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Regulatory Finance: Cost of Capital and Rate of ReturnSteve Kihm, CFAPrincipal and Chief Economist
Michigan State Institute of Public UtilitiesFundamentals Course
August 7, 2019
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• setting the return on equity
• the fundamental difference between the return on equity
and the cost of equity
• where to obtain accurate financial information (and how
to avoid seemingly valuable, but misleading data)
• setting the return on equity without referencing the cost
of equity, while satisfying all the requirements set forth
by the U.S. Supreme Court in the process
Major Topics
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Terms
cost of capital: weighted expected (required) return on a company’s stocks and bonds (all capital)
cost of equity: expected (required) return on a company's stock
return on capital or rate of return: company’s earned return on debt andequity combined (all capital)
return on equity: company’s earned return on its equity capital
equity stockdebt bonds
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Finance and ratemaking
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Where finance entersutility ratemaking
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Really simple balance sheet
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Really simple balance sheet
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Hawaiian Electric
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Hawaiian Electric
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Hawaiian Electric
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Where finance entersutility ratemaking
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Calculating the rate of return
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Calculating the rate of return
This is not the cost of capitalit is the return on capital
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Calculating the rate of return
This is not the cost of equityit is the return on equity
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Determining the return on debt
Most recent figure = 4.46%
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Determining the return on debt
If a utility had issued debt at each of these points (and it is still outstanding) we calculate a weighted average rate
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Determining the return on equity
?
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Alternative Rate ofReturn Concepts and Their Implicationsfor Utility Regulation (Solomon)
Understanding that book ratemeasures [the return on equity]and DCF rate measures [the cost of equity] are not different estimates of the same thing but rather estimates of different things should eliminate at least part of the confusion surrounding ‘‘rates of return on investment.”
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Apple2018 return on equity = 49.8%
Even if Apple could continue to earn 49.8% onits equity capital, would you expect to make 49.8% per year if you bought Apple stock?
You shouldn’t. Apple’s cost of equity is not 49.8%(it’s about 9%)
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AppleApple makes 49.8% on its $23.01 per-share book value
To buy a share of Apple stock, you must pay $203.96
Apple earns the same amount of money ($) no matterwhat investors pay for the stock
The high stock price dilutes a 49.8% return on $23.01 to about a 9% return on $203.96
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The Regulation of Public Utilities (Phillips)
The frequently used cost of capital standard is a beginning and represents a significant improvement over the earlier commission practices of basing the allowable return on a customary or traditional figure. But such a return is a minimum.
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The Economics of Regulation(Kahn)
Setting the return on equity equal to the cost of equity makes sense only if we live in a static world (which we don’t). The return on equity is a tool to promote economic progress, which we can do if the return on equity exceeds the cost of equity.
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Valuation (Koller, Goedhardt, & Wessels, Mc Kinsey & Co)
Firms can create value for investors if they can earn returns on the capital they raise that exceeds the cost of raising it.
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The Economics of Regulation(Kahn)
The proper return that the regulatory process seeks and should seek to ascertain is not itself an objective phenomenon: what is a “just” or “fair and reasonable” return is a political, not a scientific question.
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Cedar Rapids Gas Light Co. v. Cedar Rapids, 223 U.S. 655
(1912)
On setting rates of return:
This is not a matter of economic theory, but of fair interpretation of a bargain.
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Morningstar report on Xcel Energy
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Morningstar report on Xcel Energy
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Market testIf the stock price exceeds the book value, the return on equity exceeds the cost of equity (see any of these)
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Test
Xcel Energy book value per share = $23.95
Xcel Energy stock price = $60.77
The return on equity then must be noticeable higherthan the cost of equity (or the cost of equity must
be noticeably lower than the return on equity)
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Residual earnings model cost of equity estimate (will cover the details this afternoon)
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Residual earnings model cost of equity estimate (will cover the details this afternoon)
This is the minimum return, not the fair return
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Note, however, that this model will appear to work if we overstate the cost of equity
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Testing your financial intuition
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Yield on 10-Year U.S. Treasury Note(1960 - present)
low1.4%
high15.8%
current2.1%
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utilities
S&P 500
banks
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• Which method is likely to produce the most accurate forecast of
the average yield on the 10-year U.S. Treasury Note for the year
2020?
A. The current (August 7, 2019) yield on the Treasury Note
B. The average yield on the Treasury Note over the past two
years (August 7, 2017 – August 7, 2019)
C. The consensus forecast of Wall Street economists for the
2020 Treasury Note yield as reported by the Federal Reserve
Bank of Philadelphia in its quarterly Survey of Professional
Forecasters
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Long-term growth estimates
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$-
$20
$40
$60
$80
$100
$120
$140
$16019
6019
6219
6419
6619
6819
7019
7219
7419
7619
7819
8019
8219
8419
8619
8819
9019
9219
9419
9619
9820
0020
0220
0420
0620
0820
1020
1220
1420
1620
18
S&P 500 Earnings Per Share1960 - 2018
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$1
$10
$100
$1,00019
6019
6219
6419
6619
6819
7019
7219
7419
7619
7819
8019
8219
8419
8619
8819
9019
9219
9419
9619
9820
0020
0220
0420
0620
0820
1020
1220
1420
1620
18
S&P 500 Earnings Per Share1960 - 2018
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$1
$10
$100
$1,00019
6019
6219
6419
6619
6819
7019
7219
7419
7619
7819
8019
8219
8419
8619
8819
9019
9219
9419
9619
9820
0020
0220
0420
0620
0820
1020
1220
1420
1620
18
S&P 500 Earnings Per Share1960 - 2018
with inflation6.5%
inflation removed2.4%
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• Which method is least likely to produce the most accurate
forecast of long-run future earnings per share (EPS) growth for
the S&P 500?
A. A projected trend of the historical EPS data (includes
inflation)
B. The median of stock analysts’ forecasted long-term growth
rates for S&P 500 companies (includes inflation)
C. A projected trend of the EPS data with inflation removed
(with forecasted future inflation added back)
D. A consensus forecasted real GDP growth rate (with
forecasted future inflation added back)
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Forecasting track record
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Required reading
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•The more famous an expert, the
less accurate their forecasts.
Major conclusion
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Experts and the troubling notion of “one big idea”
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
3.5%
4.0%
1990s 2000-2007
Real GDP Growth (annual)
Kudlow: We are about toenter the 7th year of aneconomic boom. (???)
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• Which method is likely to produce the most accurate forecast of
the average yield on the 10-year U.S. Treasury Note for the year
2020?
A. The current (August 7, 2019) yield on the Treasury Note
B. The average yield on the Treasury Note over the past two
years (August 7, 2017 – August 7, 2019)
C. The consensus forecast of Wall Street economists for the
2020 Treasury Note yield as reported by the Federal Reserve
Bank of Philadelphia in its quarterly Survey of Professional
Forecasters
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While all of this is true...
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• It’s not surprising that economists forecasts
are less accurate than the random walk
forecast...what is surprising is how much
worse the economists’ forecasts are.
• Mitchell. K. & Pearce, D. K. (2007). Professional forecasts of interest rates and exchange
rates: Evidence from the Wall Street Journal’s panel of economists. Journal of
Macroeconomics, 29, 840-854.
...so is this.
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The professional forecast wastoo high...18 years in a row.
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• From 1981 to 1996 long-term interest rates
changed by more than 100 basis point 10
times over six month periods. How many
times did the consensus forecast get the
direction of change correct?
Let’s make the test easier: Just predict the direction of change
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2 times (20% accuracy)
[A coin flip would have likelyproduced 5 correct]
Stephenson, K. (1997). Just how bad are economists at predictinginterest rates? Journal of Investing, 6(2), 8-10.
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• Ignorance—economists don’t realize they can’t
forecast interest rates (highly unlikely if they are trained
economists because the economic literature is
unequivocal that they can’t)
• Need to protect their job
Tell a story
HerdMitchell. K. & Pearce, D. K. (2007). Professional forecasts of interest rates and exchange rates:
Evidence from the Wall Street Journal’s panel of economists. Journal of Macroeconomics, 29,
840-854.
How is this possible?
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There are only three types of interest rate
forecasters:
• Those that don't know where rates are going.
• Those that don't know they don't know.
• Those that know they don't know but get paid lots
of money to pretend they do.Swedroe, L. (2010). The Value of Interest Rates Forecasts. CBS News.
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-value-of-interest-rate-forecasts/
How is this possible?
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How is your financial intuition?
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• Which method is least likely to produce the most accurate
forecast of long-run future earnings per share (EPS) growth for
the S&P 500?
A. A projected trend of the historical EPS data (includes
inflation)
B. The median of stock analysts’ forecasted long-term growth
rates for S&P 500 companies (includes inflation)
C. A projected trend of the EPS data with inflation removed
(with forecasted future inflation added back)
D. A consensus forecasted real GDP growth rate (with
forecasted future inflation added back)
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Aswath Damodaran, New York UniversityUse conceptually valid models and rational inputs
The sustainable long-rungrowth rate for any company cannot exceed the growth rate of the economy in which the firm operates.
Damodaran, A. Applied Corporate Finance. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
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$1
$10
$100
$1,000
$10,000
$100,00019
6019
6219
6419
6619
6819
7019
7219
7419
7619
7819
8019
8219
8419
8619
8819
9019
9219
9419
9619
9820
0020
0220
0420
0620
0820
1020
1220
1420
1620
18
S&P 500 Earnings Per Share1960 - 2018
EPS growth = 6.5% per year
GDP growth = 6.6% per year
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Practitioners say the same thing
• Growth targets for many companies are unrealistic. We know of one company with sales already in excess of $5 billion who announced growth targets of 20 percent per year for the next 20 years. Since annual world growth is typically less than 4 percent [3 percent in the U.S.] in real terms company targets need to be more pragmatic.
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0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Historical Growth Real Growth +Inflation
Real GDP + Inflation Stock analysts(median)
Estimating long-run annual EPS growth rates
?
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Required reading
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It would be wonderful if the only incentive for analysts was to work hard and do their job. Unfortunately, that’s not the case. They tend to be positively biased, and some “herd” by copying other analysts while others say extreme things.
Mihir A. DesaiMizuho Financial Group Professor of Finance, Harvard
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Aswath Damodaran, New York UniversityUse conceptually valid models and rational inputs
Try to avoid expert opinion whenever possible. Use facts and develop your own rational assumptions.
Damodaran, A. Applied Corporate Finance. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
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Sector-based ETF
Portfolios
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GDP growth—any growth rate beyond this line is unsustainable
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Note, however, that this model will appear to work if we overstate the cost of equity
if you use economist interest rate forecasts and stock analyst growth rates, you will overstate the cost of equity and obfuscate the entire process...
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utilities
S&P 500
banks
impact of interest rate forecasts
impact of analystgrowth rate forecasts
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FPC v. Hope Nat. Gas Co., 320 U.S. 591 (1944)
It is not theory, but the impact of the rate order, which counts...The fact that
the method employed to reach that result may contain infirmities is not
then important....but paradoxically in terms of setting the return on equity
you might end up in a reasonable place forall the wrong reasons—in regulation 5 wrongs
can make a right
but there’s a better, more logically consistent way (stay tuned)
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Financial Rules of the Road in Ratemaking
FPC v. Hope Nat. Gas Co., 320 U.S. 591 (1944)Bluefield Water Works v. Public Service Comm’n, 262 U.S. 679 (1923)
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Bluefield Water Works v. Public Service Comm'n, 262 U.S. 679
(1923)Rates of return must:
1.Allow the utility to maintain its credit rating
2.Allow the utility to raise capital
3.Be comparable to the returns earned by similarly-situated firms, but not equal to returns earned by highly profitable firms or those with greater risk
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FPC v. Hope Nat. Gas Co., 320 U.S. 591 (1944)
It is not theory, but the impact of the rate order, which counts...The fact that
the method employed to reach that result may contain infirmities is not
then important.
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Bluefield Water Works v. Public Service Comm'n, 262 U.S. 679
(1923)Rates which are not sufficient to yield a reasonable return on the value of the
property used at the time it is being used to render the service are unjust,
unreasonable, and confiscatory, and their enforcement deprives the public utility
company of its property in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment.
This is so well settled by numerous decisions of this Court that citation of the
cases is scarcely necessary.
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FPC v. Hope Nat. Gas Co., 320 U.S. 591 (1944)
The heart of the matter is that rates cannot be made to depend upon "fair
value" when the value of the going enterprise depends on earnings under
whatever rates may be anticipated.
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Aswath Damodaran, New York UniversityUse conceptually valid models and rational inputs
Try to avoid expert opinion whenever possible. Use facts and develop your own rational assumptions.
Damodaran, A. Applied Corporate Finance. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
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Setting return on equity with an equation
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Setting return on equity with an equation
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Questions