressions and gesturing
with their deaf college students. In the ten years since their study, high-quality
videoconferencing and telepresence tools have emerged. Consequently, there is hope that web-
based video quality has the potential to improve as well. The advantages of incorporating
webcam or videophones into remote-tutoring sessions with deaf students are relevant to new
literacies studies perspectives as tutors and tutees traverse boundaries when teaching and
learning through the increased use of multimodal formats and technologies (Kress, 2010).
During the study, remote tutoring was delivered using email, webconferencing with chat-
only, webconferencing with webcam and chat, and through videophone-only. Factors such as
students‘ format preferences, access to peripherals (i.e., webcams and VP), and success
contacting the instructor affected which type of configuration was used. In this study, there were
problems with webcam connections, accessing the webconferencing site, and webcam clarity due
to limited bandwidth. Despite these drawbacks, webcam-supported sessions allowed access to
sign language and speechreading otherwise unavailable. It also seemed to shorten the length of
time between exchanges and gave a feeling of connectedness between tutor and tutee. Given
options, students can choose which technical configuration contributed to a satisfying remote
tutoring environment for them; thus alleviating perceived shortcomings experienced when using
alternate configurations and formats. In sum, this dimension addressed, In what ways do
technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote tutoring environment? (sub-question
1).
4.3.2.6 Central perspective - Dimension 6: Choice of communication mode.
Research sub-question 2: In what ways do the diverse language and communication
practices of deaf students influence the remote-tutoring process?
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 90
In addition to meeting students‘ needs by offering choices in remote tutoring format, the
remote tutor must also consider the deaf students‘ preferred mode of communication and attempt
to accommodate it when delivering tutoring via webcams, email and videophones. The 24
participants‘ preferred modes of communication with the instructor, obtained from the Remote
Tutoring Questionnaire, indicated 14 students preferred ASL (58%); 8 students preferred sign
and speech together - SimCom (33%); 1 student preferred both ASL and SimCom (4%); and 1
student preferred using speech because he did not know sign language (4%). Critical to
understanding the provision of tutoring as an academic support service with this population is to
consider their communication diversity and to accommodate as much as possible. Assessing
students‘ preferred choice of communication for remote tutoring is needed to offer optimal
communication features on the remote-tutoring site and to utilize students‘ preferred
communication/language mode during remote-tutoring sessions. This will require tutors to have
multimodal skills (ASL, SimCom, spoken and written English) and to acknowledge the value
communication diversity has on the learning process.
In this study, several factors determined which communication mode could be used in
remote-tutoring sessions. In some cases, students‘ communication modes were limited by their
access to technologies (videophone-only, webconferencing with webcam and chat, or chat-only)
as well as their choice of remote tutoring (asynchronous or synchronous). For example, when a
student did not have access to a webcam, or chose not to use it, accommodations included
tutoring using webconferencing with chat-only or using email. If a student could not access the
webconferencing site, videophone tutoring was used or vice versa. Often, the remote-tutoring
format dictated which communication modes were available. Table 4.2 shows the range of
communication and language choices accommodated by varying remote-tutoring formats. In
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 91
sum, this addresses, In what ways do the diverse language and communication practices of deaf
students influence the remote-tutoring process?
Consequently, when explaining choices for remote tutoring to students, tutors should also
explain how communication preferences can be accommodated or limited depending on the
format. While webconferencing with webcam and chat features provides the broadest
communication and language choices, there are technical challenges as previously described.
However, unless students have equal access and are trained in all technologies, choices should be
given to meet their communication preferences and learning needs in order to provide them with
a satisfactory remote-tutoring experience.
Table 4.2
Communication and Language Choices for Varying Remote-tutoring Formats.
Remote-tutoring choices Communication choices Language choices
Webconferencing with
webcam and chat
1. American Sign Language
(ASL)
2. Sign with speech/mouth
movements (SimCom)
3. Speech
4. Chat (Instant Messaging)
1. ASL
2. English word order
3. English
4. Written English
Webconferencing with
chat only (no webcam)
Chat (Instant Messaging) Written English
email Writing Written English
Videophones for
deaf users
1. ASL
2. Sign with mouth
movements (SimCom)
3. Chat (Instant Messaging)
1. ASL
2. English word order
3. Written English
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 92
4.3.2.7 Central perspective - Dimension 7: Offering additional choices/suggestions.
In some instances, students received additional choices during remote-tutoring sessions.
For example, in session 7, Aarin was given contact information in case she needed additional
help with her homework that evening (Session 7 with Aarin – chat only),
Action/Interaction Transcript of chat counter
LB posting in chat Do you have any questions about it? 04:20
Aarin posting in chat nope 04:26
Aarin posting in chat that’s all I want is redo on Grammar 3
(Homework)
04:33
Aarin posting in chat to get upgrade on my grade 04:39
LB posting in chat ok…I’ll be here until 9 04:48
Aarin posting in chat alright 05:13
LB posting in chat you can also VP me at (VP phone number)
if you want.
05:19
In addition to offering participants remote-tutoring choices, preferred communication and
language modes, and follow-up assistance, students expressed desire for other choices too. For
instance, students wanted remote tutoring offered in other classes as well as English as evidenced
by Tabby‘s, Lyrik‘s and Kadren‘s interview comments [brackets indicate English translation],
1) Interview with Lyrik,
Researcher: Would you like to see (this college) offer online tutoring as an option
for students?
Lyrik: Yes, I would like to see that.
Researcher: What courses would you suggest?
Lyrik: [Not just for one course…I would suggest for general courses. That way,
if a student has a problem in a general course or in their major, I could suggest
they go online for support.]
Researcher: So it could be any course?
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 93
Lyrik: [YES]
2) Interview with Tabby,
Researcher: [Can you think of anything else….not just for English online tutoring
but other classes? Do you have other ideas?]
Tabby: [Yes, in general, we need English, but we should add math too and
others…suppose there are students who transfer into a major and don‘t
understand, they can go online and sign to get explanations. They can VP for
explanations, email or sign easily…in general, we have English (online tutoring)
so we need to add math too.]
3) Interview with Kadren,
Kadren: [could be math…show your work and that you can follow directions or
follow a lab. Most labs should have (tutoring) because you have to follow
directions. And English same thing, to get higher (grade), need to do the same
thing…]
Additionally, Kadren wanted the choice to receive tutoring from his teachers. In his interview he
suggested the following,
Kadren: [I would suggest (this place) offer one-to-one tutoring with the teacher
because if you offer using student tutors … they are not in my class don‘t know
how to (tutor) so you work with them, give it to the teacher and get feedback that
it‘s wrong and that causes problems.]
Researcher: Okay….
Kadren: [I suggest students get tutoring from their teachers because they are
paying for it.]
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 94
Researcher: [You want tutoring from the teacher because they know the course
and what they want and expect from you?]
Kadren: [Yes, I notice that some tutors are good and some are not. In my opinion,
some tutors have problems teaching students and they struggle and get it wrong.
I prefer to ask the teacher who teaches the class.]
In sum, offering students options and allowing them to make their own choices regarding
remote tutoring was a prevalent theme that emerged using dimensional analysis. In hindsight,
expecting to offer remote tutoring primarily through webconferencing seemed limiting since
allowing students to choose their preferred mode of remote tutoring could result in greater
satisfaction with the tutoring experience and increase the potential that users would return. When
asked, ―Based on this experience, would you use online tutoring again for this class?‖, the five
students who completed evaluations all responded ―yes‖ or ―maybe‖. Additional comments
included,
(Yes) It a great experience and I always had a dream of hoping one day people would
start doing online tutoring – Lyrik, evaluation from session 1 (chat-only; Adobe®
Connect Pro 7 TM
system).
(Yes) I would like to use online tutoring sometimes – Saba, evaluation from session 2
(chat-only; Adobe® Connect Pro 7TM
system).
(Maybe) If I not understand my homework then I can go to tutoring at [on-campus
site], but I feel not go there then using online tutoring at my dorm, I guess - Tabby,
evaluation from session 6 (webcam with chat; ASL used; Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system).
(Yes, I would like that.) Because I don‘t have to bring my backpack and walk to LB‘s
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 95
office then forget one thing. Have to go back to dorm and get something and walk
back to LB‘s again. I rather tutoring online while I‘m in dorm as already have
everything with me in dorm room – Aarin, evaluation from session 10 (webcam with
chat; ASL used; IdeaTools TM
system).
(Maybe) Do you like this online software better than the first one we tried? Yes, I do.
For online without webcam (referring to the Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system) the
letter need big for homework online – Preslee, evaluation from session 12 (webcam
with chat; ASL used; IdeaTools TM
system).
Also during interviews, participants were asked for suggestions for designing a system
that met their needs. Lyrik described her desire for remote tutoring to be broad in order to meet
students‘ needs as follows,
Lyrik: [I would want it to be more like teaching people. Giving positive
encouragement on specific things, not general things. But the basic design would
be for teaching. Show students where their mistakes are using computers. Show
them how to send, copy and things like that.]
Preslee provided specific technical requirements needed to support the ideal remote tutoring
system for deaf students during her interview,
Preslee: [Use ideatools and have a backup in case the webcam doesn‘t work.]
Preslee: [also add IM to make talking easier]
And finally, when asked how to promote remote tutoring to deaf students, Lyrik suggested
providing students with choices,
[I would ask others to see if they would like it to see if you should give online
tutoring a try with students. If they are indifferent, try it and like it, then fine.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 96
If they don‘t like it, I would look for other ways to support students other than
online.] – Interview with Lyrik during the 5th
week of the study
In this statement, Lyrik viewed the offering of remote tutoring as one way to reach out to
students and to give them an opportunity to try it. Therefore, if the goal is to increase access to
support services, this can be achieved by giving students a variety of choices to support their
tutoring needs.
4.3.2.8 Summary of central perspective - Choices.
Over the ten-week study period, five students (20%) received tutoring from me in my
office and nine students (38%) accessed tutoring from me remotely for a total of 14 different
students (58% of the class). Remarkably, there was no crossover in use except in cases where
remote tutoring failed. In their study, Scherer and Binder (1989) reported deaf college students
preferred professional tutors over peer tutors, tutors who were able to use a variety of
communication modes (ASL, simultaneous communication and writing), were empathetic, had
good teaching skills and were knowledgeable in the subject matter. This was also true of
participants in this study who received tutoring remotely. Given this information and the fact that
58 % of the students in my course received some form of tutoring from me (38% remotely and
20% traditionally), I hypothesize that offering choices in tutoring types, courses, days and times;
communication mode; and remote tutoring mode and technologies increases the utilization of
tutoring for deaf college students. Thus, Choices was deemed the central perspective of the
explanatory matrix that emerged from analyzed data.
4.3.3 The three relevant dimensions.
The remainder of this chapter will narrate the three relevant dimensions of transitioning,
benefits and sharing experiences, how they relate and connect to the central perspective of
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 97
choices and each other, as well as how they answer the research questions. The interpretation
given is intended to become a foundation that can inform remote-tutoring practices with deaf
college students.
4.3.4 Transitioning dimension.
As with any new initiative, there is a learning curve that occurs before users experience
comfort and satisfaction. Transitioning, in the context of remote tutoring, refers to movement
from one stage to another in order to acclimate to the process of teaching and learning in a new
environment. In the transitioning dimension, there are a number of conditions to consider: (1)
the technical and instructional transitions that occur for the tutor; and (2) the technical and
educational transitions that occur for the tutee. Table 4.3 illustrates the properties of the
transitioning dimension. By detailing the properties of this dimension, an explanation of how
transitioning relates to choices and how it affects the process of remote tutoring will emerge.
4.3.4.1 Transitioning dimension – Property 1: Tutor’s perspective of transitioning with
technology.
From the tutor‘s perspective, there are numerous technical activities that occur when
providing tutoring remotely. These include the ability to set up, maintain and close sessions;
display and share documents; co-construct with students on documents; save and return student‘s
work electronically; and troubleshoot technical problems; all while providing quality tutoring
using the student‘s preferred remote-tutoring format and preferred communication mode. Earlier
in this chapter, technical problems related to connecting webcams and reading sign language on
webcams were mentioned by participants. Advantages and disadvantages for varying remote-
tutoring formats were illustrated earlier as well using students‘ experiences and comments. In
order to explain the properties of the transitioning dimension, the discussion will focus on the
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 98
technical and instructional practices needed by the tutor to provide remote tutoring as well as the
technical and educational skills and experiences of students as they become familiar with the
remote-tutoring concept. By applying Activity Theory to this analysis, a new theory of tutoring
will emerge.
Table 4.3
Properties of Transitioning Dimension
Context Tutor’s perspective Student’s perspective
Conditions technical and
instructional
technical and
educational
Actions setting up, maintaining
sessions, and closing
sessions; displaying and
sharing documents; co-
constructing on
documents, saving and
returning students‘ work;
troubleshooting technical
problems.
becoming acquainted
with remote tutoring;
accessing remote
tutoring; receiving
instruction through
remote tutoring; co-
constructing on
documents.
Outcomes no technical problems;
technical problems;
offering alternative
tutoring mode;
satisfying/dissatisfying
remote tutoring
experiences; teaching
objectives met.
no technical problems;
technical problems;
requesting alternative
tutoring mode;
satisfying/dissatisfying
remote tutoring
experience; learning
objectives met.
Remote tutors perform many roles including technologist, web designer and facilitator
(Goodyear, Salmon, Spector, Steeples & Tickner, 2001); yet the technical competencies of
online tutors have received limited attention in research (Shelley, White, Baumann & Murphy,
2006). To be effective, tutors need to be comfortable and competent with whatever technology is
used and know when to rely on technical support from more knowledgeable others. From this
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 99
experience, I realize that managing multiple tools for communication and instruction in one-to-
one remote tutoring is challenging. For example, the steps for opening sessions, sharing
documents, co-constructing documents and closing sessions during remote tutoring sessions are
listed in Appendix H for both webconferencing systems illustrating the complexities involved in
initiating, maintaining and closing sessions. These are further complicated when considering the
tutor‘s familiarity and comfort with them as he/she transitions to tutoring with webconferencing
technologies, especially one who is a ―digital immigrant‖ (Prensky, 2001, p. 1
As part of Action Research, I would reflect on what transpired after each remote-tutoring
session. In the beginning I had concerns about my technical skills when I began using each
webconferencing system. For instance, after session 2 (Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system), I
wrote,
I‘m still feeling a bit overwhelmed with sharing documents. Mainly because I
cannot see what the student is seeing. The only thing I know is that I‘m ―sharing‖
something. I don‘t know what it looks like on their screen. Is it big enough? I
need to get in the habit of asking this.
And after session 3 (Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system), I reflected on the number of steps
needed to close sessions,
There‘s a lot to remember at the end of a session. I first had to remove Saba from
the meeting and then stop sharing his paragraph to maintain his privacy. I had to
copy his conversation from the chat posting to a word document for later analysis
and then clear it from the post. I then waited for another student to enter.
As I was learning how to share and interact with documents, at first I didn‘t know if we
could co-construct on them, so I initially typed students‘ responses into displayed documents. I
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 100
later discovered that while we had not been able to co-construct easily using the Adobe®
Connect Pro 7 TM
system, we were able to do it on documents using IdeaTools TM
. When needed,
I contacted the software programmers and IT specialists for information and explanations
involving technical components prior to and during implementation. As the weeks went by, I
never experienced system crashes or lost connections; however, in session 5, I accidentally
―removed‖ the student from the webconferencing site but was able to put him back in within six
seconds. As students returned for recurring sessions, instructing with the technology became
easier, reducing my anxiety and probability of making technical errors. Since I was never able to
predict what might go wrong, I approached each session hopeful knowing that if the student‘s
academic needs were not met, alternate arrangements could be made. Sometimes I initiated an
alternate format, sometimes the student requested it. Regardless, the choice was there, if needed.
As I became more comfortable with the remote-tutoring technologies, I noticed it took
me less time to open sessions, share documents, enlarge fonts, save and return documents, and
close sessions. This improvement allowed me to focus more on the instructional and affective
strategies I was applying in remote-tutoring sessions. The next section discusses the instructional
transitions a tutor experiences when tutoring remotely and addresses research sub-question 3.
4.3.4.2 Transitioning dimension – Property 2: Tutor’s perspective of transitioning with
instruction. Research sub-question 3. What instructional strategies meet the needs of
students participating in tutoring remotely?
Instructionally, the remote tutor goes through transitions as well. As a newcomer to
remote tutoring, attempts to use constructivist learning strategies were accompanied by feelings
of ineptness. At first, I was so preoccupied with the mechanics of delivering tutoring through
webconferencing software that I felt as if I had never tutored before. Once I acknowledged this
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 101
hindrance, I consciously began applying strategies and techniques that I would naturally use in
traditional tutoring sessions, such as, facilitating, modeling and collaborating. For example, in
session 1 with Lyrik, we were viewing her draft and reached the part where I asked her to
construct concluding sentences for practice,
Action/
interaction
Transcript of chat Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
LB: Posting in
chat
Good…let’s go back
to your paragraph. I
want you to try to
draft your concluding
sentences.
20:21 Providing encouragement
Assessing her understanding
Lyrik: Posting
in chat
Okay 20:28
LB: Shared her
draft using ‖My
computer
screen‖ and
posted in chat.
Now it's your turn.
What would you write
to restate your topic
sentence here?
21:33 Requesting she construct concluding
sentences for practice.
Lyrik: Posting
in chat
Applebee's is my
favorite resturtant
[sic] for many reason
because it a great
place to go to for
dinner
23:54 Student‘s response
Length of time: 3 ½ minutes
The only difference between this exchange and tutoring that occurs in my office was we used the
chat feature to communicate using a webconferencing site. As a result, this gave her an
opportunity to practice writing and get feedback on her drafted sentences in the remote-tutoring
session prior to submitting her draft on the course management system for homework. In this
way, remote-tutoring is consistent with traditional face-to-face sessions where language is the
mediating tool. The only difference is one occurs in the same physical proximity while the other
does not.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 102
In this study, dimensional analysis allowed me to dimensionalize the instructional
strategies used in all remote-tutoring sessions. To answer sub-question 3 and understand which
instructional strategies met students‘ needs, I reviewed those that were applied in the five
sessions that had student evaluations so I could relate instructional strategies to students‘
feedback . Three of these sessions occurred using the Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system, two of
which used a chat-only modality and one used webcam plus chat. The other two sessions used
the IdeaTools TM
system with webcams plus chat. This information, along with the session‘s
length of time and languages used, is summarized in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
Session Characteristics with Student Evaluations.
Session Number 1 (Lyrik) 2 (Saba) 6 (Tabby) 10 (Aarin) 12 (Preslee)
Length of session 31
minutes
8 minutes 19 minutes 13 minutes 15 minutes
Webconferencing
system
Adobe®
Connect
Pro 7 TM
Adobe®
Connect
Pro 7 TM
Adobe®
Connect
Pro 7 TM
IdeaTools TM
IdeaTools TM
Modality chat-only chat-only webcam +
chat
webcam +
chat
webcam +
chat
Language Written
English
Written
English
ASL ASL ASL
As you can see, these sessions varied in length, webconferencing system, modality,
language and student. Did instructional strategies differ based on remote versus office tutoring?
Or by webconferencing system? Or based on modality? To address how tutors transition to
teaching using remote technologies and to discuss the instructional strategies that met the needs
of students receiving remote tutoring using varying modes, I will first discuss the strategies
identified in the five evaluated sessions; then I will present strategies that were unique to remote
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 103
tutoring; and finally I will mention those that were applied in sessions differentiated by modality
(webconference, email and videophone).
Coding the five sessions that included student evaluations (sessions 1, 2, 6, 10 and 12),
50 instructional strategies were identified using Dimensional Analysis (Appendix I).
Instructional strategies common to all five sessions were: asking questions, confirming,
displaying documents, facilitating, giving directions and praising. Therefore, regardless of length
of session, system, modality and language, I interacted with students remotely by asking
questions, confirming responses and displaying/sharing materials while assisting and
encouraging their progress. These strategies are consistent with a social constructivism approach
since asking questions is used for assessing what the learner knows, then confirming it using the
knowledge that exists within the social context of tutoring and continuing it through interacting
until a new level of knowledge is acquired (Staupe and Hernes, 2000). With the exception of
displaying documents electronically, these strategies are similar to those applied in office
tutoring sessions, which further supports consistency between the two. When comparing
webconferencing systems, co-constructing on documents occurred only within the IdeaTools TM
system (sessions 10 & 12). This is one of the reasons that prompted the decision to end cycle
one with Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
and deliver remote tutoring using the IdeaTools TM
system in
cycle two.
Coding instructional strategies in all 22 remote tutoring sessions allowed me to identify
activities that were unique to remote tutoring as well. Table 4.5 lists instructional actions and
interactions unique to remote tutoring. For instance, when a student entered the
webconferencing room for the first time, they were greeted with a ―Welcome to tutoring with
LB‖ message posted in the chat feature. When students responded to that posting, I began the
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 104
process of checking to see if they preferred alternative modes, such as adding a webcam, by
posting the question using the chat feature before initiating the tutoring session. Other unique
Table 4.5
Instructional Strategies Unique to Remote Tutoring
Asking student to draft in chat feature – to practice writing and give feedback
Keeping chat sentences short; using (…) to indicate continuing.
Adding emoticons (smiley faces) and IM , i.e., lol to chat
Checking connection – can you see the draft?
Checking preferences – do you want to use webcam?
Checking audio – can you hear me?
Sharing documents electronically
Checking view of documents displayed – is it big enough?
Enlarging document fonts, if needed
Co-constructing: highlighting, revising, expanding
Saving student‘s work and returning to course management system
strategies applied through the chat feature included using it to display emoticons (smiley faces)
for affective purposes when using chat-only and using it for emphasis (to clarify, repeat, instruct)
when using sign language with webcams in the webconferencing site. Secondly, I incorporated
varying strategies to alert students to changes in topics or actions by typing ―let‘s move on to the
new information from class‖, when using chat-only; or by asking students to ―hold‖ or ―one
minute‖ to indicate I needed to display or save a document; or by starting questions with ―I‘m
curious‖ to indicate a change in topic. Alerting students to changes in topic or actions was
particularly necessary in the chat-only mode to avoid confusion; however, it is also a common
and polite thing to do in Deaf culture (Mindess, 2006). For example, when breaking eye contact
during a session in order to share a document electronically, it was polite to alert the deaf person
by asking them to ―hold‖ or wait ―one minute‖. This is similar to what hearing people would do
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 105
on the telephone when distracted or needing to attend to something else. It is also appropriate in
ASL to begin a question by signing, ―I‘m curious‖ as a topic marker and as a way of alerting the
deaf person to a change in topic. These alerting strategies were employed using chat features,
webcams and videophones during remote tutoring sessions because they facilitated instruction
using digital technologies in a way that is familiar and respectful to deaf people as well as similar
to those utilized in traditional face-to-face interactions. Another instructional strategy unique to
remote tutoring occurred when displaying documents. Regardless of webconferencing system, I
had to verify if students could see the documents and ask if they were displayed properly. In
some cases, fonts had to be enlarged in order for the student to read the displayed document.
This is something I had to remember to check since I could not see how things were displayed on
students‘ computers. Thus, it is important to check remote-tutoring access and preferences,
check webcam and audio connections, use alerting and topic-changing strategies and confirm
clarity of displayed documents when tutoring students using webconferencing systems.
In addition to delivering remote tutoring through webconferencing systems, Saba
received tutoring through email three times (sessions 8, 9 and 22) and Ryver received tutoring
through videophones once (session 15). Similar to chat-only and webconferencing with webcam
sessions, asking questions and giving directions also occurred in email and videophone tutoring
sessions while praising took place less (Also listed in Appendix I). This may have been because
documents were not shared and therefore co-construction did not occur. Knowing this, adding
strategies such as facilitating and praising while requesting clarification and elaboration rather
than providing information could fill this void. Regardless, it is clear that the instructional
strategies used by the tutor are similar, whether in one‘s office or remotely through webcam,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 106
email or videophones. The next section will address how students transition to the remote
tutoring environment.
4.3.4.3 Transitioning dimension – Property 3: Students’ perspectives of transitioning.
Technical and educational transitions occurred for students using remote tutoring as well.
During the first few weeks, they had to become acquainted with the course management system
which was new for many of them. Second, they were expected to produce written evidence of
learning using the processes presented in class. Third, they were being asked to meet with me
remotely using an unfamiliar format. Therefore, I wanted to orient them to remote-tutoring
options and help them with their transition so that they could feel comfortable and satisfied with
the process. Embarking on this study, I realized the majority of my students had never
experienced remote tutoring; therefore, I wanted to acquaint them with the concept by
demonstrating systems in class. Using two computers stationed in the classroom, one that
projected to a screen at the front of the room, I demonstrated how to access the webconferencing
site from one computer browser (Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
in Week 1; IdeaTools TM
in Week 6),
explained the layouts and showed students what it looked like using the other computer. I
believe this helped to minimize the mystery behind the phenomenon as the demonstration
showed students how to access the remote tutoring webconferencing site step-by-step. For
students‘ reference, a PowerPoint presentation was also posted in the course management
system. In addition, the webconferencing URLs were communicated through paper and
electronic sources, including the course syllabus, course management system, teacher‘s office
and weekly email reminders. This helped students to easily gain access, when desired.
During this study, Tabby participated in six remote-tutoring sessions. What follows are
five exchanges from his sessions illustrating his transition to remote tutoring using various
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 107
formats. The first is an email exchange requesting tutoring; the second illustrates a problem that
occurred attempting to use the Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
system; the third illustrates his first
experience using the IdeaTools TM
system; the fourth shows his progress in using the system for
learning; and the fifth illustrates interaction that occurred when he was challenged to reach
beyond what he already knew and ventured into his zone of proximal development (Vygotsky,
1978).
I. Email exchange with Tabby, Monday September 27. His first attempt,
Action/
interaction
Transcript of email
Researcher’s comments
email to Tabby;
sent 9:20 pm
LB: I’m tutoring another
student now…I’ll email
you when I’m done.
Was unable to accept him into the session at
that time because I was working with Preslee.
email to Tabby;
sent 9:34 pm
I am available to help
you now and will be here
until 10 pm. You can
contact me at [URL for
tutoring website]. Or you
can VP at [videophone
number]
Sent this email to Tabby letting him know of
my availability and reminded him how to
contact me.
email from
Tabby;
sent 9:50 pm
oh, I never use this
before. I was confused.
Can I meet your office if
you are here…?
Requesting alternate form of tutoring.
Student was tutored in my office - same
evening.
II. Session 6 with Tabby – Adobe® Connect Pro 7 TM
(18 minutes, 56 seconds) – Getting better
with technology. Session begins in chat; moves to combination of webcam and chat.
Interaction Transcription
(SimCom used)
Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
LB posting
in chat
How can I help
you?
00:42 Requesting reason for tutoring
Tabby
posting in
chat
I want to know if
right sentences
about “how to”
01:45 Seeking reassurance
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 108
make something
Change
layout to
include
webcam
pod
OK…do you want
to use VP or
webcam?
02:04 Up to this point, I have not been successful
incorporating webcam into sessions. I began
the session with the chat layout which does not
include a webcam pod. I switched to the
webcam tutoring layout hoping this would
initiate an attempt to add webcam. I am
anxious to see how this works with the
delivery and satisfaction of the session.
Tabby
posting in
chat
I have Macpro’s
webcam, but I
don’t know how it
turn on
03:13
LB posting
in chat;
changed his
role to
presenter
Do you have
webcam on your
computer?
03:41 At 04:10, I changed his role to presenter so he
could access his webcam.
Tabby
posting in
chat
yes 04:29 At 05:13, we are both visible on webcams.
Tabby is using a computer in a lab on campus.
LB signing Waving “hello”. 05:13 Tabby‘s face appears in webcam pod
Tabby
signing
Waving “hi”. See
me? Perfect
05:16 Relief showing on both our faces
Tabby‘s evaluation of session 6 mentions his initial struggle with connecting his webcam. In
response to the question, ―Please describe the webcam problems‖, he wrote, ―I can‘t find
webcam turn on because these (referring to the icon) is too tiny that why I search it like 10 or 20
min‖. Based on this experience, he also inferred he would maybe return to online tutoring for
help with homework,
[If I not understand my homework then I can go to tutoring at (on-campus lab), but I feel
not go there then using online tutoring at my dorm, I guess.]
III. Session 11 with Tabby – IdeaTools TM
system (8 minutes, 59 seconds). This is the first night
using this system. We are both getting used to the new layout. Here, he is asking me how to
upload a document showing his initiative to manage the session.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 109
Interaction ASL used
[English translation]
Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
Tabby
signing
[I want to make sure
I did the outline right.
How can I show
you?]
00:15 Reason for tutoring
LB signing You want to look at
it? okay
00:17
Tabby
signing
Share? 00:19 Here, student is asking how to upload his
outline so we can work on it together. I do
not know if this is possible. Need to
investigate.
IV. True to his nature, Tabby returned three more times. We were becoming more comfortable
with the technology and communicating using both webcam, chat and interacting with
documents that we were able to focus more on the writing process. During the remaining three
tutoring sessions, he started each by quickly getting right to the point. My position transitioned
from teacher to facilitator with Tabby taking the initiative. In his writing, he selected
challenging topics (i.e., categorizing video game characters and the effects of hatred) and was
able to apply the correct writing structure successfully. I sensed he was using remote tutoring to
get feedback on his drafts before submitting them. Particularly noteworthy was Tabby‘s fifth
session (session 17) where he contacted me to discuss concluding sentences for his ―cause or
effect‖ paragraph. He set the tone for the session and interacted well with the document--cutting
and pasting, adding sentences, and revising others. He seemed very comfortable with the
environment. During the seventh and eighth minute of this session, there was several quick
exchanges related to adding a transitioning sentence to his concluding sentences. The following
dialogue illustrates the communication, revisions and interpersonal exchanges that occurred,
Action/
Interaction
ASL used [English Translation] Video
counter
LB signing That last sentence? … 07:15
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 110
“I prefer people should how to forgive each other and what?”
T signing [It’s messed up…not typed right.] 07:29
Tabby
revising
document
removes “ and because peace” 07:53
LB signing ok 07:54
Tabby
signing
[Do I need the last line or should I get rid of it?] 07:59
LB signing [What do you think?] 08:01
Tabby
signing
[I think…I prefer people should forgive each other and become
peace]
08:10
LB signing Right…. “become peace”...right. 08:15
Tabby
revising
document
changes “there have no peace” to “there will be peace.” 08:26
LB
gesturing &
signing
two thumbs up!
L-O-V-E-I-T!
08:32
Tabby
nodding
Yes (smiling) 08:34
LB signing [that’s challenging…adding another concluding sentence…it’s
challenging. I’m happy you succeeded.]
08:42
Tabby
signing
Yes 08:40
LB signing Understand? 08:44
Tabby
signing
[Thank God!] 08:45
LB signing [I will save it and give your more feedback tomorrow.] 08:55
Tabby
signing
Yes 08:55
LB signing [more feedback tomorrow, ok?] 08:58
Tabby
signing
Fine 08:58
Each time I recall this session, I am awed by the advances he was making both in managing the
online tutoring environment and in the progress he was making in his drafts. I was also
beginning to theorize how tutoring using technologies compared to tutoring in my office
V. In his final session (session 20), frustration surfaced but it was not due to technical or
communication difficulties. In a short period of time (6 minutes, 24 seconds), we co-constructed
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 111
an ―opinion‖ outline through numerous exchanges. I served as facilitator, encouraging him to
express his ideas and followed up by confirming and praising. I sensed he was unsure of his
responses since he phrased them as questions. For example, when I asked him if his first reason
for stating why he was against gun control was a fact or his opinion, he signed, ―opinion?‖. This
pattern continued back and forth until we got to his third detail – ―people need guns for hunting‖,
Interaction ASL used [English translation] Video
counter
LB signing [Next ….three…H-U-N-T-I-N-G, right?] 04:24
Tabby signing Yes….need food…‖a‖ - need food. 04:29
LB signing fact 04:30
Tabby signing ―b‖ enjoy… 04:39
LB signing enjoy, right. 04:41
Tabby signing opinion….eat food…ahhhhhhhhhhh…don‘t know…don‘t know! 04:51
LB signing [some people enjoy hunting] 04:59
Tabby signing opinion? 05:00
LB signing [can be opinion, some people enjoy hunting. What do you think?] 05:07
Tabby signing all right 05:08
In this highly interactive session, Tabby sought to express his ideas using another challenging
topic. Scaffolding was used to encourage him to express what he knew about the topic and
verify his understanding. This resulted in a well-developed outline which set the foundation for
a substantiated opinion paragraph.
Thus far, I have discussed the tutor and tutee‘s perspectives as they transitioned to
remote tutoring in an English class. Facilitating instruction and being able to learn remotely in
real time involves complex and demanding tasks (Chi Ng, 2007). During session 10 with Aarin,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 112
she used innovative strategies to facilitate interactions. I share these to illustrate the creativity
and comfort inherent in millennials as we transitioned to this new format.
Aarin is a particularly energetic student who is serious about her studies. She also has a
wonderful sense of humor which she infuses into everything she does. During her second remote
tutoring session involving a combination of webcam for signing and chat on the IdeaTools TM
system, Aarin surprised me with her creative use of artifacts and her interesting communication
style. Session 10 initiated when she asked for clarification for her ―classification‖ outline by
signing this question, [First point, I have Nintendo with ―who plays‖ for ―a‖. Then detail ―b‖ is
the same too, right?]. Since I was having difficulty understanding her question, I asked her to
post it in chat. Instead, she chose to display the outline she had written on a piece of paper to me
using her webcam and posting in chat, ―see it better‖? In this way, she was using the webcam as
a tool to show her draft. I understood her intended message and the session continued.
Approximately seven minutes into the session, I asked her what she wanted to describe next. At
that moment, she signals me to ―hold on‖ and reaches to pick something off the floor. She again
used the webcam as a tool to display a videogame case while pointing to the rating symbol in the
bottom left corner of the case and signed, [What do you call this?]. I was inspired by the way
she naturally used the webcam to communicate her question and marveled in the fact that this
was able to occur because she was physically in her dorm room and had access to the artifact.
Not only was this effective but it is consistent with Activity Theory and New Literacy Studies in
that remote tutoring is not a different form of tutoring but tutoring with a tool and that both occur
face-to-face.
In summary, it is important to note that both the tutor and tutee need time and training to
transition to using remote technologies for satisfying tutoring experiences. Knowing that there
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 113
are technical and instructional learning curves and that things can happen to facilitate and
prevent a satisfying experience will help users to remain open-minded when choosing the form
of tutoring that works best for them. The next section addresses the benefits students perceived
from experiencing tutoring remotely.
4.3.5 Benefits dimension. Research sub-question 5: What determines student
satisfaction with the remote-tutoring experience?
This study did not intend to measure the effectiveness of remote technology with deaf
college students. However, students‘ perceived benefits were identified from participants‘
descriptions and actions. The properties that lead to perceptions of benefits, as illustrated in
Table 4.6, will be discussed from both the tutor and students‘ perspectives in order to answer
research sub- question 5: What determines student satisfaction with the remote-tutoring
experience?
Table 4.6.
Properties of Benefits Dimension
Context Tutor’s perspective Student’s perspective
Conditions one-to-one interactions;
opportunity to develop
relationship
making the choice to access
remote tutoring; making the
choice to use face-to-face
instead or as alternate when
remote tutoring failed
Actions discussing students‘ work; co-
constructing on documents;
employing instructional
strategies; engaging in
smalltalk
discovering new knowledge;
applying instructional
strategies; easier; ―worked for
me‖; more confident
Outcomes student growth in cognitive
awareness and development;
strengthening relationships;
students might return
satisfaction with the remote
tutoring experience; better
grade; improved writing;
returning; avoiding or
choosing alternate mode
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 114
4.3.5.1 Benefits dimension - Property 1: Tutor’s perspective of benefits.
Having experienced remote tutoring for an average of six hours per week over a ten-week
period, I believe the greatest benefit was being able to interact one-to-one with 58% of my
students outside of class. Most writing teachers would attest that students benefit from
individual writing conferences (Harris, 1986). Tutoring can serve as an opportunity for highly
productive dialogues that are particularly helpful to individual students (Gordon, et.al, 2007).
Whether it is in an office or online, a trained tutor can assist with the writing process, while
focusing on each student‘s unique needs and learning style, accommodating his/her preferred
communication mode while benefitting from enhancements to the tutor-student relationship.
Activity theory posits that ―conscious learning emerges from activity‖ and ―activity is a
precursor to learning‖ (Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999, p. 62 & p. 64). This can also be used
to interpret the benefits (outcomes) perceived from remote tutoring.
The following researcher‘s notes from session 16 illustrate what I believe a satisfying
session looks like from the tutor‘s perspective,
Kadren came to discuss his outline. We reviewed his points of development and
worked on clarifying them. He was excited about being able to interact with the
document online and expressed it by sharing it with the other two students from
class who were in the dorm room with him. It was evident they all felt it was
successful. Instructional strategies included: facilitating, giving feedback, giving
directions, praising.....Kadren corrected errors, applied feedback, felt assured and
satisfied throughout session (Researcher‘s notes, Session 16).
Witnessing growth in students‘ cognitive awareness and development, and observing
their satisfaction as they display confidence in their work is rewarding. In tutor-student
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 115
interactions, tutors also have an opportunity to create and maintain affective states that are
conducive to learning (Porayska-Pomsta, Marvrikis and Pain, 2008). While it is difficult to
assess the affective states of students, the tutoring strategies I used to influence affective
conditions were identified through Dimensional Analysis: enthusiasm, encouragement,
gratitude, welcoming, supportive, approachable, admiring, kind, polite, humorous, apologetic,
honest and proud. These desirable traits transcended modality, webconferencing system and
language used. Examples included:
Waving hello; Hi! How are you?; Sorry I didn‘t see you there….; sorry about
making you wait; Thanks for waiting!; Saying please/thank you; YES!; I like that
one!; You are very convincing! (Now I want to go there); cool! I want to read it!;
I‘m excited to read about your topic!; I look forward to reading it; hands
waving…yeah, it‘s working!; I like it!; Thumbs up!; that‘s nice; Super! You go
girl!; I learned a lot; no problem! Yeah (hands waving); good luck; I am happy
you succeeded; hope so…we‘ll see but I think ―yes‖; I like your enthusiasm; Any
time; I can‘t see me or you….I‘m sad; I will wait for you; fine!; see you soon! OK
– you‘re all set! Thanks for letting me know!; You‘re welcome; See you
tomorrow; CYA; Have a nice weekend!; byeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee; bye for
now! Waving good-bye.
In addition, there are tutoring strategies and jargon that indicate praise. Depending on
modality, strategies will differ. For example, in text formats, praise was incorporated not only in
words but by using all-caps and multiple exclamations points (YES!; GREAT! Good!!!!) and
emoticons to show affect (smiley faces). Other examples of praise identified in signed sessions
included: Nice; right; good; wonderful; beautiful; perfect; interesting; wow; L-O-V-E I-T; You
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 116
did a good job; good job (thumbs up); It‘s good; Looks good; You did great; Your hook is good;
good topic; good structure; good draft; You are off to a good start. The range and types of tutor-
student interactions that support affective conditions in remote tutoring environments are not
clearly understood. Personally, I believe engaging in affective interactions in remote-tutoring
sessions has the potential to make the experience more enjoyable and increase students‘
motivation to return. In this study, offering students tutoring choices resulted in 58% of them
receiving one-to-one tutoring from me—several multiple times. I am motivated by the
possibilities increasing utilization could bring to learning outcomes and how the tutor‘s affective
orientation plays a role in this, whether it occurs online or in an office.
4.3.5.2 Benefits dimension - Property 2: Students’ perspectives of benefits.
The majority of comments related to satisfaction with the remote-tutoring experience
came from students‘ evaluations and interviews. It was here that perceived benefits were
expressed. For example, even after struggling with accessing the tutoring website and
connecting his webcam, Tabby described his rationale for wanting to use remote tutoring. In his
interview, he signed,
[I decided because I need quiet. If I‘m in the dorm and doing work, I lose
concentration if someone is talking to me, it takes longer so I go to tutoring and I
can pay attention in the quiet and it‘s easier and it saves time so I get things done
quicker.]
When asked why he accessed remote tutoring six times during the class, he signed,
[Because tutoring online is easier than walking over to meet you. It‘s easy and
quick to open my laptop and chat, do the work, and explain than walking over for
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 117
it because I feel lazy and I don‘t want to go so I open my laptop and perfect, it‘s
easy. That‘s my opinion.]
Wanting to know his opinion about traditional compared to remote tutoring, I asked Tabby if he
felt the benefits were the same or different? His response not only incorporated his feelings
about both formats, but the benefits of having a choice,
[I feel the benefits are the same but face-to-face is better because you can explain
better than online using webcam but suppose there‘s bad weather, like snow, and
you‘re stuck and can‘t go to tutoring you can easily get online tutoring so they
offer the same benefit in my opinion.]
When asked if he would like to continue using remote tutoring in the future, Tabby‘s response
addressed the transition he experienced as well as his perceived benefits,
[It‘s better than….I never experienced it , never tried it before so I tried it and
after a while got used to it…it‘s nice and easy for me.]
In his interview, Kadren also expressed the unexpected benefits he received from remote
tutoring,
[First I think I was curious to see if it would work for me or not so I decided to try
it and I was surprised…it was my first time and I thought it might be
embarrassing but it was nothing. The three of us, my friends suggested it and
encouraged me so I said ―fine‖…and I didn‘t believe it. I tried it and it worked
for me. I developed my outline and it worked better for me working with a tutor.
I was surprised.]
When asked what he liked about the experience, Kadren stated,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 118
[I liked working on the outline online, typing in the three points. It made my
grade better. I learned more, and improved my writing better over not getting
help.]
Hopefully, benefitting from a remote-tutoring experience will encourage students to continue
accessing some form of tutoring for their coursework.
Notably, some students had personal reasons for not wanting to access tutoring. Since
students are not required to receive tutoring, having an array of choices may motivate them to
access it and reap the advantages. Given options, they may be willing to try it and in return,
receive some benefit. Lyrik articulates her thoughts regarding access to and benefits from her
remote tutoring experience,
Lyrik: [It was my first time using online tutoring in college. I had experienced it
(in high school) but in college, I‘m independent and sometimes I don‘t ask for
help because I‘m smart but it was my first time experiencing online with you and
it‘s a cool idea. I got some feedback and some help so I understood it clearer and
it improved my grades.]
Not everyone felt they received benefits from their remote tutoring experience. Preslee reported
that she preferred in-office tutoring but nevertheless used remote tutoring on two occasions. In
her interview, we discussed what happened during the first session that caused us to abort the
session and meet in my office instead,
Researcher: (referring to attempts to connect her webcam to Adobe® Connect Pro
7 TM
) I remember you were motivated to resolve the problem…you tried and tried
to open the webcam so we could see each other, but it didn‘t work. Finally, we
gave up…we had to give up because it was too frustrating.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 119
Preslee: headnod – [Yes. The webcam didn‘t work. It opened, but I couldn‘t see
my sign, the webcam display didn‘t work.]
Even after having a less-than satisfying remote tutoring experience, Preslee stated that she still
liked the idea of tutoring remotely,
[Yes, I really do. I like the idea of using VP for tutoring to take advantage of
signing, especially when the lab tutors are busy.]
In summary, allowing students to have remote tutoring as a choice may result in greater
satisfaction with the tutoring experience and thereby increase the potential that users would
return. Even though measuring the benefits of remote tutoring was not the goal of this study, it
should be recognized that users expressed satisfaction by returning to remote tutoring and
described benefits to their level of confidence, homework drafts, and grades, and reflected fondly
on the experience. The next section describes the third relevant dimension identified in the
explanatory matrix – sharing experiences.
4.3.6 Sharing experiences dimension. Research sub-question 4: In what ways, if
any, do students’ identities influence their participation in remote tutoring?
The Deaf community is a collectivist society; that is, they are group oriented (Mindess,
2006). A sociocultural view of deafness views language and discourse as components of social
relationships embedded in social practices (Lane, 2005). In this view, learning occurs through
interaction with others and the individual‘s cognitive development is a direct result of interacting
in social groups (Vygotsky, 1987). A language-learning view of deafness highlights the fact that
the language of the Deaf community (ASL) is acquired visually and forms the foundation for a
shared culture and identity. In essence, "sign language binds Deaf people together and
ultimately serves to sustain a community of, by, and for Deaf people" (Jankowski, 1997, p. 38).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 120
For Deaf people, accessibility to communication is paramount and keeping others
informed is an expectation in Deaf culture since ―Sharing information is the norm in the Deaf
community‖ (Smith, Lentz & Mikos, 1988, p. 35) and withholding information is considered
rude (Mindess, 2006). This could include sharing academic successes, such as, receiving
tutoring remotely. Approximately half way through the study, I began noticing occurrences of
students sharing aspects of the remote tutoring experience with others. Some of these acts were
intentional; others were subtle. Nevertheless, recurring instances of ―sharing the remote tutoring
experiences with others‖ was influencing students‘ choice of utilizing remote tutoring in my
classes. The explanation of this dimension, along with its properties illustrated in Table 4.7, also
serves to answer sub-question four: In what ways, if any, do students’ identities influence their
participation in the remote tutoring process?
Table 4.7
Properties of Sharing Experiences Dimension
Context Meeting obligations Informing others
Conditions being in same lab or dorm room; discovering something new;
encouraging others
Actions showing webconferencing space
to others; asking others if they
need access; asking ―others if
they would like it‖
inviting classmates to view site;
showing session to others
Outcomes sharing struggles; sharing
successes; offering access
increased number of users; recurring
use
4.3.6.1 Sharing experiences dimension - Property 1: Meeting obligations.
The first instance of ―sharing with others‖ occurred during session 6 with Tabby. During
the eighteenth minute of our session, I asked him to ―hold‖ while I saved and returned his draft
to him so he could redo it for homework. It wasn‘t until later when I was reviewing the recorded
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 121
session for analysis that I noticed the following (Session 6 researcher‘s notes),
While I was focusing on sending his paragraph back to him through the course
management system (idea3), he was showing the webconferencing room to
another student in the class. (They were both in the lab at the same time…she
sitting behind him – kitty corner.) He got her attention and explained to her how
he struggled to get the webcam to work but finally got it. She came over to the
monitor and they viewed it together. He was wearing a look of relief and
confidence. I enjoyed watching him share the experience with another student in
the class. Perhaps this will encourage her to try it too.
In another example, while working with Tabby (session 20), Easton stuck his head in
front of the webcam and fingerspelled, ―H-I‖ and signed something. When I told Tabby that I
didn‘t understand what Easton signed, Tabby signed, ―help-me‖ (referring to what Easton
signed) and then turned to Easton and signed [Do you need help with English?]. In this
exchange, Tabby felt compelled to assess Easton‘s need to access tutoring thereby supporting the
theory of learning as social activity. Incidentally, Easton did access remote tutoring with me
from his dorm room later that same evening.
A third example, alluded to earlier in this chapter, occurred in Lyrik‘s interview when she
stated she ―would ask others to see if they would like it‖ thereby providing a mechanism to
spread the word and let students decide for themselves. In this case, she was meeting her
obligation by suggesting we inform other deaf students about the remote-tutoring service so they
could access it, if desired.
4.3.6.2 Sharing experiences dimension – Property 2: Informing others.
There were two subsequent sessions that occurred as a direct result of students observing
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 122
remote-tutoring sessions or being encouraged to access it by others. An example of this occurred
in session 16, when Kadren, after being encouraged by Tabby to try it, discovered how to draft
his document using the IdeaTools TM
remote tutoring system. What follows are the exchanges
that led to this discovery,
Action/
Interaction
ASL used
[English translation]
Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
LB:
highlights
―body‖
[For detail “a”, what do you
mean, body?]
4:25 asking for clarification
1. Cause, Shape up
a. body
b. Examples
Kadren
signs
[Okay. That means keep the
body straight and trim.]
4:52
LB signs;
pointing to
displayed
document
[Can you type it, add it there?] 5:08
Kadren
signs
Points to his monitor (off screen) 5:13 Lack of familiarity
LB signs;
pointing to
monitor
See if you can type it there. 5:14 Encouraging
Kadren
posts in
chat
body keep straight and show
body look good
5:53 Misunderstood directions
LB posts in
chat
Can you type on the screen? next
to the yellow highlight?
5:58 Directing
Kadren
places the
cursor next
to the
highlighted
word and
signs
Perfect (got it). 6:18 Discovery
Kadren
Deletes
BODY
6:27 Revising; applying feedback
LB signs Perfect 6:33 Praising
Kadren
motions for
Kadren types [keep straight];
Signs ―Nice…‖
6:34 Sharing discovery with
Easton;
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 123
Easton who looks
over K‘s
shoulder
at monitor.
….looking at Easton, Kadren
signs ―TYPING‖ while pointing
to the monitor
Beginning use of interacting
with content
Tabby joins, also
looks at
monitor (all
three are
viewing
together)…
6:53 Sharing discovery with others
LB posts in
chat
Hi Easton! 6:57 Acknowledging other
classmates in the dorm room.
Tabby signs
NICE!!!! 6:58 Tabby‘s response
Kadren
types and
signs
A. Body keep straight and show
body look good
Good.
7:02 1. Cause, Shape up
A. Body keep straight
and show body look
good.
B. Examples
This episode, with its evidence of discovering, sharing and revising, was a pivotal
moment in remote tutoring for all four of us. In a mere four-and-a-half minutes, Kadren, who
was encouraged to try remote tutoring by Tabby, discovered how to actively revise his work on
the displayed document, and then proceeded to share that discovery with his two classmates. It
was evident that all felt the ability to integrate with the document was beneficial. Perhaps due to
this turning point, Kadren continued to access remote tutoring two more times; Tabby three more
times; and Easton came once before the end of the course. This ripple effect highlights the power
of sharing news with others and reinforces the theory of learning as a social practice.
And finally, in his interview, Kadren referred to the fact that it was his classmates who
encouraged him to try remote tutoring and that he was surprised how much it helped. This
illustrates the role other Deaf people play in letting others know about something they benefitted
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 124
from and indicates the influence of deaf identity on participating in remote tutoring.
In summary, informing others and sharing experiences are typical actions by members of
the Deaf community so it came as no surprise to me that students were discussing their
experiences (good and bad) with each other. I was however enlightened from observing this
behavior during actual remote-tutoring sessions possibly indicating how deaf identity may
influence students‘ participation in remote tutoring. Nevertheless, further exploration is needed
to confirm this relationship in order to foster its potential.
4.4 Conclusion
My approach to tutoring has been strongly influenced by the ways Deaf people
communicate and share information which has guided my understanding and support for the
language and culture of Deaf people. I also believe optimal learning can occur when students are
engaged in activities of discovery and meaning making. Knowing that deaf students have
varying levels of literacy skills, language preferences (English vs ASL), and communication
abilities (spoken vs signed) is critical to interacting with them effectively in a classroom or in
tutoring situations. With this knowledge, I expect to learn with my students and share
discoveries with others hoping the message will spread so that others may benefit too.
In this chapter, the explanatory matrix, with its central perspective of Choices and three
relevant dimensions: Transitioning, Benefits, and Sharing Experiences, was narrated to present
the findings of this study as a grounded theory in support of offering remote tutoring as a choice
for deaf college students. In doing so, I have theorized that remote tutoring is comparable to
traditional tutoring using technologies as the mediating tool. Whether it‘s provided in one‘s
office or through a webconferencing site, both are similar in delivery of instruction and
perceived benefits. Offering tutoring choices has the potential to expand opportunities to support
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 125
students‘ literacy development. Chapter Five will discuss the action research cycles and in doing
so, will also describe the two remote tutoring systems used in this study. Chapter Six will present
conclusions as well as lay the foundation for continued dialogue and future research
considerations for offering remote tutoring as a choice for deaf college students.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 126
Chapter Five
Impact of Action Research
5.1 Overview
Remote tutoring as a support service to deaf college students involves teaching in a
digital landscape (Meloncon, 2007). In order to become adept, delivering tutoring in unfamiliar
spaces requires planning, acting, observing and evaluating. As a result, the decision to use
Action Research methodology in this study was deliberate. In this chapter, I will provide a
description of the action research cycles that occurred in this study; then I will discuss the next
stage of action research; after that, I will describe the implications of this study on my tutoring
practices; and finally, I will present an action plan for piloting remote tutoring services to deaf
college students in English classes at my college.
5.2 Action Research Cycles
In action research, ―Researchers need to analyze the results of the first phases of the
research process to identify the particular features of the situation affecting the problem, and to
formulate effective strategies for its resolution‖ (Stringer, 2008, p. 149). As described in Chapter
Three, the planning stage of action research cycle(s) involved preparations for securing and
promoting ways for students to receive remote tutoring. The action stage involved the delivery
of remote tutoring and the observation stage involved analyzing data from recorded sessions and
evaluations. This was then taken into consideration during the reflecting stage to determine if
and how emerging technological, pedagogical and/or communications issues affected the remote
tutoring process. In this 10-week study, two action research cycles occurred. Table 5.1 shows
which sessions occurred in each cycle. Embedded in each cycle were mini-cycles that addressed
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 127
the adjustments made to the tutoring process. What follows is a description of the two action
research cycles that occurred.
Table 5.1
Remote Tutoring Sessions by Cycle and Format
Format Adobe® Connect
Pro 7TM
(7 sessions)
IdeaTools TM
(11 sessions)
Email & VP
(4 sessions)
Sessions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 8, 9, 22 & 15
Timeframe Weeks 1 – 5
(Cycle 1)
Weeks 5 – 10
(Cycle 2)
Weeks 1 – 10
(Cycle 1 & 2)
5.2.1 Cycle one - Adobe® Connect Pro 7
TM system.
The study began with remote tutoring offered using the Adobe® Connect Pro 7
TM
webconferencing system previously described in Chapter Three. The ―planning‖ part of this
cycle was initiated during the study proposal process. Prior to creating the webconferencing
tutoring room, I became educated in the design and use of this system in order to utilize its
features successfully. This included meeting with online learning specialists, attending
professional development workshops and one-on-one training, and reviewing materials published
by the manufacturer. All of these resources were accessed prior to and during the study, as
needed. The ―acting‖ part of this cycle began during week one of the study, when the online
meeting space was demonstrated and remote tutoring was initiated with students enrolled in my
English classes. The action, evaluation and reflection phases of cycle one continued through
week five of the study. During cycle one, there were problems connecting webcams, problems
with audio wizard and problems reading chat and documents due to small font size. These were
confirmed by student evaluations, researcher‘s session notes and student interviews, and twice,
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 128
sessions were aborted and traditional tutoring was provided in my office (sessions 5 & 6). When
reflecting on the size of the font, Preslee commented in her interview held in week 5: [… it was
tiny and I didn’t like it because it was hard to see]. In session 6 with Tabby, it took thirteen
minutes to begin the session due to webcam connecting, document sharing and font-size
problems. In addition to these issues, the fact we had not been able to co-construct on shared
documents felt debilitating. Researcher‘s fieldnotes, session notes, students‘ evaluations and
interviews were used to assess the practicality of using this system as intended. Since one of the
objectives of remote tutoring for this class was that sessions be interactive, the search for a
different webconferencing system began in week 5 bringing an end to cycle one.
5.2.2 Cycle two - IdeaToolsTM
system.
In action research, the researcher uses the knowledge obtained from the previous cycle
and applies it to identified problems. ―Utilizing a reflective process, this transition allows the
researcher to modify actions, look for new understanding from emerging data, reflect on its
interpretation with the hope of improving teaching practices‖ (Stringer, 2008, p. 147). The
planning of cycle two began during week 5 with investigating and learning how to use the video
chat room feature created within the course management system. The IdeaTools™ system was
not originally proposed for this study because it was not yet available. According to its
developers, the IdeaTools™ Video Chat Room was created so that students could meet with each
other to discuss class assignments and projects, as needed. The notion to use the IdeaTools™
Video Chat Room as a remote-tutoring site was not realized until I requested its use from its
developers.
During weeks 6 - 10, the following issues were noted with the IdeaTools™ system:
connecting webcams was easier, shared documents were easier to read, and we were able to
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 129
easily co-construct on documents when posted by the instructor. During session 11, Tabby
provided the following unsolicited compliment: [Seeing this tutoring, better than before] (07:37).
When asked to clarify if he liked it better, he signed ―Yes, better‖ (07:43). During his interview
in week 10, I asked him to compare the two systems, [brackets indicate English translations]
Researcher: [I don‘t know if you noticed the two ways. At the beginning of the
quarter, I used one way, the last three times I used a different way…did you
notice a difference, do you remember?]
Tabby: [I understand…yes, I think…the first time I contacted you, we were
typing because the webcam didn‘t work so we texted and I was looking around
and couldn‘t find the webcam…I could see you, but you couldn‘t see me.]
Researcher: I remember that.
Tabby: [Later, I‘m looking for webcam and can‘t find anything then I find a
small, tiny icon and open it…it was frustrating because I couldn‘t see it…then
recently, with the new system it‘s easy…I click and the screen opens and then
click remote tutoring and click open the webcam which is easy to find…so much
better than before looking all over and before trying to send things to show you, I
couldn‘t figure that out but now I can send things to you and they open and we
can type on it much easier than before.]
Preslee also commented that she liked the IdeaTools system better in her session 12 evaluation,
1. Why did you come to tutoring today? Because I did struggle to my homework.
2. Did you have any problems with y our computer or your internet connection
during this session? No, I didn't.
3. Did you have any problems with your webcam? No, I didn't.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 130
4. Do you like this online software better than the first one we tried? Yes, I do
[referring to IdeaTools system]. For online without webcam the letter need
big[ger] for homework online [referring to Adobe Connect system].
5. Based on this experience, would you use online tutoring again for this class?
Maybe
Even though users‘ reactions were mostly positive, there were problems using the
IdeaTools Video Chat Room as well. These included the inability to move and resize features
and the inability for students to upload documents; both of which could be done with the Adobe®
Connect system. When asked for ideas to make remote tutoring better, Tabby summarized his
recommendations as follows,
[I think what you‘re doing is fine where I send it to you and you show it to me
and we type on it, but I would prefer to set it up myself and we look at it together
and type…that would be easier than sending it to you first…I think you can add
that.] (Interview with Tabby)
Thus, being able to collaborate on documents was perceived to be beneficial; and the desire to
upload and save one‘s own documents was seen as desirable.
When the course ended in week 10, action research cycle 2 was terminated. Unresolved
issues included: students uploading documents, being able to limit access to one user at a time,
and disconnecting in fewer steps. If I were to continue investigating the use of this video chat
room for remote tutoring with students in my English classes, I would address these issues with
the system‘s developers as well as pursue other systems with better video capability, document
integration and responsiveness.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 131
5.3 Next Stages of Action Research
Ideally, action research should result in an action plan that will be implemented and
further evaluated. This requires creating a plan to implement changes or directions for further
work based on findings (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009, p. 594). Stringer (2008) discusses how to do
this in a systematic way by listing tasks and resources; developing action steps; defining
problems (i.e., poor video quality); and stating clear objectives (p. 150).
Different kinds of learning demand appropriate strategies, tools and resources (Wagner,
2008). Selecting the right remote tutoring tool is crucial to implementing a distance tutoring
program that will result in improved academic success, retention and satisfaction by its users
(Valdes-Corbeil & Corbeil, 2007). To address issues and problems identified in the action
research cycles, there are several factors to consider: accessibility; costs; ease of use, clear video
for sign language and lipreading; good audio; chat feature; ability to move and resize features;
ability to customize layouts; ability to upload, integrate and save documents; ability to share
desktops; and ability to record sessions. Finding a system that can provide this is challenging.
Duhl (2003, p. 6) lists the technical attributes needed to provide high-quality, interactive
online experiences:
• Utilize a ubiquitous client to maximize the audience reach.
• Run unchanged across the Internet on multiple platforms.
• Execute well across low- or high-bandwidth connections.
• Restore processing power (not just rendering capabilities) to the client.
• Deliver engaging user interfaces with a high degree of interactivity.
• Represent processes, data configuration, and feedback complexity.
• Utilize audio, video images and text in a seamless manner.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 132
• Support the mobile workflow by allowing users to work online and offline.
• Allow the client to determine what content or data to access and when.
• Allow for the incremental addition of new functions to existing web
applications and environments to get the most out of existing web application
investments.
These attributes, coupled with the unique features needed to support the communication
and learning needs of deaf college students, makes the task more complicated indeed. Gallaudet
University, the largest Liberal Arts college for the deaf in the world, has investigated the use of
webconferencing tools but as recently as June, 2010, has not found one capable of producing
adequate video and captioning for this purpose (King & Parks, 2010). ―Efforts to use web
conferencing tools more extensively have typically been stymied by the lack of multi-party video
options, low video quality, accessibility challenges for deaf and hard of hearing students, and
technological complexities‖ (p. 3). They too are searching for the optimal webconferencing
application for distance learning with deaf college students.
Considering these factors and the challenges caused by poor video quality, the next stage
of action research would be to offer remote tutoring using higher quality video conferencing
software, such as NefsisTM
(Nefsis Corporation, 2008), and examine how it affects my tutoring
practices. Advantages include higher-quality video playback through low round-trip latency
using cloud computing. Features include layouts that can be optimized for users; features that
can be moved and resized; desktops, documents and applications that can be shared and
collaborated; and standard audio hardware. A snapshot of this videoconferencing system is also
included in Appendix E. Disadvantages include moderate-to-high initial costs and on-going
licensing costs. Touted as the ―next-generation video conferencing software and online service
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 133
solution designed for effortless business-to-business online meetings‖ (Nefsis White Paper,
2010, p. 3), the next phase of action research will investigate its potential as a remote tutoring
system. Thus, utilizing Nefsis videoconferencing with deaf college students in my next English
class is the action plan for the next cycle.
Ultimately, for remote tutoring with deaf college students to be utilized, students have to
perceive benefits. If given the choice to access remote tutoring, ease of use, clear communication
and interactive learning could motivate students to try it. If satisfied, users may inform others as
well as return for additional remote tutoring sessions thereby contributing to a successful
learning experience.
5.4 Implications on My Tutoring Practices
This action research study set out to examine all that was happening in remote tutoring
with deaf college students in order to address the research question: How does using remote
tutoring with deaf college students affect my tutoring practices? In order to respond to the
demands placed by the remote-tutoring environment, remote tutors perform different roles and
need different competencies to fulfill each one (White, Murphy, Shelley & Baumann, 2005
Consistent with New Literacy Studies, I have developed a repertoire of practices pertaining to
the technical, communication, instructional and socio-affective aspects needed for a successful
remote-tutoring experience. The following discussion highlights their impacts on my tutoring
practices.
5.4.1 Technical impacts.
The digital age is characterized by challenge and change. Remote tutors need exposure
and training in using technologies for instruction beyond competencies in basic computing skills
(i.e., basic operating systems, word processing, internet navigation, and email basics). They need
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 134
training in the specific software utilized to deliver tutoring online in order to become familiar
with its particular affordances and limitations. Realizing the impact proper technical training has
on successful remote-tutoring practices, I will continue to develop competencies in this area
through training and ongoing professional development. This involves participating in tutorials,
working with support technicians and practicing with technologies prior to delivering remote-
tutoring instruction. Possessing knowledge beyond familiarity is necessary in order to feel
comfortable with technology to facilitate instruction through it. Using a reflective process,
problems can be identified and addressed. Ultimately, this information can be shared with others
interested in providing tutoring remotely, moving online pedagogy beyond ―dealing with
technical problems‖ to delivering student-centered tutoring instruction.
In addition to improving my own practices in technologies related to remote tutoring,
students need to be exposed to and trained in its use due to their varying levels of expertise and
familiarity with remote-tutoring systems as instructional tools. Ultimately, the goal is to ensure
technology does not detract from the learning experience. Therefore, I would include
demonstrations and printed materials as resources, such as, ―how to‖ access the remote tutoring
site, how to upload a document, and how to connect your webcam in order to address some of
the problems that have occurred thus far. All of these demonstrations would be recorded in ASL
with captions and supporting screenshots and posted on the course management system. In an
effort to expose students to the concept of remote tutoring, I would assign a time for interested
students to visit me in the remote-tutoring space, orient them to various layouts and use this
meeting as an opportunity to discuss their preferred format and communication modes.
Hopefully this will raise their awareness of its potential and make them feel comfortable with the
environment. Fundamentally, remote tutoring can only be delivered successfully if the tutor
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 135
believes in the benefits technology affords the tutoring process, can manage the technology well,
and is comfortable enough with, and perhaps even excited about it, to encourage students to use
it (Volery & Lord, 2000).
5.4.2 Communication impacts.
Upon reflecting on this study, several questions related to communication modalities and
strategies emerged: Have communication tools been utilized efficiently? Has the choice of
modalities effectively supported activities? Which communication strategies support varying
formats? What have I learned from this experience that will facilitate communication in future
remote tutoring sessions? These are the questions I contemplate as I consider communication
impacts related to remote tutoring with deaf college students.
There are several ways to communicate when tutoring to deaf college students remotely.
Depending on the format used (synchronous or asynchronous) and users‘ access to computer
peripherals, remote-tutoring communication will vary. Therefore, the tutor has to be prepared to
accommodate students‘ communication choices for email, chat, videophone, and webcam (with
and without voice). In this study, I applied what I knew about communicating with deaf students
in my traditional-tutoring sessions to my video-mediated and text-only remote-tutoring sessions.
Minimally, both the traditional and remote-tutoring environments require native or near-native
signing competency, an awareness of deaf students‘ linguistic diversity, and knowledge of Deaf
culture in order to communicate successfully when tutoring with this population.
In this study, I experienced the advantages and disadvantages of text-based remote
tutoring formats. One advantage is it may allow for a more reflective, meaningful message by
both the tutor and tutee. Another advantage is the fact that students‘ answers to questions are
provided in writing, giving the tutor an opportunity to provide feedback to something drafted in
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 136
its written form. The disadvantage, however, is the time elapsed between emails and the feelings
of disconnectedness that occur in both email and chat-only formats. Also, since written English
can be difficult for some deaf students to comprehend, tutoring solely through text may cause
misunderstandings that might be avoided if supplemented using sign language. To avoid
misunderstanding using text only formats, I crafted responses by keeping them short and
adapting them to the student‘s language level. I also checked for understanding often and
encouraged students to co-construct as much of their drafts as possible during text-based remote
tutoring sessions.
For sessions using webcams and videophones, the communication strategies used to
repair misunderstandings and miscues included repeating and rephrasing. Both the tutor and
tutee have the responsibility to ensure that signed and spoken communications were understood.
Confirming understanding was done by repeating what was asked or stated. When breakdowns
occurred, rephrasing the question or response was effective. Checking to ensure the student
received the message lets the tutor know they can continue. Consequently, confirming
understanding, rephrasing responses and checking comprehension are used similarly in remote
tutoring as they are in traditional tutoring environments. I recognized the significance of this
when noting 29 references to ―checking understanding‖ associated with 14 different sources
from coded data. Typically, this involved asking students if they had any questions; and
signing/posting ―understand?‖ and ―ok?‖. Also, ―confirming‖ was coded 58 times from 20
different sources indicating the frequency with which information was confirmed during remote
tutoring sessions. This was typically done by repeating signed information; asking students if
they could see the displayed document and if the font was large enough; confirming responses to
questions by repeating them; confirming topics and directions, as needed.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 137
Another strategy that I tended to incorporate into video-mediated communication was
incorporating text in the chat feature when emphasis or clarification was needed. I found this to
be particularly effective when used in combination with signed communication to ensure the
message was understood properly or to add directions to the signed message. For example, in
session 6, I signed to Tabby that I would be sending his draft back to him and then I posted,
―Okay I sent it back…‖ (18:33). ―You can redo it and then submit it to me again!‖ (18:45). This
way, he had clear directions for what to do. I believe it is an effective way to clarify or
emphasize information when using sign language as the main mode of communication,
especially if checking for comprehension or giving directions.
In conclusion, being able to communicate clearly using text, ASL and spoken
communication when delivering tutoring to deaf college students remotely is crucial. Having the
proper skills and strategies takes time to develop and practice. Successfully coping with these
challenges requires that tutors develop their communication skills and strategies to meet remote-
tutoring expectations.
5.4.3 Pedagogical impacts.
How tutors use technology to reach students and impact learning is also critical to
learning successfully. ―Online education is defined as an approach to learning and teaching that
utilizes new technology to communicate and collaborate in an educational context‖ (Aksal,
2009) and in the context of this study, I have reflected on the instructional skills and strategies
needed to successfully deliver tutoring remotely. Pedagogical expertise needed includes: being
able to accommodate students‘ different learning styles, give examples, offer useful models, use
coaching/mentoring skills, use scaffolding skills, and encourage students to locate and use
resources (Gerrard, 2002). Applying social constructivist strategies, the tutor‘s role changes
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 138
from authority to facilitator while providing an adequate framework for students to learn. The
remote tutor must choose the right strategy, materials and activities to support the needs of
individual students. Aspects of tutors‘ role encompass answering queries, clarifying points,
diagnosing misconceptions, providing alternative explanations, assisting students to relate
material to their individual situations, and helping with the application and practice of principles
(Chan, 2002). Teaching with technologies also recognizes the importance of literacy as a social
construct whose essential features vary depending on context, ―As with post-structuralist
understandings of language, literacy cannot be understood independently of the context in which
it is situated‖ (Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004, p. 27). This constructivist approach to tutoring
embraces elements of the sociocultural theory as it emphasizes learning with the help of a
mediator regardless of tutoring form (traditional or remote). Shifting from text-based to digital-
based mediums will require remote tutors to receive training in facilitating instruction, evaluating
progress, and managing technology while communicating effectively. This training is critical if
remote tutoring is to be successful.
As a tutor/facilitator, there is a delicate balance between guiding a student when using
text-only modes and providing too much direction. I noticed this particularly in asynchronous
email-tutoring sessions where my responses tended to be less co-constructive as compared to
synchronous sessions. For example, in session 22 with Saba, there were seven emails exchanged.
In this session, Saba was requesting help with his cause and effect outline,
Action/
interaction
Transcript of email Researcher’s comments
Third email
from Saba on
10/26 at 7:33
pm
From: Saba
Sent: Wednesday, October 26, 2010
7:33 PM
To: Linda M Bryant
I am not sure what his topic is….
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 139
Okay, I didn't catch what you just
said about my homework. I wrote
down saying walk with a dog for
causes and benefits for losing weight
and staying healthy for results. What
should I write down in the sentence
of causes/effect, A and B.
I. walk with a dog, benefiting lose
weight and stay in shape.
a. walking with a dog
b. for example, walking with a dog
would be good for your healthy and
stay in shape.
Fourth email
response to
Saba on 10/26
at 8:19 pm
On Wed, Oct 26, 2010 at 8:19 PM,
Linda M Bryant wrote: Hi Saba!
What is your topic? Are you listing
the causes (reasons why) or effects
(results)?
There was almost an hour between his
last email and this response as I was
busy providing remote tutoring with
other students during that time.
Fifth email
from Saba on
10/26 at 8:22
pm
From: Saba
Sent: Wednesday, October 26, 2010
8:22 PM
Linda, My topic is exercise. I'm
listing the causes.
Sixth email
response to
Saba on 10/26
at 8:25 pm
On Wed, Oct 26, 2010 at 8:25 PM,
Linda M Bryant wrote:
Cause 1 – walking dogs
a. Describe what this means (as it
relates to exercise)
b. Provide an example (perhaps
from personal experience or from
what you know about this cause)
Then do it again for Cause 2 and
Cause 3
Using his details from his email above, I
provided the following response.
Seventh email
from Saba on
10/26 at 8:41
pm
From: Saba
Sent: Wednesday, October 26, 2010
8:41 PM
Okay, thank you! See you tomorrow
Although he seems to have received the
information he was looking for, my
response is more directive than co-
constructive. I will have to think of
better strategies to use for this type of
tutoring.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 140
In the future, I will reconsider my approach to tutoring asynchronously using email. Instead of
providing directions, I need to model, give feedback and/or encouragement and refer students to
course materials. I want to ensure that exchanges go beyond limited, dyadic transactions to
interactive interactions. This could also manifest feelings of connectedness, often lost in text-
only exchanges.
To facilitate student independence and foster students‘ critical thinking and self-directed
continuous learning, tutors should guide students in their thinking, stimulating them to be
reflective, carefully reasoning thinkers and guiding them to become independent learners. The
instructional strategies that have impacted me are: accommodate individual differences, such as,
language level, learning style, communication mode and prior knowledge; encourage
collaboration and keep sessions interactive; motivate students by keeping them engaged in work
that is relevant; and help students feel confident about their work and satisfied with the tutoring
experience. As one can see, these instructional strategies are consistent with delivering tutoring
traditionally and remotely further supporting the theory that remote tutoring is face-to-face
tutoring using technologies as a tool. Given this interpretation, it stands to reason that students
would choose remote tutoring as a support service, garner the benefits and encourage others to
do the same.
5.4.4 Socio-affective impacts.
In general, tutoring becomes a valuable intervention when the time it occurs is deemed
useful or relevant to student‘s current and immediate needs. Remote tutoring, and the choices it
offers, has the potential of providing instruction at times most responsive to students. In addition,
if learning is a social activity structured in interpersonal interactions, the established relationship
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 141
between tutor and student should also be favorable to learners. A tutor‘s personality is a major
factor affecting the tutoring experience; however, it is a largely unexplored context in distance
education (Chan, 2002). Therefore, good tutoring requires a repertoire of appropriate
interpersonal practices including an appreciation for the affective orientation needed to promote
a satisfying experience (Scherer & Binder, 1989). Action research allowed me to reflect on the
way I delivered tutoring remotely involving the tutor-student interactions that encompassed the
relational ethic of caring.
In the context of this study, I have learned the importance of creating a positive affective
orientation within the remote-tutoring environment. As such, I paid attention to the desirable
qualities that support this state including: flexible, open minded, enthusiastic, committed, patient,
friendly, respectful, honest, attentive, approachable, empowering, encouraging, supportive,
empathetic, humble and humorous (Murphy, Shelley, White & Baumann, 2006). Due to the
complexities involved in providing tutoring remotely, it is possible to overlook some of these
qualities when attempting to provide instruction using unfamiliar formats and technologies.
However, I found the experience to be more enjoyable and satisfying when these desirable tutor
qualities occurred and resulted in positive tutor-student relationships. For instance, in session 10,
after discussing her classification outline, Aarin showed her appreciation along with her sense of
humor during the closing exchanges,
Action/
interaction
English transcript Video
counter
Researcher’s comments
LB gesturing thumbs up (one hand) 11:36 encouraging
Aarin
gesturing
thumbs up (two hands) 11:37 agreeing
LB gesturing thumbs up (two hands)
O-K?
11:38 confirming
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 142
Aarin signing Thanks 12:00 showing appreciation
LB signing Great! Type it and send to me. 12:06 giving follow-up directions
Aarin posting
in chat
Aarin is OUTTTTTTT!!!! 12:08 announcing her departure.
LB posting in
chat
CYA 12:16 saying good bye
Aarin: posting
in chat and
waving
ciao 12:20 –
12:23
showing her humor and personality.
Instead of waving ―bye‖, she types
―ciao‖ and then waves bye near her
face with her right hand – waving
fingers (flirtatiously)
LB signing Thanks….bye! 12:24/
End
closing session
Upon reflection, this kind of exchange occurred because a positive affective orientation
was exercised during the remote-tutoring session. Similar to traditional tutoring sessions, I
believe when students feel that tutors care about their success, encourage their efforts and are
attentive to their needs, they will have a more satisfying experience and are more apt to return.
Thus, successful remote tutoring involves more than simply teaching with technologies. It
requires acknowledging the benefits that providing a welcoming and supportive learning
environment contribute to tutoring outcomes and ensuring these desirable qualities are
incorporated.
In conclusion, my tutoring strategies and techniques have been impacted by this study in
a number of ways. I now believe it is possible to have a satisfying remote-tutoring experience by
giving students choices: when to receive tutoring, how to receive it, from whom and which
communication mode to use. In addition, I realize there is a learning curve for both tutor and
tutee when offering remote tutoring as a support service and thus, initial and ongoing training
must be provided if it is to be successful. With proper training and practice, both tutor and tutee
can benefit from its use. Therefore, as a next step, I have developed a remote-tutoring proposal
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 143
incorporating all that I have learned from my remote-tutoring experiences. What follows is an
action plan for the implementation of remote-tutoring services as a choice for deaf college
students in other English classes.
5.5 Action Plan - Piloting Remote Tutoring Services for Deaf Students in English Classes
One goal of action research is to develop an action plan to address identified outcomes
(Aksal, 2009). To this end, I have developed a proposal to pilot the provision of remote tutoring
services as a choice to deaf college students in other English classes at my college. This pilot
will explore the use of deaf peer tutors utilizing distance learning technologies. ―Peer tutoring is
instructional assistance provided by one student to another usually for the general purpose of
academic skill improvement‖ (Foster-Harrison, 1997, p. 9); however, peer tutors also serve to
motivate and empower students as learners (Gordon, 2005). Remote tutoring will be offered in
conjunction with existing traditional tutoring services offered through our college Learning
Center. Using peer tutors, under the supervision of a tutor-coordinator affiliated with the English
Department, facilitates ongoing action research within a community of practitioners. A draft
outlining the implementation of this project is detailed below.
Action Plan for implementing remote tutoring in English classes.
I. Goal To provide remote tutoring as a choice for deaf college students enrolled in
English classes during Academic Year, 2011-2012.
II. Program Objective
To provide one-to-one remote tutoring using webconferencing or
videoconferencing software, email, or videophones as choices using existing peer
tutors employed by the college‘s Learning Center.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 144
III. Instructional Objectives
Provide interactive, student-centered tutoring using digital technologies;
Provide opportunities for reinforcement of course concepts and skills;
Increase the probability of student‘s success using social constructivist teaching
strategies, i.e., modeling, coaching and scaffolding;
Facilitate students becoming independent learners.
IV. Main components
A. Tutors – training on digital technologies and online instruction, tutoring, ongoing support
and training, and evaluation/feedback
B. Tutees – information on choices for tutoring, training on digital technologies,
evaluation/feedback
C. Administration – offer training to tutors and tutees; advertise/promote all services;
provide access to technology to students, if needed (use of lab equipment and loans);
coordinate tutoring schedule; monitor tutoring; evaluate tutoring; collect feedback from
tutors/tutees; evaluate program at 5 weeks and 10 weeks.
V. Recommendations
A. Develop and implement a training program for tutors incorporating the following areas:
(1) program operation related to a project and its goals;
(2) school & site culture, aimed at helping tutors interact with and contribute to the
educational goals;
(3) training in digital technologies, including email tutoring; using chat, webcams and
videophones for remote tutoring;
(4) training in providing remote tutoring in educational content areas; and
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 145
(5) training that builds positive relationships with learners.
(6) evaluation of tutor training that takes place immediately after training, in weekly
meetings, and after tutoring sessions. These may include written evaluations, reflection
activities, informal questions, feedback, and discussion, pre- and post-session measures
of participants‘ skills or knowledge and self-assessment checklists.
B. Plan promotional advertisements of remote tutoring services including flyers, posters, and
website announcements. Create a schedule for the program which includes the hours of
operation, locations and remote tutoring options.
C. Instruction: Tutors should engage students through active learning by helping students to
understand course materials; discussing and clarifying assignments; exploring and
organizing their ideas; learning how to check and evaluate their own work; and guiding
students to become independent and successful learners, while providing encouragement
and support.
D. Program Evaluation:
(1) Measure utilization of students who use remote tutoring from lab-based services,
indicating their technology and communication preferences.
(2) Obtain feedback from students after sessions.
(3) Obtain feedback from tutors after sessions.
(4) Evaluate program at midpoint of pilot (week 5)
(5) Submit a final report to stakeholders assessing what worked, what needs to improve
and how changes will be implemented (after week 10).
As you can see, the provision of remote tutoring as a choice to deaf college students is
both exciting and challenging. If approved and successful, further actions would include piloting
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 146
the service for other subject areas as well as broadening it to include faculty tutors and
instructors. Additionally, the results of providing remote tutoring with deaf college students
would be shared through publications and conferences with the intention of sharing process and
outcomes with others.
5.6 Conclusion
This chapter provided an overview of the action research cycles that occurred in this
study which involved using two webconferencing software applications. The next stage of
action research will examine the effects of using a videoconferencing software application to
determine if better video quality can be obtained using webcams. The implications of this study
illustrate the technical, communication, instructional and socio-affective skills needed for a
successful remote-tutoring experience. Finally, an action plan to pilot the provision of remote
tutoring was recommended. Since ―Action research merges research and praxis thus producing
exceedingly relevant research findings‖ (Baskerville & Wood-Harper, 1998), its continued use as
a methodology can help determine the affects of offering remote tutoring as a choice to deaf
college students in the future. In Chapter Six, I will present the conclusions of this study.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 147
Chapter Six
Conclusions
6.1 Study Highlights
This action research study was conducted to better understand the technical, pedagogical,
communication and interpersonal factors involved with delivering remote tutoring in order to
explain how using remote tutoring with deaf college students affected my tutoring practices as
well as to increase the credibility of remote tutoring as a support service for this population and
to inform others in the fields of tutoring, deaf education and distance learning.
Using Action Research methodology, two action research cycles occurred over a 10-week
period in which nine out of twenty-four students (38%) participated in twenty-two remote
tutoring sessions. Using the activities that occurred in remote tutoring sessions as the unit of
analysis and Dimensional Analysis, an explanatory matrix was created to explain all that
happened in remote-tutoring sessions. The dimensions used to narrate the remote-tutoring
process with deaf college students served to inform relevant theory. Findings pointed to choices
as the central perspective revealing students desired options for supplemental learning. These
included: choice of time for tutoring; choice of tutoring (traditional or remote); choice of remote
tutoring (asynchronous versus synchronous); choice of remote technologies (webcam, chat or
videophone); choice of communication (ASL, SimCom or Speech); choice of tutor; and choice
of course. Relevant dimensions included transitioning, benefits and sharing experiences.
Research sub- questions addressed:
1. In what ways do technical configurations contribute to a satisfying remote tutoring
environment? During this study, remote tutoring was delivered using email,
webconferencing wit chat-only, webconferencing with webcam and chat, and through
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 148
videophone-only. Factors such as students‘ format preferences, access to peripherals, and
success contacting the instructor affected which type of remote tutoring was used. Technical
problems also influenced students‘ tutoring choices. Problems with technologies were either
tolerated or resulted in substituting remote-tutoring sessions with traditional meetings. Given
options, student can choose which type of technical configuration contributes to a satisfying
remote-tutoring experience for them.
2. In what ways do the diverse language and communication practices of deaf students
influence the remote tutoring process? Deaf and hard-of-hearing college students
communicate in a variety of ways including spoken English, Simultaneous Communication
(sign and speech) and American Sign Language (ASL). In this study, several factors
determined which communication modes could be used in remote-tutoring sessions.
Specifically, the format accessed (webcam, email, videophone) dictated which
communication choices were available (sign and speech, writing, ASL). Explaining how
communication preferences can be accommodated or limited depending on format and
providing adequate exposure and training to students may facilitate a satisfying remote-
tutoring experience.
3. What instructional strategies meet the needs of students participating in tutoring remotely?
Common to the majority of sessions, the following instructional strategies occurred: asking
questions, confirming responses, displaying/sharing materials, and assisting and encouraging
students‘ progress. Instructional strategies unique to remote tutoring were identified (Table
4.5) as well as those that differentiated by format (webcam, email and videophone).
Knowing these variations prepares tutors for utilizing appropriate instructional strategies
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 149
depending on format used as well as aids in properly training tutors interested in providing
remote tutoring.
4. In what ways, if any, do students‘ identities influence their participation in remote tutoring?
In this study, several instances of sharing the remote-tutoring experience with others
occurred thereby influencing students‘ choice of utilizing it. While feeling obligated and
having a natural tendency to inform others is characteristic of the Deaf community; knowing
if this influenced students‘ choice to participate needs further investigation.
5. What determines student satisfaction with the remote tutoring experience? This study did not
intend to measure the effectiveness of remote tutoring; however, perceived benefits were
identified from participants‘ descriptions and actions. From a tutor‘s perspective, benefits
included having one-on-one conferencing time with students which often resulted in
enhanced tutor-student relationships. Students‘ satisfaction with remote-tutoring experiences
were derived from their sessions, evaluations and interviews. These included improvements
to their level of confidence, homework drafts and grades.
Since the period covering this study ended with these participants, the next stage of
action research will address the use of licensed videoconferencing software that reportedly
delivers HD video quality with different participants. In Chapter Five, an action plan
recommending the delivery of remote tutoring as a choice to students enrolled in English classes
was outlined for implementation in the academic year, 2011. In this chapter, implications for
tutors, deaf educators and distance educators are discussed; the study‘s strengths and limitations
are revealed; and further research considerations are proposed.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 150
6.2 Study Implications
Action Research allows researchers to analyze the impact an intervention has with an
explicit population in a specific context; therefore, it is difficult to ascertain its applicability with
other groups, interventions or environments. However, action researchers have an obligation to
inform others of how one‘s practice was improved and to share good practices with others.
Results will vary depending on the population served, interventions applied and the theoretical
lenses worn by the tutor/researcher. As such, the implications of this study may influence tutors,
deaf educators, and distance educators. What follows is information attained from this study to
assist those who wish to provide remote tutoring, in general; with deaf students, in particular; or
those who want to assess it further:
(a) Professional development and training for tutors/tutees – Provide or become trained in the
chosen remote tutoring system(s). Preferably, this involves hands-on training from
knowledgeable others. Practice communicating using varying webconferencing pods and
layouts in order to become accustomed to instructing through email, videophone,
webconferencing chat-only and webcam-chat formats.
(b) Webconferencing systems and webcams – Directing the webcam to the webconferencing
software was a recurring problem. This is because the webcam can only run in one software
program at a time. If the computer‘s webcam is directed at another program, such as
videophone software, the tutee will have to redirect his/her webcam to the computer‘s
internal camera in order to use it within the webconferencing site.
(c) Orient students – Provide demonstrations to students regarding how to access the remote-
tutoring site and to show how tutoring occurs in the webconferencing system. Provide them
with handouts for reference and remind them regularly about its availability.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 151
(d) Make access easy by providing links to the webconferencing site using the course
management system, email reminders and hard copies of information given to students.
Making it easy to access ensures students can find it when the need and desire arises.
(e) Consider students‘ proficiency and attitude toward using remote technologies to determine if
this type of learning environment meets their needs. This assessment would determine if
students can interact successfully with technologies and learning materials, and subsequently
benefit from the learning experience.
(f) Consider the eight principles of effective learning environments when teaching with
technology: (Julius, 2008, slides 11 & 12)
1. Catch learners‘ attention (intrigue, inspire, confound, personalize)
2. Build on prior knowledge/experience (or lack thereof)
3. Facilitate active, social, collaborative engagement
4. Convey a sense of presence/immediacy among participants
5. Support and challenge diverse learners by providing multiple, accessible methods
of content presentation, student expression, and student engagement
6. Demand practice and provide for ongoing assessment and feedback
7. Challenge students to engage with authentic representations of real situations
8. Facilitate development of process skills and metacognition
(g) Allow the learner to choose areas to work on in tutoring sessions.
(h) Provide access to language adjusted to a student‘s level of understanding.
(i) Allow instructional content to be adjusted to the learners‘ needs.
(j) Utilize sociocultural activities that build on students‘ prior knowledge.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 152
(k) Employ a constructivist model by using a collaborative writing approach when working with
deaf writers (Livingston, 2000). Through active participation, the mechanics of writing can
be provided to show students how to confirm what they know and encourage them to express
themselves further (Keenan & Bowers, 1988). The frequent use of collaborative conferencing
can also minimize the student‘s sense of isolation often felt when writing alone.
(l) Ask for clarification, give feedback and use modeling techniques during individual tutoring
sessions to help students expand on their own texts.
(m) Reflect on remote-tutoring processes, practices, successes and failures in order to make
changes to the delivery to improve satisfaction of remote-tutoring sessions.
(n) Conduct formative evaluations to obtain student feedback regarding design and instructional
content.
(o) Foster the influence that a student‘s identity has on their willingness to share remote-tutoring
experiences with others as a way of promoting its use.
(p) Consider using remote tutoring as experience that can be applied later to online teaching.
This is not to say that tutoring online trains online teachers; however exposure and practice
with distance technologies and instructional strategies would be beneficial to this
environment.
In conclusion, the benefits of tutoring are well known but remote tutoring will only be
successful if tutors are properly trained and students perceive benefit. To aid the transition to
and acceptance of distance learning and to maximize distance learning environments, remote
tutors need adequate training and skills. These include having proper pedagogical,
communication, managerial and technical practices in order to deliver effective instruction
(McPherson & Nunes, 2004). Specifically, and different from traditional tutoring, online tutors
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 153
are responsible for technical as well as content instruction and therefore, a high degree of
comfort with the tools and systems being used are required. In addition to being competent in the
content area and able to tutor online, the remote tutor must be able to demonstrate skills in
planning and organizing the delivery of instruction, utilizing scaffolding in learning activities,
matching diverse attitudes and learning styles, and utilizing effective feedback. All of these need
to be considered when selecting, training and evaluating remote tutors or improving one‘s own
practice (Gerrard, 2002).
6.3 Study Opportunities and Limitations
Action research has its opportunities and limitations. Opportunities reflect the
possibilities for positive change while limitations can interfere with positive outcomes. The
opportunities and limitations noted in this study are discussed below:
(1) In action research, there is opportunity for a researcher practitioner to systematically engage
in research in his/her own professional practice; yet generalizability should be interpreted
within the context of a similar setting to which the theory can be expected to apply.
Regardless, findings may stimulate others to replicate it and may generate ideas for future
research.
(2) As an action researcher studying my own practice, executing a study of this scope within a
10-week timeframe was burdensome. Attempting to gather and analyze data while teaching
classes and tutoring both traditionally and remotely was overwhelming; particularly since I
had no prior experience with remote tutoring. Therefore, in the future, focusing on a single
aspect of remote tutoring, such as, webcam quality using a videoconferencing system, would
be more feasible.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 154
(3) Due to the academic calendar, the length of the study with this group of students was limited
to 10 weeks; therefore, the next cycle would occur using other participants. However, using
action research, feedback collected from a new group of users will be equally valuable as I
continue to assess how delivering tutoring remotely affects my tutoring practices.
(4) As part of my job responsibilities, I scheduled eight hours of traditional tutoring each week.
During this study, I offered these eight hours during my normal work day (8:30 am – 4:30
pm). An additional six hours of remote tutoring were scheduled over three evenings for a
total of 14 available tutoring hours per week. Since it was necessary for me to be online
during posted remote-tutoring evening hours, I was unable to provide traditional tutoring
during those evenings. Whether or how this impacted utilization is not understood; however,
in future studies, I will offer both traditional and remote tutoring during day and evening
hours in order to address this.
(5) Validity, in action research, is expressed by clearly reporting the research process and
demonstrating how and why the intervention worked thereby enhancing the trustworthiness
of the results (Anderson & Herr, 2005; Feldman, 2007). My goal was to provide
transparency in the data gathering, analysis and reporting, so readers would be confident in
the results and consequently want to replicate the study, apply its findings and/or accept the
theory that emerged.
(6) To reduce bias and increase validity, triangulation of data was employed by using multiple
data sources. These included session transcripts, participant interviews, evaluations, and
questionnaires; and tutor evaluations, fieldnotes and memos. In addition, interviews were
reviewed by participants for accuracy, particularly in the translation from ASL to English.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 155
(7) The quality of this study was enhanced by the use of critical friends. I was fortunate to have
access to a cohort and an advisor to discuss progress and receive feedback on findings. I also
accessed colleagues familiar with deafness; technicians familiar with web technologies; and
outside readers.
(8) Ethical principles in research are vital. In this study, respecting the rights of the college,
campus community and teaching profession was a high priority. Therefore, I employed the
principle of confidentiality to ensure the anonymity of participants and data; the principle of
openness that welcomes committee members to review data in order to evaluate findings and
maintain integrity; the principle of freedom that allows participants to control their
willingness to participate; and the principle of empowerment to allow participants to have a
voice in decisions that emerged from the study (McBride & Schostak, n.d.).
In closing, action research can accommodate researcher practitioners whose aims are to
increase the understanding of how changes in process affect social systems within their own
community as well as to generate theory that ultimately enriches the broader research
community. Based on my findings, tutoring remotely affords face-to-face instruction through
technologies. As such, I want to promote it as a choice for deaf college students. I have
witnessed the challenges and pleasures of working with students one-to-one through this medium
and am inspired by its current and future possibilities.
6.4 Further Research Considerations
What are the benefits of more time on task? Is it a predictor of student success? What
factors result in an effective remote-tutoring experience? These are a few additional research
questions addressing the remote-tutoring process and its use with deaf college students.
Identifying the conditions that facilitate successful delivery and satisfaction with the remote-
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 156
tutoring experience would further help train remote tutors, promote the service and ensure
students‘ instructional needs are met.
In the field of distance education, Trentin (2000) emphasized the importance of
interaction if quality is to be raised in distance education and he particularly saw the ‗third
generation‘ of online technology as a way of increasing interaction and therefore increasing
quality. Richardson (2009) reported no significant differences between students who received
traditional versus online tutoring. This is encouraging when considering remote tutoring‘s
potential applications. Areas needing further exploration include: training remote tutors using
distance technologies to raise their awareness and develop skills through direct experience in
distance learning and then exploring the ways tutor attributes develop and change as they instruct
remotely; and identify which affective states of tutors and learners are relevant to the remote-
tutoring experience.
Does looking at the frequency of behaviors in transcripts really inform which strategies
are most effective? In this remote tutoring action research study, the frequency in which specific
tutoring behaviors occurred were noted; however, ―There is no guarantee that the moves that
account for most of the variance in learning outcomes are necessarily the moves that occur most
frequently‖ (Ohlsson, DiEugenio, Chow, Fossati, Lu & Kershaw, 2007, 2.2, para 2). Further
studies comparing tasks and learning outcomes are needed to determine efficacy of tutoring in
general, and remotely. Therefore, in order to determine if a tutoring behavior is causally related
to a learning outcome, future research should investigate how learning occurred and then
determine which tutoring interactions were used to produce outcomes. Ohlsson, et al, (2007)
suggest researchers use the tutoring session as the unit of analysis and multiple regression that
looks at learning outcomes as the predicted variable and tutoring behaviors as the predictor
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 157
variable to examine and prove causal efficacy. This would require measuring all known variables
that affect learning outcomes, such as prior knowledge, time on task, and how learning occurred
(e.g., student detected and corrected errors; performed a task). Webster and Hackley (1997), who
reported that reliability and quality of the technology was positively related to learning
outcomes, suggest researchers consider other measures of effectiveness for online learning
including: student participation and cognitive engagement, student interaction with technology
and perceived usefulness of technology used; and students‘ perceived benefits of instruction.
Thus, a study measuring effective tutoring might include using pre/post measures of learning as a
result of tutoring sessions, students‘ evaluation of the experience and multiple regression
analysis.
How do tutor attributes and expertise develop and change as they enter new
environments, such as remote tutoring? This needs to be explored along with investigating the
relationship between tutor reflection and practice. Included in this is the relationship between
how tutors reflect on and articulate their attributes and expertise and how this relates to what
actually happens during tutoring interactions. Further exploration is also needed regarding how
critical reflection on tutoring practices can best be incorporated into professional development
opportunities and tutor support networks (Shelley, White, Baumann & Murphy, 2006).
Finally, staying on top of developments in webconferencing technologies can be
overwhelming but it is important to continue to evaluate them in hopes that the best solution will
someday evolve to include high-quality multi-point video, sophisticated data collaboration tools,
cross-platform capability and built-in captioning modules. (King & Parks, 2010). Hopefully,
future video technologies that maintain the video signal within a web-based conferencing
application will emerge and it affects can be explored. Also, investigating how videophone
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 158
software can be better utilized with Deaf students who use ASL could inform the delivery of
remote tutoring. Currently some videophone software programs have chat features and ―show‖
features that allow users to share desktop documents. Whether it is possible to interact using the
documents was not evaluated during this study and thus remains to be investigated. Ongoing
research in creating and evaluating these digital tools for teaching is paramount to utilizing them
effectively. Once this is achieved, measures of satisfaction related to students‘ perceptions of
online environments can also be assessed. Through ongoing exploration, knowledge can be
enhanced, changes can be implemented, and findings can be shared.
6.5 Final Thoughts
As digital technologies evolve, they will continue to change the manner in which
knowledge is acquired; where and how people learn; and how people interact with each other
(Jefferies, Carsten-Stahl & McRobb, 2007). Similar to traditional tutoring, an ideal approach to
remote tutoring would incorporate sociocultural principles of direct instruction with new literacy
principles of effective learning environments when teaching with technology while addressing
the diverse needs of a multicultural student body. Opportunities to deliver tutoring remotely
exist; yet, their benefits and effectiveness with deaf college students is not fully understood. In
this study, theory suggesting remote tutoring as tutoring with a tool as well as theory relating to
students‘ desire for tutoring choices emerged. Providing remote tutoring as an option may
increase utilization of this important support service. With properly trained tutors, the potential
for studying and measuring its efficacy is within reach; thus, giving relevant fields additional
tools and justification to supplement learning through a range of remote-tutoring technologies.
As a result of this Action Research study, my tutoring practices have changed. The
process of analyzing my practices has strengthened my conviction regarding the benefits tutoring
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 159
has on students‘ confidence, motivation, and quality of work; as well as on the tutor‘s skills with
technology, instructional techniques and affective orientation that lead to improved relationships
with students. No longer is tutoring supplemental to my instruction but an extension of it. The
choice to access it remains up to the student; however, the message emphasizing its merit
bellows: Wow. I never use this before, but cool. (Tabby, posting in chat, Session 5).
As online education relies on the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated
information and instruction, it encompasses all technologies and supports the pursuit of
lifelong learning. Fahriye A. Aksal, 2009 (p. 34)
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 160
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REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 184
Appendix A
Remote Tutoring Questionnaire
Directions: Please answer the following questions about tutoring.
1. I used face-to-face tutoring in high school or in another college.
YES
NO
2. I used online tutoring (through a computer) in high school or in another college.
YES
NO
3. I plan to use tutoring to help me in this class.
YES
NO
Maybe
4. I want face-to-face tutoring from the instructor.
YES
NO
Maybe
5. I want face-to-face tutoring from on-campus tutors.
YES
NO
Maybe
6. I want to try online tutoring with the instructor from my dorm room, apartment or lab using a
computer (and VP, if possible).
YES
NO
Maybe
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 185
7. The best time for me to go to tutoring is...(Check all that apply)
during the day (between 8 am – 5 pm)
at night (between 5 pm – 11 pm)
on weekends (Saturdays and Sundays)
8. I have my own computer or laptop in my dorm room or apartment.
YES
NO
9. I have a webcam for my computer.
YES
NO
10. I have a videophone (VP) in my dorm room or apartment.
YES
NO
11. I prefer to communicate with the instructor using:
Speech
ASL
Sign and speech together
12. I am member of the Deaf Community
YES
NO
Don‘t know
Thank you for completing this tutoring questionnaire!
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 186
Appendix B
Student evaluation form
Directions: Please give me your feedback on today's remote tutoring session. This information
will be used to plan future remote tutoring sessions.
1. Why did you come to remote tutoring today?
2. Did you have any problems with your computer or your internet connection? (please
describe)
3. Did you have any problems with your webcam or VP? (please describe)
4. Based on today‘s experience, would you use remote tutoring for this class again? (explain
your answer)
5. What would you like to do in future remote tutoring sessions? (please list)
6. What can the teacher do to improve future remote tutoring sessions? (please describe)
Thank you for your feedback.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 187
Appendix C
Tutor evaluation form
Completed after each remote tutoring session
1. Assessment: Describe what the student wanted to work on and issues identified based on
this request.
2. Instruction: Explain what occurred during the session and what instructional strategies
were used.
3. Describe technical problems encountered:
4. Describe instructional problems encountered:
5. Describe communication problems encountered:
6. Evaluation: Include a statement about where the work ended how the student can
continue to make progress. (action plan)
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 188
Appendix D
Glossary of terms
American Sign Language (ASL) – Sign language used by culturally Deaf people in the United
States and Canada.
ASL glossing – Since ASL has no written form, ASL glossing can be used for analysis purposes.
Asynchronous remote tutoring – Refers to distance tutoring via computers or telecommunication
technologies where tutor and tutee do not meet at the same time (opposite of synchronous).
Cued Speech – A system of 8 handshapes to represent consonant phonemes and 4 hand
placements to represent vowels used in conjunction with mouthing to aid in speechreading.
Culturally Deaf – Refers to members of the Deaf community whose primary language is ASL.
Distance learning – Instruction that occurs when the teacher and students are in different
locations.
Hard of hearing – Refers to people with a hearing loss whose primary language is English and
who depend on lipreading, speech and audition for communication.
Mainstreamed program – Refers to the type of schooling where students with disabilities
integrate into some or all academic classes.
Prelingually deaf – Refers to people who became deaf prior to age three.
Profoundly deaf – The highest degree of hearing loss typically resulting in an inability to hear
spoken language and most environmental sounds without the aid of amplification.
Signing Exact English (Manually Coded English) – A form of sign language where prefixes,
suffixes, and verb tense markers are added to signs and English word order is followed.
Simultaneous Communication – The simultaneous use of ASL vocabulary and spoken English
with attempts to include ASL grammatical markers such as use of space and classifiers.
Synchronous remote tutoring – Real-time distance tutoring via computer or telecommunication
technologies (opposite of asynchronous).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 189
Appendix E
Snapshots of Webconferencing systems
Adobe® Connect Pro
TM meeting room (Adobe Systems Incorporated, 2011).
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 190
IdeaToolsTM
Video Chat meeting room (Ideatools, 2011)
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 191
NefsisTM
meeting room – Future pilot project (Nefsis Corporation, 2008)
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 192
Appendix F
Dimensional Analysis definitions
Dimensionality: an individual‘s cognitive ability to address the complexity of a phenomenon
(facts or circumstances of something observed) by noting its attributes, context,
processes, and meaning.
Attribute: an inherent characteristic of a phenomenon; includes dimensions and their properties;
Dimension: an abstract concept; a component of a phenomenon;
Property: the quantitative or qualitative parameters or descriptors of a dimension
Designation: the naming or labeling of concepts; the development of a vocabulary to conduct the
cognitive work of analysis;
Differentiation: the limiting of data by determining the salience of dimensions and organizing
them into a logical configuration that provides them with meaning;
Explanatory matrix: an organizational prototype that further differentiates the innate
characteristics of identified dimensions into various conceptual components such as
context, conditions, processes, or consequences;
Context: the boundaries for inquiry; the situation or environment in which dimensions are
embedded;
Condition: a salient dimension that has an impact on actions and interactions by facilitating,
blocking, or in some other way shaping them;
Process: an intended or unintended action or interaction that is impelled by specified conditions;
Consequence: the outcome of specific actions or interactions;
Perspective: the dimension that is most central to the developing theory; one that provides the
researcher with the most fruitful explanation of a phenomenon. Used to configure the
explanatory matrix.
Integration: the final synthesis of dimensions within the explanatory matrix into a theory.
(Kools, McCarthy, Durham & Robrecht, 1996, p. 329)
Used with permission from Sage Publications.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 193
Appendix G
Initial (phase I) and pre-existing (phase II) codes.
Research
Question:
Phase I codes:
(initial)
Phase II codes:
(pre-existing in literature)
How does using
remote tutoring with
deaf college students
affect my tutoring
practices?
1. Technical issues
2. Pedagogical issues
3. Diverse communication issues
4. Identity issues (d/Deaf)
5. Overall satisfaction
Related to distance technologies
and webcam/videophones use.
Related to distance education
and best tutoring practices.
Related to the diverse forms of
communication used with this
population.
Related to how students identify
with deafness
Related to students overall
satisfaction and reasons for
accessing remote tutoring with
instructor.
Sub-question 1 Phase I codes: Phase II codes:
In what ways do
technical
configurations
contribute to a
satisfying remote
tutoring
environment?
(Activity Theory)
Impacts on students:
Evidence of ease of use
Evidence of difficulties or
complications with use
Evidence of satisfaction
w/technology (successes)
Evidence of dissatisfaction
w/technology (problems)
Familiarity with technologies;
Lack of familiarity; beginning
use;
Suggestions for improving
design;
Frustrations with technologies.
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 194
Impact on practice:
Internet issues
Webconferencing software
issues
Course management issues
Webcam issues
Videophone issues
Evidence of changes in
practice
Unstable or broken connections;
Manipulating pods;
Accessing and displaying
components;
Clarity and bandwidth;
Clarity and integration with
web technologies.
Brought about by changes in
technologies and their use.
Sub-question 2 Phase I codes: Phase II codes:
In what ways do the
diverse language
and communication
practices of students
influence the remote
tutoring process?
(Knowledge of Deaf
education, culture &
ASL)
Impacts on students:
Evidence of requests for
certain types of configurations
based on preferred
communication needs
Evidence of successful
communication interactions
Evidence of communication
breakdown
Evidence of using repair
strategies for communication
breakdowns
Students expressing their
preferences or needs based on
their preferred communication
modes;
Students expressing satisfaction
or dissatisfaction with
configurations;
Students requesting other forms
of configurations or tutoring;
Affirmations/dissatisfaction
with remote tutoring
communication, examples from
interviews.
Can‘t understand sign, speech
or hear audio;
Therefore student needs to
request repeat, rephrase, write
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 195
Impacts on practice:
Evidence of strategies used to
support or enhance
communication
Evidence of changes in
communication practices due
to limited remote tutoring
configurations/tech.
Students expressing satisfaction
or dissatisfaction with the
communication delivery;
Needing to use repair strategies
due to communication
breakdown (repeat, rephrase,
write to student)
Sub-question 3 Phase I codes: Phase II codes:
What instructional
strategies meet the
needs of students
participating
tutoring remotely?
(Sociocultural
Theory; New
Literacy Studies)
Impacts on students:
Evidence of understanding
Evidence of not
understanding or
misunderstanding
Evidence of discovery
Applying strategies,
Applying feedback;
correcting errors;
Errors in applying strategies,
Recurring errors;
Not correcting errors;
Identifying errors
Impacts on practice:
Evidence of reading
instruction strategies
Evidence of writing
instruction strategies
Evidence of changes in
practice
Phonologic decoding strategies,
Context strategies, strategies for
comprehension.
Sociocultural practices of
facilitating, modeling,
scaffolding; evidence of
providing feedback: corrective
(fixing), suggestive (hinting)
and reinforcing (praising).
Brought about by changes in
instructional strategies and
techniques
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 196
Sub-question 5 Phase I codes: Phase II codes:
What determines
student satisfaction
with the remote
tutoring experience?
(from sessions,
interviews and
evaluations)
Impacts on students:
Evidence of satisfaction
w/tutoring sessions
Evidence of dissatisfaction
w/tutoring sessions;
Evidence of students reasons
for accessing remote tutoring
i.e., time management issues,
missing class, accessibility,
flexibility
Evidence of students
returning to remote tutoring
Students expressing preference
for remote tutoring over other
past tutoring experiences;
Flexibility;
Accessibility.
Students expressing
dissatisfaction and therefore,
not returning or using f2f
Affirmations, examples from
interviews and evaluations.
Accessing remote tutoring due
to times offered
Impacts on practice:
Evidence of changes to
technology, instruction &/or
communication due to
identified issues.
Evidence of decisions made to
make changes to delivery based
on AR model
Sub-question 4 Phase I codes: Phase II codes:
In what ways, if any,
do students’
identities influence
their participation in
the remote tutoring?
(Knowledge of
identity development
for deaf/hoh; deaf
culture)
Impacts on students:
Awareness of identity
Types of identity
Identity development
Impacts on practice:
Preferred communication
mode
Relationship with tutor
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 197
Appendix H
Tutor actions related to remote-tutoring systems.
Opening sessions Displaying
documents
Interacting
with content
Closing sessions
Adobe
Connect
1. logged into
Adobe Connect
Pro
webconferen-
cing site
2. opened
―tutoring with
LB‖ room
3. accepted student
into session
4. welcomed
student into
session
5. selected
appropriate
layout
1. selected – My
computer
screen‖
2. accessed
―Windows‖
for the screen
sharing
option
3. located
student‘s
work on
idea3
4. selected
window from
desktop
5. selected
Share
(90 seconds)
1. opened
―Writing
good
concluding
sentences‖
link on course
schedule;
2. displayed
document
using ―my
computer
screen‖
3. highlighted
first 6 lines
4. asked student
to read it
1. pulled down
meeting menu
2. selected End
Meeting
3. copied chat to
word
document.
4. stopped
recording
5. sent online
evaluation to
student
IdeaTools 1. logged into
course
management
system (idea3)
2. selected
Remote
Tutoring in
Video Chat
Room
3. ―pushed‖ the
idea3 course
into the remote
tutoring
session using
VPN
4. displayed
student‘s work
in control
center
5. acknowledged
student using
chat or waving
1. in idea3,
opened tools
2. switched to
instructor
mode,
3. selected
student from
list
4. selected
coursework
5. selected
student‘s
paragraph
6. increased the
font size for
easier
viewing
7. placed
document
into display
screen
(80 seconds)
1. highlighted
―body‖ in
student‘s
outline
2. asked
student to
elaborate
3. student
placed
cursor next
to
highlighted
word in
document
4. deleted
―body‖ and
typed ―keep
straight‖
1. saved
student‘s work
2. copied chat to
word
document
3. closed
webcam
4. closed session
5. stopped
recording
6. opened Video
Chat Room
again
7. ―pushed‖
course into
session again
to await next
student
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 198
Appendix I
Instructional strategies used in select sessions:
1, 2, 6, 10 and 12 (webconferencing); 8, 9, and 22 (email) and 15 (videophone)
Instructional strategies identified in nine remote-tutoring sessions. The number posted after each
strategy indicate the session(s) they were applied. Italicized strategies indicate they were utilized
in the five sessions that included student evaluations. Bolded strategies indicate they were
utilized in all nine sessions listed above.
Adapting to student‘s language level 1, 10
Affective orientation – 1, 2, 10, 12, 9, 15
Alerting student 1, 6, 12
Apologizing 15
Asking reason for tutoring 6, 10 12
Asking questions 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 8, 9, 22
Asking for clarification 10
Asking for elaboration 2
Answering questions 1, 2, 6
Brainstorming 10
Checking connection 12
Checking preferences 6, 12, 15 Checking student understands 1, 2, 10, 12, 15
Confirming 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 8
Clarifying 1, 10, 15, 8
Clarifying assignment 2
Co-constructing 10, 12
Confirming 9
Displaying documents 1, 2, 6, 10, 12
Displaying emoticons 2
Enlarging documents 6, 12
Explaining final exam structure 12
Facilitating 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 22, 9
Giving feedback 6, 15, 9
Giving directions 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 8, 9, 22
Giving thanks; thanking student 1, 6, 15
Highlighting documents for emphasis 1, 12
humor 1, 10
Modeling – showing example 1, 8, 9
Offering additional assistance 8
Offering alternative RT mode 6, 12
Praising 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 9
Providing information 1, 2, 10, 15, 22, 8
Referring to classwork 2, 10, 12, 15
Requesting clarification 1, 2, 15, 22, 8
Requesting confirmation 15
Requesting elaboration 1, 6, 10
Requesting student write details in chat 10
Responding to email 8, 9, 22
Returning saved draft to student 6, 10
Reviewing course materials 1
Reviewing homework 6, 10
Reviewing structure 1, 12, 15, 8
Scaffolding 10
Sharing student‘s draft 6,
Showing comprehension 10
Suggesting alternate form 15, 8
Summarizing 10, 12
Transitioning to a new topic 1, 6
Understanding grammar acquisition 10
Using chat with webcam for emphasis 6, 10
Verifying connection
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 1
Permissions:
Permission to include Action Research cycle diagram
Martin Huntley
to me
show details 1/14/10
On Jan 13, 2010, at 9:23 PM, Linda Bryant wrote:
I am a doctoral student at the University of Rochester in Rochester, NY. I am writing to ask
permission to use the Action Research Cycle diagram illustrated on page 9 of the Themes in
Education: Action Research booklet by Eileen Ferrance, 2000.
A quick response would be most appreciated. Thank you, Linda Bryant
------ form data ------
fname: Linda
lname: Bryant
email:
phone:
page: Staff Directory
refererURL: http://www.alliance.brown.edu/staffdir.php
Linda:
You have permission. Please note explicitly that it's used by permission of The Education
Alliance at Brown University. Also, if possible please provide the URL for the online version of
the publication: http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/themes_ed/act_research.pdf.
Thanks for your interest.
Martin
__________________________________________________________________
Martin Huntley Director of Technology
The Education Alliance at Brown University
222 Richmond Street, Suite 300
Providence, RI 02903-4226 Web: http://www.alliance.brown.edu
Ph: 401-274-9548 800-521-9550 Ext. 234 Fax: 401-421-7650
The information contained in this e-mail from The Education Alliance
at Brown University may be confidential and/or legally privileged.
Permission to reproduce appendix
REMOTE TUTORING WITH DEAF COLLEGE STUDENTS 2
Sent: Tue 12/28/2010 11:23 AM
To: '[email protected]'
I would like permission to include the Appendix (verbatim) in the journal article below in my
doctoral dissertation. If granted, please include information on how it should be referenced.
Thank you!
Title: Dimensional Analysis:
Broadening the Conception of
Grounded Theory
Author: Susan Kools, Marianne
McCarthy, Roberta Durham,
Linda Robrecht
Publication: Qualitative Health Research
Publisher: Sage Publications
Date: 08/01/1996
Copyright © 1996, Sage Publications
Logged in as:
Linda Bryant
Gratis
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