Download - NZ USAR Awareness Manual

New Zealand Urban Search & Rescue l Awareness Student Manual

of 87 l Version 1.0 l 2002 © New Zealand Fire Service



Table of Contents

USAR NZ HISTORY ...........................................................................................................7

Define USAR .....................................................................................................................7Typical USAR scenarios.....................................................................................................8Global evolution of USAR..................................................................................................8

FEMA ............................................................................................................................8INSARAG......................................................................................................................8United Kingdom .............................................................................................................9Australia .........................................................................................................................9

NZ evolution of USAR.......................................................................................................9

USAR TIER SYSTEM.......................................................................................................10

NZ USAR tier system.......................................................................................................10International tier systems ..................................................................................................11

USA .............................................................................................................................11Europe..........................................................................................................................11Australia .......................................................................................................................11

USAR NZ TASK FORCE..................................................................................................12

Task Force overview ........................................................................................................12Task Force structure .........................................................................................................12Task Force capability & role.............................................................................................13Responders & Task Force Technicians .............................................................................13

ORANGE CARD INFORMATION ..................................................................................13

Orange Card overview......................................................................................................13Why get an Orange Card?.................................................................................................14How do I get one? ............................................................................................................15

SUPPORT SERVICES & RESOURCES..........................................................................15

RESPONSE TEAM COMPOSITION...............................................................................17

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT.....................................................................17

Minimum PPE required ....................................................................................................18Standards for equipment ...................................................................................................20

HELMET CODING SYSTEM ..........................................................................................21

Responder level Helmet Coding System ...........................................................................21Task Force level Helmet Coding System ..........................................................................21Notes regarding Helmet Coding System ...........................................................................21

HEALTH & HYGIENE.....................................................................................................22

Dehydration......................................................................................................................22Fatigue .............................................................................................................................22Body substance infection ..................................................................................................23Stress................................................................................................................................23Claustrophobia, anxiety & panic.......................................................................................24

Phobia ..........................................................................................................................24Anxiety.........................................................................................................................24Panic ............................................................................................................................24



Biological reactions ......................................................................................................24Subconscious forces .....................................................................................................25Control Techniques.......................................................................................................25Behavioural training .....................................................................................................25Contextual Therapy ......................................................................................................26Paradoxical Intervention ...............................................................................................27Practical considerations ................................................................................................27

CIMS OVERVIEW............................................................................................................28

Background of ICS...........................................................................................................28Major responsibilities of the Incident Controller ...............................................................28

INITIAL ACTION STRATEGIES....................................................................................29

Constantly gather information ..........................................................................................29Set up communications quickly ........................................................................................29Limit supervisory staffing.................................................................................................29Have an inventory control ready .......................................................................................29Centralise logistics ...........................................................................................................29Determine the estimated length of the incident .................................................................29

HAZARDS..........................................................................................................................30

Situational hazards ...........................................................................................................31Below Debris Hazards ..................................................................................................31

Flooding ...................................................................................................................31Oxygen deficient atmosphere....................................................................................31Toxic environment....................................................................................................32Hazardous material ...................................................................................................32Flammable environment ...........................................................................................32Different (or Altered) elevation.................................................................................32

Surface Hazards............................................................................................................33Climate.....................................................................................................................33Sharp and jagged objects...........................................................................................34Pooling of water .......................................................................................................34Dust and Wind..........................................................................................................34Noise and Vibrations ................................................................................................34

Overhead Hazards ........................................................................................................34Structural Instability .....................................................................................................36

Environmental ..................................................................................................................37Hazardous Materials .....................................................................................................37Utilities (services).........................................................................................................38

STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM..............................................................................................39

Define state of equilibrium ...............................................................................................39Importance of monitoring .................................................................................................39

SAFE WORKING PRACTICES.......................................................................................39

Safe Working Practice Groups..........................................................................................39Personal........................................................................................................................39Planning .......................................................................................................................40General Safety Considerations ......................................................................................41

CONFINED SPACE OPERATIONS ................................................................................41

Confined space definition .................................................................................................41Confined space protocols..................................................................................................42



OCCUPANCY INTERVIEWS..........................................................................................44

Primary occupancy interviews ..........................................................................................44Other occupancy interviews..............................................................................................44Information management..................................................................................................44

CONSTRUCTION METHODS & HAZARDS.................................................................44

Common building construction types................................................................................44Identifying structural collapse hazards ..............................................................................45

Timber frame................................................................................................................45Reinforced Masonry .....................................................................................................45Unreinforced Masonry..................................................................................................46Concrete Tilt-up ...........................................................................................................46Reinforced Concrete and Steel Frame ...........................................................................46

COLLAPSE PATTERNS ..................................................................................................47

Typical collapse patterns ..................................................................................................47Curtain Fall Wall collapse.............................................................................................48Inwards / Outward collapse...........................................................................................48Lean Over collapse .......................................................................................................49Lean to Floor collapse...................................................................................................49900 Angle Wall collapse................................................................................................49Pancake Floor collapse .................................................................................................50" V " collapse................................................................................................................50Inverted, "A" or Tent collapse.......................................................................................50Cantilever collapse .......................................................................................................51Progressive collapse .....................................................................................................51

SECONDARY COLLAPSE INDICATORS .....................................................................52

Identifying the three secondary collapse indicators ...........................................................52Movement in the structure ............................................................................................52Visual alertness.............................................................................................................52Hearing alertness ..........................................................................................................53During Practical Operations..........................................................................................53

STRUCTURAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS .............................................................54

Importance of identifying structures .................................................................................54Single structure – Side Label ............................................................................................55Floor identification ...........................................................................................................56Structure identification within a geographic area ..............................................................56Identification of bridges, flyovers & trains........................................................................57Zone/barrier marking system (INSARAG)........................................................................58

Operational Work Zone ................................................................................................58Collapse/Hazard Zone ..................................................................................................58

Other markings.................................................................................................................58Facility .........................................................................................................................58Vehicle .........................................................................................................................58Teams...........................................................................................................................58

FEMA STRUCTURE HAZARD EVALUATION............................................................59

COLLAPSE PLAN PHASES.............................................................................................60

Reconnaissance & survey .................................................................................................60Elimination of utilities ......................................................................................................62



Primary surface search and rescue ....................................................................................62Exploration of all voids and spaces...................................................................................63Access by selected debris removal ....................................................................................64Terminate by general debris removal ................................................................................64

WARNING SIGNALS .......................................................................................................66

INSARAG warning signals...............................................................................................66Other considerations.........................................................................................................66

SEARCH & VICTIM MARKING SYSTEM ...................................................................67

Structure/search assessment marking ................................................................................67Sample marking box.....................................................................................................67Completed marking box................................................................................................67

Victim area marking .........................................................................................................68Potential Victim Location .............................................................................................68Confirmed Victim Location ..........................................................................................68Dead/Live Victim(s) Location ......................................................................................69Only Dead Remain .......................................................................................................69Extricated All Victim(s)................................................................................................69

RUBBLE CRAWL .............................................................................................................70

LINE & HAIL SEARCH ...................................................................................................71

STRETCHER WALK........................................................................................................74

FURTHER READING.......................................................................................................75

NZ Colour Light Stick Codes ...........................................................................................75Operational Briefings .......................................................................................................75

Situation (introduction, terrain & risk) ..........................................................................76Mission.........................................................................................................................76Execution .....................................................................................................................76Administration and Logistics ........................................................................................76Command and Communication.....................................................................................76Questions......................................................................................................................76

Team effectiveness ...........................................................................................................77Effective teamwork ......................................................................................................78Different types of people within a team.........................................................................80

Phases of Teamwork ........................................................................................................82Phases of Team Formation................................................................................................83The appreciation process ..................................................................................................83

Continuing Action ........................................................................................................85

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................86



© New Zealand Fire Service 2002

No part of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recorded

or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

The contributing organisations (not individuals) as listed in the acknowledgementannex are exempt from the above restriction. The New Zealand Fire Service wishes

to thank those organisations who have provided references to aid the development ofthis package.

Urban Search & RescueNew Zealand Fire Service

PO Box 6343Wellington

www.fire.org.nz



USAR NZ History

Define USAR

An integrated multi agency response, which is beyond the capability of normal rescuearrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons fromdamaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner.

USAR (Urban Search and Rescue) is the mobilisation of resources required to safelyand expeditiously locate and remove trapped and often injured victims from partiallyor totally collapsed structures or environments and providing for emergency medicalcare in doing so. USAR is not the same as Land SAR, which is search and rescue ofpersons in wilderness environments.

USAR involves the integrated response of highly specialised equipment and trainedpersonnel from different disciplines, effective communications and an establishedmethod of command and control and logistical support. In addition to the response ofpersonnel and equipment, effective USAR involves preparing prior to an incidentoccurring, and assisting the affected community to recover from the incident. In manyinstances, this will involve cross agency, national and possibly internationalparticipation and co-operation.

The complexities of the search and rescue function after a structural collapserequires a co-ordination and incident management system that is commonlyunderstood, constantly used and effective, and SOPs (Standard OperatingProcedures) developed for the strategic and tactical functions of the incident.

Picture 1. Edgecome Earthquake (1987)



Typical USAR scenarios

Urban Search and Rescue is considered a "multi-hazard" discipline, as it may beneeded for a variety of emergencies or disasters, including earthquakes, hurricanes,typhoons, storms and tornadoes, floods, dam failures, technological accidents,terrorist activities, and hazardous materials releases. The events may be slow indeveloping, as in the case of hurricanes, or sudden, as in the case of earthquakes.

Global evolution of USAR

FEMA

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) launched its USAR Task Forcesystem in 1989. The program originally evolved in response to the need for trainedpersonnel to assist in coping with natural disasters, primary earthquake. FollowingOklahoma bombing in 1995 the government realised that the Task Forces had abroader potential and began to deploy them to such events as 1996 Atlanta SummerOlympics at which a catastrophic event could occur.

INSARAG

INSARAG (International Search and Rescue Advisory Group) was formed in 1991 asa co-operative effort by the United Nations and many of the participating countries,including New Zealand, in international SAR (Search and Rescue). With theassistance of all participants, the conclusions and recommendations adopted at theinitial INSARAG meeting were based on their collective experiences in disasterresponses.

The mission of INSARAG is to develop effective international relationships in order tosave lives and render humanitarian services following natural or man-madedisasters. The activities of INSARAG include the improvement of emergencypreparedness and co-operation between international SAR teams as well as thepromotion of information exchange on operational procedures and lessons learned.

As a result of the efforts of many participating countries who collectively make upINSARAG, participants have developed a common understanding of the functions andoperations of SAR teams, which have resulted in the development of the InternationalSearch and Rescue Response System.

These Guidelines were developed by member countries of INSARAG to assistinternational SAR teams to operate in the most efficient and effective manner possible.



United Kingdom

Historically, the British Fire Service has been responding to disasters around theworld for a number of years. In the Mexico City (1985) and El Salvador (1986)earthquakes, a team from the London Fire Brigade were sent with thermal imagingcameras. In Armenia in December 1988, teams including London, Kent andHampshire responded on search & rescue missions. These efforts were not co-ordinated and action depended upon individual brigades.

Following the UK response to assist the Kurdish population in northern Iraq (1991),as a consequence of the Gulf War, the then Minister for Overseas Development,announced a new initiative designed to improve the effectiveness of any future Britishrelief effort.

A steering group of Chief Fire Officers was set up, the steering group developed theprotocols & guidelines under which teams would be utilised or mobilised.

Australia

As a consequence of the Thredbo disaster in July 1997, a general agreement wasmade that there was a need for more planning and co-ordinated resources toefficiently handle such incidents. Training for such a specialist discipline was alsoneeded.

The USAR CAT2/Technician course was developed in September 1998. In the firstUSAR course they held four back to back courses in three months training over 100fire fighters, as well as a number of Police and Ambulance Officers in USAR.

NZ evolution of USAR

1995 Emergency Services review highlighted a gap in NZ response capabilities forstructural collapse.

A National USAR Technician training pilot was run in Palmerston North in October1995, pioneered by Bernie Rush, former Wanganui CFO, NZFS (New Zealand FireService), with Ernesto Ojeda, Don Reyes and Frank Borden, specialist trainers fromLos Angeles City Fire Dept, USA.

During 2000, the New Zealand Fire Service & Ministry of Civil Defence proposed toNZ Government the establishment of a national USAR capability with one Task ForceTeams in Palmerston North, Christchurch and Auckland.

A three-week Category 2 USAR Technician course was run in Palmerston North in2001. Attended by 33 people, including one representative from the Pacific Islands,this was the first such course run in NZ since 1997. US Task Force Leader ErnestoOjeda, fresh from the World Trade Centre collapse in New York, also assisted withthe course



USAR Tier System

NZ USAR tier system

Introduction Awareness Responder Technician Manager

Skill Set(s)Awareness

(Minimum Modules1 & 4 from package)

Awareness(All Modules from

package)

CIMSFirst Aid

General Rescue

Compulsory & 1+Specialist Strand

Advanced CIMSUSAR Unit -Management

USAR Category 0 1-A 1-R 2 3

QualificationProvider-based

attendanceCertificate only

Unit Standard 18516 Industry Certificatein USAR

National Certificatein USAR

(Technician)

National Diploma inUSAR

Orange Card No Card or Ticket Awareness OrangeTicket

USARResponder

USARTechnician

USARManager

AudienceAll ES personneland interested

community sectors

Interested ESPersonnel, Civil

Defence & SupportTeams

Civil Defence,potential CAT-2Techs & Support

Teams

Task ForceMembers

Task ForceLeaders/Manager

All levels require previous level as pre-requisite



International tier systems

USA

US NFPA 1670• Awareness• Operation• Technician

There are 28 federally funded US&R Task Forces across the United States. FEMAteams organise existing search and rescue capability into a national program that canquickly deploy to an event. They have additional training, and must be able to deploywithin six hours and to sustain themselves for 72 hours. They must also have a rosterthat fills 31 different positions with at least two people for each position. To receivethe FEMA certification, the team must be approved by a US&R oversight board thatincludes leaders in the field and FEMA officials

A task force is really a partnership between local fire departments, law enforcementagencies, federal and local governmental agencies and private companies.

Task Force members include structural engineers and specialists in the areas ofhazardous materials, heavy rigging, search (including highly trained search dogs),logistics, rescue and medicine.

Europe

4CL:• Awareness• Medium• Heavy• Executive/Command

Australia

• Awareness (CAT1)• Technician (CAT2)• Manager (CAT3)

62 Person Task Force

13 Positions, 2 watches, 2 teams per watch



USAR NZ Task Force

Task Force overview

3 Task Forces• TF1 – Palmerston North• TF 2 – Christchurch• TF 3 – Auckland (No resources)

Each Task Force has 32 Technicians plus support staff (max 40 persons). Thisallows for 2 watches each doing 12hr shifts. It is made up from multiple agenciesincluding Fire, Ambulance, Defence Force and Civil Defence.

USAR NZ is administered by the New Zealand Fire Service & Ministry of CivilDefence & Emergency Management.

Currently requests for Task Force activation is made through the New Zealand FireService Communication Centre.

Task Force structure



Task Force capability & role

Provide multi agency response to anywhere in NZ to structural collapse and otherlong duration special incidents.

Provide self-sufficient 72-hour response to single structure collapse capable ofmaintaining 24-hour operations.

Responders & Task Force Technicians

First Responders need to do primary survey of incident and disseminate intelligenceback to EOC (Emergency Operations Centre) quickly so that a Task Forcedeployment can be managed effectively.

Responders provide first response and focuses on majority of victims that areentrapped on the surface, once Task Forces arrive responders support operationssuch as debris bucket lines.

Task Forces focus on a small percentage of victims that are subsurface.

USAR Response Teams (CAT1-R) are managed by Local CDEMG are not nationallymanaged.

In NZ incident Command & Control is managed by using the Co-ordinated IncidentManagement System (CIMS).

Orange Card Information

Orange Card overview

The USAR incident ground card (Orange Card) and industry certificate have beendeveloped by FRSITO (Fire & Rescue Services Industry Training Organisation) andthe USAR Training Standards Committee, on behalf of the National USAR SteeringCommittee.

The Responder Orange Card has been designed to identify individuals who have thenecessary certification to function as a first responder to a structural collapseincident. Specialist skill endorsements can also be identified on the rear of the card toaid effective and safe logistical management at such incidents.

As well as the Orange Card, the same competencies will be recorded on an industrycertificate. The minimum competencies required also contribute to proposed nationalqualifications in Urban Search and Rescue.

USAR Task Force Technicians and Managers are also eligible for Technician andManager USAR Orange Cards upon meeting specified criteria and such applicationscan be made through the USAR Training Standards Committee.



The Orange Card provides identification for anyone holding the competenciesrequired to provide first response to a structural collapse. This may include personnelboth career and voluntary from Fire Service, Police, Ambulance, Civil Defence, RedCross, Search Dog Teams, SAR groups and other teams

At USAR incidents, standard command and control systems apply; the Orange Carddoes not delegate any special authority or powers to the holder in such operations.USAR Responders still work under the Incident Controller as per the New ZealandCIMS model.

Why get an Orange Card?

Under health and safety legislation, the employer must ensure staff are competent tocarry out a task or are supervised by someone who is. The Orange Card is an idealand easy way to do this.

It is foreseen that if an agency or team wishes to be recognised as a national USARresource, that the Orange Card will be one of the team/resource registrationrequirements.

Having an Orange Card is a way to identify yourself at any USAR operation oremergency incident. Your card will have your name and if applicable any specialistendorsements.

The card also promotes a minimum industry standard of competency, meaning thatteams can ensure their members hold or are supervised by someone who is trained.This is particularly helpful when interacting with other agencies where you may notknow their skill level, whether in training or operations.



How do I get one?

Contact Fire Rescue Service Industry Training Organisation (FRSITO) or visit websitewww.frsito.org.nz and send a completed form with payment, along with photo andproof of unit standard achievements.

Support Services & ResourcesA major incident, which requires the extended implementation of USAR techniques,will have the potential to quickly overwhelm and deplete the resources of any singleagency.

This was highlighted at the Oklahoma City Bombing, where it was quickly realisedthat the resources of the Oklahoma City Fire Department were going to be insufficientto cope with the incident.

In addition to the 26 Fire departments, eleven 56 member FEMA task forces andcountless other agencies that responded to assist, there was over 26 tons ofspecialist equipment shipped in to assist in the operations. This was in addition to thetons of equipment donated by the people of Oklahoma City and surrounding areas.

Pre-planning is required for any USAR operation, and much thought must be given tothe overall quantity and type of equipment that is required and may be available for alarge scale incident.

The type of equipment required can be broken down into the following areas:

HeavyHeavy machinery that could be used in USAR operations or support, includes:Aerial ladders, elevated platforms, bull dozers, bob cats, cranes, backhoes,generators.

MediumPortable equipment used, not specifically designed for rescue, but able to supportUSAR operations, includes: Hydraulic jacks, lights towers, wire rubble baskets.

RescueSpecialist rescue equipment - usually hand tools, includes: Acoustic devices, fibreoptic cameras, time lapse cameras, search cameras, thermal imaging cameras, infrared cameras, chainsaws, bolt cutters, concrete cutters, air hammers, drills, lighting,ropes, Tifor host, fulcrum lever

SupportNon-technical equipment used to support USAR operations, includes: Wheelbarrows, buckets, medical waste disposal, and morgue facilities.



MedicalMedical services and resources that aid USAR operators and victims, includes:Triage, transport, specialist drug administration, health and safety, veterinary.

CommunicationsCommunications equipment to support USAR operations and administration,includes: Mobile data terminals, SATCOM, HF Comms, portable radios, repeaters,mobile phones, computers, printers, copying machines, fax machines.

ShoringStructural collapse stabilisation resources, includes: Large quantities of timber andtubular steel, nails, carpentry tools, hydraulic shoring equipment

AnimalsUSAR Certified search dogs for victim location, includes: Live victim search dog andcadaver search dogs.

ServicesNon-Operational Support services and resources, includes: Portable toilets, tents,catering heaters.

While this list is not complete or exhaustive, it provides an indication of the types ofequipment that will be required at an incident.

Some of this equipment may already be available to your agency, but the majority ofit will not, and close working relationships will be essential with other agencies andprivate contractors in order to ensure that the equipment that is needed will beavailable when it is required.

The following agencies have similar or specialised resources that change from timeto time. The following organisations may be able to provide resources at an incident:

• Fire Brigade

• Police Services

• Defence Force • Ambulance service • Local Emergency Response Teams • National Rural Fire Authority

• Commercial suppliers

• Local Government



• International agencies

Response Team Composition

A Safety Officer is recommended if multiple teams are being used.

Each team would have a maximum of 5-7 responders to ensure and manageablespan of control, although a further 5-7 responders could be available for the rotationof crew members.

Personal Protective EquipmentWhen a USAR incident is compared to any of the daily rescue situations thatemergency authorities attend, it will be realised that additional protective clothing willbe required. This is due to the proliferation of debris, broken reinforcing bars, glass,bricks, tiles, conduit, steel and other parts of a building’s structure that have beendisplaced from their normal position due to the collapse.

All of this debris leads to a situation where normal operations become difficult andextra care and equipment is required to ensure the safety of rescue personnel, whichis the primary consideration at any incident.

In addition to the dangers associated with the damaged structure, there are theproblems associated with utilities in and around the building, e.g. gas, electricity,water and other building services. One of the first tasks of personnel attending anincident will be to isolate these utilities, but there will always be hidden dangers withina building that can affect the safety of workers and rescuers.

At an incident that is entering its second, third or subsequent days, some of the majorproblems that will confront rescuers will be the biological hazards due to thedecomposition of bodies, the presence of body fluids in the debris, food decomposingand untreated sewage. These incidents begin to take on a special hazard inthemselves, and precautions must be taken to protect rescuers from any body fluidsand airborne pathogens (micro organism, germs, virus, bacterium etc) that may bepresent.

Team LeaderDeputy Team Leader

Certified Responder

Certified Responder

CertifiedResponder

CertifiedResponder

Safety Officer(Look Out)

CertifiedResponder



Decontamination of not only equipment, but of personnel, will be required before anyperson or equipment leaves the site of a protracted USAR incident. Crews mustensure that all appropriate hazardous materials (HazMat) procedures for the incidentare adopted in line with your agencies SOPs for HazMat incidents.

Minimum PPE required

Due to the nature of a USAR incident it is important to be familiar with the types ofprotective clothing that give the maximum protection while still being suited to theenvironment of a structural collapse.

Traditional fire service turnout gear and self contained breathing apparatus (S.C.B.A.)are not suited to non fire incidents of long duration under rubble or in confinedspaces, due to their bulkiness, lack of mobility, and related heat stress factors.

USAR teams who are trained and endorsed in its use may use supplied airlinerespiratory equipment. This equipment will give the teams more freedom ofmovement especially in confined spaces if additional respiratory protection is requireddue to irrespirable atmospheres.

Close fitting garments that are both durable and comfortable should be worn toexclude dirt and rubble and protect the rescuer from cuts and abrasions. They shouldhave pockets to carry small items, minimal openings and no loose straps that maycatch on edges when crawling through debris. In addition to the pockets on theclothing, a bum bag or tool bag can become a handy addition to carry spare personalprotective equipment and any small gear that may be required.



Picture 2. USAR Technician reporting to Operations Officer, note personalprotection and personal equipment

The following list describes the types of personal protective equipment that should beconsidered as a minimum requirement for personnel entering any USAR incident.Specific incidents may necessitate the use of additional protective equipment asrequired.

• Helmets A lightweight helmet that is comfortable and able to be properly securedmust be worn to protect the head from falling debris and overhead hazards. Thehelmet must meet the requirements of the applicable AS/NZ standard for thesituation for which it is being used.

• Whistle for warning signals (INSARAG) as explained later in this manual

• Full length clothing or uniform to protect from cuts and abrasions. Ensuresleeves are rolled down to protect your skin

• Head lamp with spare bulb and batteries for night and confined space operations

• Torch for secondary lighting, ensure it is robust and waterproof.

• Goggles or safety glasses to protect the eyes from dust and dirt (fullyencapsulating, not glasses)

• Dust masks will prevent the inhalation of dust. Asbestos masks and suits mayhave to be used if there is a chance of asbestos contamination.



• Gloves will protect the hands from a range of hazards that will be encountered atan incident. They should give the palms good protection and extend a short wayup the arms to overlap the sleeves of the overalls/protective garment.

• First aid kit for personal use. Your team will also have comprehensive first aid kits

in its equipment cache.

• Knife or shears capable of cutting victims clothing.

• Boots should incorporate toe cap and sole protection and give good support.

• Hearing protection from noise generated by rescue equipment. • Knee and elbow protection is also advisable, as the rescuer may have to spend

many hours on hands and knees, crawling through or over rubble.

Picture 3. Essential personal protection

Standards for equipment

When considering purchase or use of equipment rescue teams should ensure theequipment complies with AS/NZS Standards. Information on standards or purchaseof documentation is available from http://www.standards.co.nz



Where there is no AS/NZS standards for equipment, teams should ensure equipmentcomplies with one of the following standards

• NFPA (US National Fire Protection Association)• UIAA (Union International Alpine Association)• CE (European Standards)• ANSI (American National Standard Institute)

Helmet Coding System

Responder level Helmet Coding System

USAR responders are to wear orange helmets with their name & team ID visible. Thefollowing stripes will also be used to indicate the individual’s position within the team.

Team Leader = 2 red reflective stripesDeputy Team Leader = 1 reflective stripeResponder = 1 orange reflective stripeMedic = 1 green reflective stripe

Responder Medic has to hold a minimum of Pre-Hospital Emergency Care unitStandards.

Jerkins should also be worn denoting the wearers role in English, consistent to theCIMS model

Task Force level Helmet Coding System

Incident Commander (TF Management) = WhiteTask Force Team Leader = RedTask Force Technician = YellowTask Force Structural Engineer = BlueTask Force Support Crew = OrangeTask Force Medical Specialist = Green with Red Cross

Jerkins should also be worn denoting wearers role in English, consistent to the CIMSmodel

Notes regarding Helmet Coding System

The USAR helmet colours differ from that of the New Zealand Fire Service and ofmany rescue teams. The USAR Orange Card may also be used to verify thecompetencies of any individual.



Health & Hygiene

Dehydration

To avoid dehydration• Drink fluids every hour• Avoid caffeine and sweet drinks• Drink at least 2 litres of water every day (more if it is hot)

Check for dehydration• If you are thirsty, have a headache or are light-headed, you are already

dehydrated!• If your urine is dark and has a strong odour, you are dehydrated!• Drink more WATER.

Encourage your team members to drink water whenever you have a drink.

Fatigue

Causes of fatigue

• Working long hours• Performing stressful or physically demanding work• Working shifts

To avoid fatigue

• Work as a team a watch for signs of fatigue in other team members• Rotate the work load and take regular breaks• Move away from the work site when you have a break• Get a good sleep during your down time.• Avoid alcohol and caffeine

Wind down before going to sleep

• Go for a walk, jog or swim• Listen to music or meditate• Talk to someone



Body substance infection

Wear latex or neoprene gloves beneath your leather gloves when handling victimsand/or bodies. Eye protection should also be considered to avoid splash infection.

It is important to thoroughly wash hands before eating at meal breaks. A wash areawill be set up by HazMat teams for this purpose.

Cover any cuts or abrasions. This is necessary to prevent the transfer of bacteria andviruses.

Wear your Personal Protective Equipment; ensure that sleeves are rolled down toprotect bare skin. It is advised that front line emergency service workers undergoperiodical hepatitis status checks and immunisation (available from your doctor orGP)

Stress

Stress is both an external and self-generated response to events that exceeds yourbodies’ ability to cope.

Stress is a personal reaction; each situation creates a different stress reaction foreach individual. Some examples of situations that may cause stress are

• being involved in managing trauma• dealing with dead bodies• pressure of victims families• overwhelmed by the incident size and demands• lack of sleep• self doubt

Ways to reduce stress:

• recognise the early signs of stress• have time out / take breaks• sleep well• massage or meditation• eat a balanced diet• peer support• Critical Incident Stress Debriefing



Claustrophobia, anxiety & panic

• Claustrophobia• Anxiety• Panic

The following brief explanation assists in understanding this terminology and hasbeen adapted from an article written by Deputy Firemaster Geoff Williams, CentralScotland Fire Brigade, Scotland.

Phobia

This term is generally used as a suffix e.g. Acrophobia, Agoraphobia etc. These arefears of some situation or object where the danger is magnified out of all proportion toits actual seriousness. The word claustrophobia has limited value to EmergencyService Workers but it is worth understanding the meaning of the term i.e.-abnormalfear of a close or confined space. (Claustrum = closed, Phobia = abnormal fear)

Anxiety

Anxiety is a complex emotional state. Specifically, anxiety is a distress or uneasinessof the mind. It is the emotion you feel when an object, situation, person or impulseseems dangerous to you. An example is when you see an object about to fall overand you feel afraid it might strike you. To avoid this you quickly move out of the way.This fear is part of the emotional state and the avoidance behaviour it evokesprobably saves your life. Normal anxiety is productive in that it helps you to survive.Excessive anxiety can become crippling and during delicate rescue situations canadd to the existing hazards.

Panic

Panic is a chronic fear, or an unreasoning, infectious and uncontrollable fear. Paniccan be induced by the anxiety created by a particular phobia. This panic or loss ofcontrol can be lethal during a rescue operation. One thing is certain - the difficultiesencountered within a confined space rescue can be the catalyst for anxiety and panicto be produced.

Biological reactions

Biological reactions will influence how a person will react to the stresses of being in aconfined space. The control of claustrophobia focuses on the individual’s ability tocontrol their feelings. The operator with more experience can achieve this due tohaving been exposed to this type of environment previously. In this instance what theoperator is doing is controlling their 'adrenaline rush', or more correctly their responseto the release of catecholamines, in particular nor adrenaline. This is one of thehormones released when you are frightened, anxious or working extremely hard. Forthe more inexperienced operator, prior psychological training in control techniquescan be of benefit.



As you can imagine many other substances are released as a result of the 'fight orflight' response, (the normal physiological response to stress), however it is irrelevantand impractical to try to measure these in the field. It is worth noting that there is nochemical substance within the body that will reduce stress, except the removal of theoperator from the event or the environment which is producing stress. The abovementioned hormones dissipate, and their production is significantly reduced once theevent causing the stress has ended.

Subconscious forces

Some psychoanalysts state that phobias may be passed from childhood experiences.An example of this could be where as a child the individual was trapped within somesmall room or object. The anxiety created at this time might be shifted into thesubconscious mind and remain as an unclarified source of anxiety into adulthood.The anxiety could be known to the individual i.e. he/she knows consciously that theyhave this feeling. However, it could be subconscious and the person may not beaware of this particular fear. Therefore the person may be attempting to avoid thethreat e.g. missing the actual entry involvement during a confined drill period byacting defensively. This defensive behaviour may work by temporarily relievinganxiety and it tends to be repeated i.e. a habitual response.

Every person has a different biological make up and understanding these effects andlearning how to control them should be phased into training programmes whenpreparing for confined space rescues.

Control Techniques

There are any number of control techniques that may be used to overcome thepsychological factors encountered at an USAR incident. Some of these are listedbelow, but remember that you as an individual should use whatever works for you.

Behavioural training

Behavioural training is one method of learning how to control the effects ofclaustrophobia. An example of this method is an attempt to alter childhood memoriesthrough open discussion and a subsequent re-evaluation of learned responses.Primarily this involves the person having direct exposure to a phobic situation. Thiscan be included into training sessions by progressively making the situation moredifficult as the individual demonstrates more ability and psychological stability. Thiscandid expression of anxieties previously experienced can allow for a measuredtraining response to be produced, tailored for the individual.

One theory, which supports this type of psychological progression, is the gradedexposure method, or step by step approaches to the anxiety-creating situation.

When one considers the confined space scenario, these steps include:

1. Identify the anxiety creating mechanism, in this case entering the confined space.



2. Grade the fear as it relates to individuals, least fearful to most fearful. Forexample:

• being in a room with the door closed• within an elevator• the thoughts of entering a confined space• confront a confined space• entering a confined space• proceeding through a confined space

Once the person can visualise a mildly fearful situation without feeling unduly anxiousthen they move up the hierarchy to a more anxiety-provoking situation.

Contextual Therapy

A therapy developed by Doctors Zane and Milt suggest a 6-point program for phobiarelated anxiety control called "Contextual therapy". The following example outlinesthese steps when related to a confined space entry.

• Expect, allow and accept that fear will ariseThe phobic reaction will be triggered spontaneously once the rescuer steps into thephobic situation. Don't fight these pre incident feelings. Understand the anxiety will bepresent and be prepared for it to happen. The objective is to control the process asthe fear intensifies.

• When the fear arrives, wait, let it beThe concept is to slow down the automatic fear generating thoughts and expectationsby taking one step at time. One way of achieving this is to create a goal, e.g. enterthe confined space and concentrate on access and means of assisting the casualtyto safety. In adopting this approach one is attempting to move cerebral energytowards accomplishing the goal.

• Focusing attention on the rescueTraining for these situations requires focussing on moving from point A to B andaccomplishing the goal. The feelings of anxiety can be greatly reduced byconcentrating on these objectives.

• Grade fear responses 1 to 10Monitor the fear levels by taking the occasional readings during the operation. Thisgrading helps analyse the anxiety by making the individual an outside observer.Imagined horrors are given a more realistic understanding allowing the study ofreactions to be a means for controlling the fear.

• Learning to function with levels of fear and appreciating achievementThe controlling of fear is self-preserving and assists in keeping the mind alert.

• Appreciate and accept that fear will reappearFear in these situations will reappear and the individual must appreciate that this reoccurrence is not a setback. Knowledge of this phenomenon can help the individualprepare during training under anxiety creating conditions.



The primary comparison between both theories involves confronting and entering theenclosure, preferably under a training environment, so that the reactions are notunexpected and potentially dangerous.

Paradoxical Intervention

This control technique involves the individual exaggerating the symptoms andfeelings of anxiety, e.g. a person thinking they would faint if they went higher than twofloors. This sometimes humorous approach has a means of diminishing thesymptoms by taking control of them. Training in the area would allow persons tobecome familiar with fear producing situations.

Practical considerations

Example: normal self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) can be bulky andawkward in a confined space operation. This physical restraint adds to the difficultiesalready being encountered by the rescuer. Airline equipment is preferred forbreathing apparatus because:

• Total body bulk is reduced and this provides more freedom of movement andassists by giving the person a greater feeling of confidence.

• This increase in confidence allows the rescuer to concentrate on the rescue andnot on feelings of confinement.

The tight working areas, electrical and mechanical devices, numerous obstructions,extremes of temperature combined with poor lighting and long access time ensureany rescuer will be pushed to their physical and mental limitations.

Compound all this into a hazardous atmosphere and a "cocktail" for a serious incidentis assured.

The confined space rescue demands tactical decisions such as ventilation, casualtyaccess, assessment and removal. These are entirely different from the more typicalrescue problems.



CIMS Overview

Background of ICS

The Incident Command System used in New Zealand is CIMS, Co-ordinated IncidentManagement System. It incorporates modern management principles and has beenmodified and adapted for New Zealand. The system has been used in the USA since1970s and was introduced into Australia in the 1980s

An Incident Command System is designed for both planned and unplanned eventssuch as fires, earthquakes, floods, riots, HazMat, motor vehicle accidents, parades,etc.

CIMS is a subject in its own and all rescue workers should complete an Introductionin Co-ordinated Incident Management System. The Unit Standard for Introduction inCIMS is required as part of the Orange Card.

Major responsibilities of the Incident Controller

The Incident Controller is responsible for the overall direction of response activities inan emergency situation and is the person in charge at an incident. The IncidentController fulfils all management functions and responsibilities until the incidentrequires additional appointments.

The major responsibilities include

• Establishing command and control• Establishing the Incident Command Point (ICP)• Protecting life and property• Controlling personnel and equipment• Maintaining accountability for responder and public safety, as well as for task

accomplishment• Establishing and maintaining effective liaison with outside organisations including

the Emergency Operations Centre (EOC), when it is activated

Incident Management Structure

INCIDENTCONTROLLER

PLANNING /INTELLIGENCE

LIAISON

SAFETY

INFORMATION

LOGISTICSOPERATIONS



Initial Action StrategiesThe following points of information were learned from the Oklahoma City Bombing,and are equally valid at any operation:

Constantly gather information

Gather information of resource and situation status to allow for effective planning andlogistical management.

Set up communications quickly

Use mobile phones and ES Liaison Simplex Channels for the Incident ManagementTeam. Learn how to use ES Liaison Simplex/Duplex channels on your radios.

Limit supervisory staffing

Limit the number of people supervising the logistics area, and make sure they all usethe same system.

Have an inventory control ready

Have an inventory control system set up before an incident occurs, and updateresources on a readily available computer. These computer systems should havefacilities to update resources as they arrive, and allow for the operators to preplanlogistics requirements.

Centralise logistics

Have only one logistics area for the entire incident, and for all attending agencies.This helps to prevent duplication of resource requests.

Determine the estimated length of the incident

Plan accordingly, ensure future staff replacements are forecasted and arrangedincluding logistical support for new staff.



HazardsThe USAR incident often has many hazards. These are combined in an environmentthat is unfamiliar and can overwhelm the large percentage of untrained rescuers.

There are six major hazards that can be grouped into two areas, Situational andEnvironmental. Each of the six major hazards is a challenge in itself but as long asthe trained rescuer maintains awareness and addresses each hazard in the correctmethod, a successful outcome can be achieved.

Situational• below debris hazards• surface hazards• overhead hazards• structural instability

Environmental• hazardous materials• utilities

Picture 4. The terrorist attack on the Pentagon (Sept 11 2001) containednumerous situational and environmental hazards.



Situational hazards

Below Debris Hazards

These can be defined as those below the finished ground or debris surface heightand may include

• flooding• oxygen deficient atmosphere• toxic environments• flammable environments• different levels of elevation

An oxygen deficient atmosphere, flooding and toxic or flammable environments mightbe encountered by rescuers as they descend below the debris. Atmosphericmonitoring and the elimination of ignition sources are essential. Adequate lightingand ventilation is necessary and as rescuers move deeper below the surface thegreater the requirement for shoring.

Before stepping onto surfaces first probe for false floors and differences in elevation.Keep in mind that after a building collapse the orientation of floors may be altered.

Flooding

This is not only a hazard to those persons trapped in the vicinity of the flooding butalso the rescuers working above. The flooding may be a static level or dynamic(raising, flowing or falling) all of which can effect the debris pile’s stability andcomposition.

Oxygen deficient atmosphere

The possibility of an oxygen deficient atmosphere is always present in an USARincident. As the stability of the structure has been compromised the normalatmosphere may have also been altered. For instance there may be living personstrapped in the void and their breathing is lowering the oxygen content or the personsare deceased and their bodies are starting to decompose.



Picture 5. Atmospheric monitoring must always precede entry to a void!

Toxic environment

The toxic environment may exist from stored hazards, which have been released dueto the collapse of the structure. Personal protective equipment must be worn at alltimes to reduce the risk of injury.

Hazardous material

As with all HazMat incidents the correct level of protective clothing and equipmentmust be used to ensure personnel safety. Set procedures must be adopted andspecialist advice will, in many cases, be required.

If unsure, questioning witnesses and survivors can give clues as to the type ofoccupancy of the building.

Pre-planning and local knowledge are useful tools to determine the possibility ofhazardous material.

Hospital and research institutes usually contain radioactive material and compressedgases; similarly chemicals are commonplace in many industries. For moreinformation on identifying hazardous materials, consult to your own agencies HazMatdocumentation or see you local Dangerous Goods Inspector.

Flammable environment

These could occur from ruptured storage tanks or lines. Obviously ignition sourcesmust be eliminated and the atmosphere rendered safe.

Different (or Altered) elevation



The surfaces that were once ceiling and walls can now appear to be the floor. Asrescuers move into voids to search, the surface on which they are working cannot beguaranteed as being stable. As the search proceeds debris will continue to settle andfurther altered levels may be encountered throughout the structure.

Note; in the Oklahahoma bombing (1995) a Fire fighter fell four floors frombasement level 2 to basement level 6 as he stepped through a doorway.

Surface Hazards

Rubble found at a structural collapse could weigh from less than 1 kg to severaltonnes. The quantity and position of the debris can add to the complexity of therescue. Nails, reinforcing bars, steel, conduit, electrical cables and copper piping maybe exposed or found just below the surface.

Rain, snow and ice can also create slippery conditions as well as hiding sharpsurfaces and holes. The hazards on the surface can depend on the nature of thecollapse, and the cause of the collapse.

The surface hazards could be largely affected by the weather and time of incidentand could include:

• snow and ice (sub zero temperatures)• slippery and uneven surfaces• sharp and jagged objects• pooling of water• dust and wind• noise and vibrations

Climate

Inclement weather and poor building construction may be the factors that lead to abuilding collapse and it is these same weather conditions that the rescuer will beworking in. In sub zero temperatures ice and snow will cause surfaces to becomeslippery, especially if working with hydraulic cutting equipment using water, snow willhide voids and levels, conceal sharp objects, reduce visibility and possibly imposeadditional weight on the structure.



Surfaces

In the debris pile the surfaces will be uneven and unsound, creating slippery anddangerous conditions. These conditions will exist well into the incident and willrequire the rescuer to move with caution at all times.

Note: the use of a lower body height and the debris crawl will assist in the safetransition of the debris pile.

Sharp and jagged objects

Care must be taken to avoid sharp and jagged objects in the debris pile in the USARenvironment. Personal protective equipment and vigilance while moving on the scenecan help to prevent unnecessary injuries.

Pooling of water

A pool of water can appear shallow although it could be deep enough to drown theunwary. If the water must be traversed then probing for depth and soundness ofbottom should first be carried out. Buildings may have internal swimming pools oropen tanks and knowledge of these will assist rescuers to avoid these types ofhazards.

The pools of water may be from broken water mains, sewage lines or local flooding.Considerations must be given to the origin of such pools and the subsequent removalof the water.

Dust and Wind

After the collapse of the structure the dust can be suspended for extended periods,further to this any cutting will also contribute to this problem. The use of dust masks isessential to protect the rescuer.

The wind if present will contribute to the plan of attack as this will have an effect onseveral aspects of the rescue. These include the stability of the structure, the amountof dust produced and the carriage of sound.

Noise and Vibrations

The noise on a site must be kept to a minimum as this will facilitate effectivesearching and afford the rescuers a warning of the locations of victims and some prewarning of the structure under stress, which may lead to secondary collapse.

The vibrations that can be caused by the use of heavy cutting tools and machinerymust be closely monitored to keep vibration at a minimum. This will allow for earlydetection of victims and aid in the stabilisation of the debris pile.Overhead Hazards



The phrase look up and live is an appropriate catch cry in the USAR incident as thedangers from above can kill the unwary. This can range from the falling debris in theevent of further collapse to the dropping of a load by a crane during debris clearance

.

Picture 6. The only rescuer killed after the Bombing at Oklahoma (April 1995)was a civilian nurse who died after being struck by a computer whilst she was

attempting to remove surface casualties.

Although the threat is likely to be obvious in daylight, at night it could be overlooked.Sections of the structure can be disconnected from their tie points and be susceptibleto failure due to the wind or after shocks in the event of an earthquake.

All overhead hazards must be stabilised or removed before lower level rescueoperations commence.

Large sections of floors, walls, ceilings and building contents can be left hangingoverhead after a structural collapse. These can suddenly fall, especially inaftershocks and high wind conditions.

Low hanging power lines can cause a tripping or electrical shock hazard. A brokenconductor could energise any material capable of conducting electricity. Very highvoltage (11,000 volts) is fed into many larger buildings. The high voltage is reducedto 415 volts within the building. Power must be isolated prior to commencing rescueoperations and expert advice is required to ensure site safety.

Ornamental plasterwork, loose windowpanes and broken panes of glass, neon signsand any other structure that can fall must be secured or removed before workcommences. Rescuers must not work under cranes or machinery employed toremove hazards and rubble.



Structural Instability

Areas where structural instability can occur are walls, columns, beams, floorassemblies, overhangs, roofs and unconnected walls or parapets. Fallen trees, lowhanging power lines and building contents can place a load on structural elements.Chain link fences can be “loaded” if unbroken and under stress and have thepotential energy to create further damage and collapse.

The method in which a building is tied together is critical to prevent further collapse.Moving or removing any load-bearing element can cause other building elements tocollapse and load bearing elements may be under heavier loads and stresses thanthey are designed to carry. Some pre-collapse non-load bearing elements maybecome load bearing after the collapse. An elevator car or counterweight’s guide canbe separated from the rails and hoisting cables and could be in danger of falling.Points to consider include:

• consult structural engineer wherever possible• columns and other load bearing members should only be cut as a last resort and

only when properly shored• when shoring, only apply enough force to maintain the member or assembly in its

existing position• secure pneumatic shoring devices by hand• be aware of the location of elevators, especially when working adjacent to an

elevator shaft

The cause of the collapse will result in a type of structural failure. These causes canrange from natural events such as:

• earthquakes• flooding• wind• landslide

Structural collapse and failure can also result from man made events such as;

• fires• explosions (terrorist, accidental)• inadequate construction methods

In each of these situations the size of the destructive forces, combined with thephysical aspects of the structure will all influence the degree of damage. The amountof the structure left standing and its type add to the possibility of further collapse(secondary collapse).

The design factors of the load bearing structural members (beams, columns andfloors) are all compromised in the emergency situation. The additional loads placedon the remaining structure could place it at the verge of collapse. Load points on thebuilding will be altered so all possible care must be taken.

Rescuers as they penetrate into voids will place additional loads on the remainingstructure. These will have to be shored and braced to prevent further collapse. Beforeattempting to brace any structural load, experts in engineering should be consulted.



Picture 7. The scene of the terrorists attack on World Trade Centre(Sept 11 2001) shows the extent of devastation.

Environmental

Hazardous Materials

Hazardous materials in the collapse site or adjacent to it should always beconsidered. These could include materials stored on site or used in the construction.They may include:

• asbestos• various types of cylinders, e.g. oxygen, acetylene.• research materials ( biological, radioactive, or base chemicals)• pesticides• bleaches• acids, oils• contaminated waste products.

The type of use of the structure will give some information as to the likelihood ofthese conditions. Additional information could be obtained from pre - planning,survivors and any Fire Safety and Evacuation plans or Territorial Building Authority

The type of hazard that the rescuer will encounter will dictate the level of personalprotective equipment required. The physical and chemical properties of the materialwill determine the type of threat, be it respiratory, direct contact or skin absorption tothe rescuer and the victims alike.



Utilities (services)

The disruption of gas, water and power services will further complicate a rescue at acollapse incident. The escape of gas causes two areas of concern. The first is thedisplacement of oxygen in a confined space and the second the potential for anexplosive mixture.

With the displacement of oxygen, the victims and rescuers could be overcome by thelack of oxygen. Ventilation or the use of breathing apparatus will assist, butatmospheric monitoring is essential to ensure a safe working environment.

If there is a risk of fire or explosion, cutting off the source of ignition and providingsafe and effective ventilation can reduce this threat.

Note: Constant monitoring of air quality throughout the rescue can reduce thelikelihood of explosion that would cause further casualties and greater injury.

Due to the additional weight and the possibility of trapped victims drowning, waterused for fire fighting purposes or from a ruptured pipe must be kept to a minimum andnot allowed to accumulate. Water soaked debris can also make manual removalefforts more demanding for rescuers.

Gas and water meters operating can indicate if either hazard is leaking or flowing andare usually situated at an isolation point.

In order to monitor Environment and Situational Hazards, a Safety Officer should bepart of each rescue team. The Safety Officer’s duties include:

• monitoring the scene for unsafe conditions and acts• warning team members of impending danger• ensuring crews are rotated as required• monitoring the location of the team and its mission



State of Equilibrium

Define state of equilibrium

State of equilibrium is where a building (or part thereof) is stable in its currentsituation in the absence of external influences (additional weight or movement due topeople working on the pile, earth tremors, wind, vibration, train passing nearby etc).

Importance of monitoring

Eliminate and minimise any factors that may affect the state of equilibrium. Cordonthe area and stop trains and masses of bystanders running over collapsed structure

Ensure a Safety Officer (Look Out) is appointed and watches for indicators ofsecondary collapse

Locate machinery and appliances away from the hot zone where possible.

Check weather forecasts for possible wind changes and rain that may significantlyaffect the state of equilibrium

Safe Working Practices

Safe Working Practice Groups

The safe working practices that are used in an Urban Search and Rescue incidentare those that are derived from combating the hazards and effective managementpractices.

These are in three generalised groupings:

• personal• planning• general

Personal

Personal protective equipment is covered earlier in this manual. Refer to the sectionas required. In addition to wearing your full personal protective equipment, thefollowing guidelines should be followed:

• look out for sharp objects• stand well clear of materials being removed or lifted clear of debris• establish an escape route• work in a minimum crew size of two



• work only in your established work zone• monitor your fellow workers for signs of fatigue

Picture 8. Urban Search and Rescue operators monitoring the progress of oneof their colleagues.

Planning

The basic plan of the USAR incident is SURVEY / STABILISE and SEARCH. In orderfor this approach to be effective, all persons involved in the incident must effectivelyuse information.

Information must be:• collected• collated• interpreted AND• disseminated

With this in mind, effective planning should include, but is not limited to the following:

• conducting reconnaissance and survey• establishing work zones• monitoring position of building• rotating crews on a frequent basis• providing temporary shelter and rest areas for rescue crews• developing a system for warning rescuers working in hazardous areas• monitoring and co-ordinating the use of plant and equipment.



General Safety Considerations

• safe working distance from weakened walls is 1.5 times the height of wall• atmospheric monitoring• eliminate sources of ignition• don’t use gas pressure to set pneumatic shores• provide adequate ventilation and lighting• use the services of experts (structural engineers, chemists)• cut columns only as a last resort• use a safety check list and crew timers

Confined Space Operations

Confined space definition

The confined space entry and rescue represents one of the most challenging anddangerous rescue operations undertaken by rescue workers today. The increasinguse of confined areas for construction, industrial and Government Customs andExcise purposes means rescuers must be aware they need to develop specialisttechniques for these dangerous environments.

The following description of a confined space has been adapted from an articlewritten by Deputy Firemaster Geoff Williams, Central Scotland Fire Brigade,Scotland.

"Any space that has a limited means of egress, not intended for continualoccupancy, which may have the potential for an oxygen deficient or hazardous

atmosphere or where the potential for engulfment may occur"



Picture 9. Confined space rescue in progress.

Confined space protocols

A confined space is any area that is not intended for human occupancy and that alsohas the potential for containing a dangerous atmosphere.A confined space:

• is large enough for a worker to enter and perform assigned work

• has limited entries and exits

• may contain a hazardous atmosphere arising from chemicals, sludge orsewage

• may contain flammable material or gasses

• is constructed so that anyone who enters could be asphyxiated or trapped bywalls or floor that converge to a small cross-section, such as a hopper

• contains a material, such as sawdust or grain, that could engulf anyone whoenters

• trenches that are greater than your waist in depth

• any place that access to a victim may be restricted



Examples of confined spaces include wells, silos, pits, cellars, tanks and vessels,manholes, utility tunnels, culverts, caves, collapsed structures and large-diameterpipes and ducts.

USAR Responders are NOT permitted to engage in confined space operationsunless endorsed to do so (Orange Card) and have all safety procedures in place.

If, as a responder, you are faced with a confined space incident you must advise theincident controller the need for Task Force or specialist teams.

You may be able to ventilate the area from the exterior to assist in stabilising thepatients’ condition. This should only be done after seeking expert advice from aHazMat or Confined Space Technician.

For further information on working in a confined space consult your agenciesStandard Operating Procedures or consult the NZ standards documentAS/NZS 2865:2001 (Safe Working in a Confined Space)

Picture 10. A void from which a survivor was removed following a structuralcollapse is an example of a confined space.



Occupancy InterviewsQuestioning witnesses and survivors can give clues as to the type of occupancy,potential or known hazards and provides clear working zones of the building. It alsoprovides newly arriving teams with an organised operations area.

Primary occupancy interviews

• who lives in which room• colours of ceiling or floor tiles• floor coverings and furniture types• potential for occupancy and hazards (chemicals, electricity, animals)

Other occupancy interviews

• time of collapse (and secondary collapse)• has the building been searched before?• availability of building plans (floor evacuation maps)• location of utility main switches etc• what have you heard or seen

Information management

• team leader to conduct interview• record all information in your notebook with date/time as well as name and

address of interviewee as it could be used as legal evidence• report relevant information back to Emergency Operations Centre or dispatch as

per agency protocol• brief your team on intelligence gathered

Construction Methods & Hazards

Common building construction types

When considering the structural collapse potential of buildings, there are five principalconstruction types to consider. The references to these types of construction arecommon throughout New Zealand, and for that matter most of the world.

• Timber frame• Reinforced masonry• Unreinforced masonry• Concrete tilt-up• Reinforced concrete and steel frame



These construction types will all react differently when subjected to forces that lead toa structural collapse. The following descriptions will give you some idea of what toexpect, but there may be large variations due to any combination of factors, but mostimportantly, the cause of the structural collapse will have the largest bearing uponhow the building reacts.

Identifying structural collapse hazards

Timber frame

E.g. Low-rise (up to 3 storeys) residential or school buildings.• Masonry chimneys can crack and collapse into or out from the structure.• House sliding off foundation.• Racking of walls (out of plum).• Displaced walls.• Openings can become out of shape (rectangular to parallelograms).• Masonry veneers can fall off the walls.

There is an extreme risk from fire in these structures due to the abundance of fuel.Due to their relatively lightweight nature and small size few people are seldomcomprehensively entrapped within timber residential collapsed structure.

Extreme care should be taken around significantly damaged or partially collapsedtimber framed buildings with heavy tile roofs. The disproportionately heavy upperlevels can quickly cause total collapse with a minimum of warning.

Reinforced Masonry

E.g. 1960’s onwards office blocks and residential or industrial buildings• Parapets and full walls fall off or out of buildings due to inadequate

connections to floors, roofs and surrounding frames.• During fires and earthquakes, connections (that hold the walls in to the

building) can break and cause complete fall out (rotation) of the whole .wall,like tilt-up concrete panels.

• Voids are normally formed by wooden or concrete floors in familiar patterns ofV, lean to floor and pancake formations.



Unreinforced Masonry

E.g. Brick or stone construction prior to mid-1930’s.• Unreinforced masonry infill has been known to fall off and often become

displaced from its surrounding frames.• Parapets and full walls fall off buildings due to inadequate anchors.• Multi thickness walls may spilt and collapse or break at openings.• Roof / floors may collapse if there are no interior wall supports and if the

earthquake has a long enough duration.• Voids are usually formed by wood floors in familiar patterns of " V ", lean to

and pancake formations.• Broken bricks often line the streets where these building are located and

people can become trapped on the pavements or in their parked or passingvehicles.

A number of un-reinforced masonry buildings have been strengthened in cities and inschools around New Zealand. Even if significantly cracked, strengthened brickbuildings are much less likely to collapse further due to traffic vibrations oraftershocks. The most apparent external sign of strengthening is the presence ofheaded bolts or plates along the walls at floor and roof levels.

Concrete Tilt-up

E.g. Warehouses with large floor areas and some newer medium-rise residentialbuildings.

• Walls separate from wood floors / roof causing at least local collapse of thefloor / roof, possible general collapse of walls and floor / roof.

• Suspended wall panels become dislodged and fall off the building.• During fires and earthquakes, the steel connections that hold the wall panels

to the primary frames can break and cause a pack of cards style collapse(sequential angle wall collapse).

Reinforced Concrete and Steel Frame

E.g. Most major new commercial buildings in town centres and cities.• Columns break at joints with other members• Reinforcement ties and bars do not confine concrete when subjected to high

shear and compression stress• Punching shear failure at intersection of slabs and columns• Precast floor slab units dislodge due to overall structure movement or

inadequate seating• Weak concrete and poor construction can worsen above hazards

Buildings constructed prior to the mid-1970’s typically have a lower level ofearthquake resistance than newer buildings. It wasn’t until this time that modernseismic codes came into being, with greatly improved proportioning and detailing ofkey structural elements.

Modern buildings therefore have the ability to deform significantly and still stay up,whereas earlier buildings are much more vulnerable to sudden, brittle collapse.



Collapse Patterns

Typical collapse patterns

There are ten types of possible structural collapse patterns, the first five being themost common. The remaining five require more specialised training in rescuetechniques, which is beyond the scope of this manual.

These patterns are the types that you are most likely to see as a result of structuresbecoming fire damaged, but the patterns are equally recognisable due to anycollapse factor.

1. Curtain Fall Wall Collapse2. Inward / Outward Collapse3. Lean Over Collapse4. Lean to Floor Collapse5. Angle Wall Collapse

A further five collapse patterns may be seen, but rescue following these collapsesusually involves accessing void and confined spaces.

6. Pancake floor collapse7. Inverted, " A " or tent collapse8. " V " collapse9. Cantilever collapse10. Progressive collapse

The majority of these structural collapse patterns are based on research andexperience following earthquakes.

It must be stressed that other collapse patterns and a combination of these collapsepatterns may occur. For example, building collapse following an explosion isdependent on a large number of factors that may or may not be predictable.



Curtain Fall Wall collapse

Occurs when a wall made of bricks or blocks falls like a curtain, i.e. drops straightdownward.

Inwards / Outward collapseOccurs when a wall made of bricks or blocks falls with the top portion of the wallfalling inwards and the bottom portion of the walls falls outwards.



Lean Over collapse

Occurs when wooden frame building collapses to one side.

Lean to Floor collapse

Occurs when a floor above ground level becomes dislodged from one side of thestructure and falls to the level below.

900 Angle Wall collapse

Occurs when a wall made of masonry, bricks or blocks collapses at a900 degree angle covering the ground with the wall for a distance of the height of thewall.



Pancake Floor collapseOccurs when a floor or ceiling falls flat downwards.

" V " collapse

Occurs when a floor or ceiling gives way in the centre and falls to the floor below.

Inverted, "A" or Tent collapse

Occurs when a floor or ceiling gives way in the centre resulting in the opposite of the" V " type collapse pattern.



Cantilever collapse

Occurs when a piece of floor, ceiling or wall falls landing on a stationary structure andleaves a large segment hanging over an open area.

Progressive collapse

Occurs when there is an initial failure of a single primary support member. A chainreaction of failures continues in a downward movement.



Secondary Collapse Indicators

Identifying the three secondary collapse indicators

There are a number of indications of the potential for a secondary collapse at anUrban Search and Rescue incident. The three most common signs that you shouldbe alert for are

• Movement in the structure

• Visual alertness

• Hearing alertness

Movement in the structure

• movement in any floor, ceiling and roof• movement of ornamental shop fronts• movement of unsupported or non-load bearing walls• movement of structural beams• columns and walls out of plumb• structural ceilings sagging

Visual alertness

• fire consuming location where sprinkler tank is housed• uneven surface, heavy signs on a section or the whole of the roof• cracks appearing in the exterior walls• sagging or bulging walls / chandelier shaking or swaying• large fire which has been unsuppressed for more than 20 mins involving 2 or more

floors• walls showing smoke or water seeping through



Picture 11. Cracks in a wall showing smoke seepage and potential for collapse.

Hearing alertness

• creaking and groaning types of noises coming from the building / structuralelements

• interior explosions, rumbling noises, hissing sounds, electrical arcing• strong winds• safety warning signals

During Practical Operations

The way rescuers are deployed onto a structural collapse or for that matter, anybuilding on fire, can have an effect on the integrity of a building. The Team Leadershould always monitor the location of rescuers, as should the Safety Officer. Somepoints to be particularly aware of are listed below.

• Do not allow large numbers of personnel to work on external fire escapes,because the escape may become weakened and collapse.

• Ensure crews are reduced or instruct them to keep close to the building to reducethe leverage effect caused by standing close to railings.

• If a sense of soft feel / sponginess is felt walking on sections of roofs or floors,then it is a good indication that the integrity of the structural component may havebeen compromised.

• Prior knowledge of your response area is essential to ensure that crews areaware of any in built hazards that a building may have.

• One hazard may be large water tanks in buildings that are used as secondarysprinkler supplies or cooling towers. These are often on the 13th or 14th floor; it isunusual to find them above the 17th floor due to difficulties with water pressure.For example,



Structural Identification Systems

Importance of identifying structures

Structural collapse can occur for a variety of reasons, which include earthquakes,faulty construction methods, fires and explosions. The incident may involve singlestructures or, as found in many natural disasters, multiple structure damage spreadacross a large geographical zone.

It is possible, if called to a structural collapse incident that encompasses severalbuildings, for rescuers to be confronted with little or no identification and search andreconnaissance information.

Height, design and type of buildings and the magnitude and duration of thedestructive force responsible for the devastation are important factors. Combined,they determine the severity of damage that can make identification of individualstructures difficult.

Regardless of the number of structures involved - from a single structure to severalstructures - it is equally important to have a standardised system for identifyingindividual locations. Proper identification allows:

• structures to be individually identified• search and rescue to be conducted systematically and efficiently• a PSA (Priority Structure Assessment) to be conducted which determines the

highest potential for viable rescue opportunities• a hazard assessment and marking of any particular building prior to search and

rescue operations• an accurate method of allowing general and specific incident and site

documentation, e.g., events which took place at a given site at a given time• long term post-disaster identification of the site• overall site safety



Single structure – Side Label

The system adopted by New Zealand USAR is the one used in the US and Europefor identifying locations following both fires and structural collapses. This systemnominates the address, the street or address side of the structure as SIDE 1.

The other sides of the structure should be assigned numerically in a clockwisemanner from SIDE 1.

The structure’s interior should be divided into quadrants. The quadrants are identifiedalphabetically and in a clockwise manner starting from the area where SIDE 1 andSIDE 2 perimeters meet.

The central core where all four quadrants meet is designated, as QUADRANT E. Itmust be remembered that quadrants do not have to be symmetrical, and can bealtered to suit the needs of the incident.



Floor identification

Structural collapse incidents involving multi-floor structures must have each floorclearly identified. In the event of a partial or total collapse making this task not clearlydiscernible, the floors should be numbered as viewed from the exterior.

The ground floor should be designated GROUND and moving upwards the secondfloor designated FLOOR 1 and so on. Conversely, the first floor below ground levelshould be B-1, the second B-2 and so on.

Where there are multi-floor access to the building, the ground floor will be designatedby the main entrance. Other entrances such as the rear entrance may be severalfloors above or below the main entrance

Structure identification within a geographic area

As discussed earlier, it is important to clearly identify each separate structure within ageographic area. The primary method of identification should be the existing streetname and building number. If post-collapse site conditions do not allow this, thenPriority Structure Assessment teams should identify the street name and the areafrom the nearest named street junctions on each side of the incident. The area in thefigure below would be identified as the intersection of Brown Street and Smith Street.



Structures should also be assigned appropriate numbers to differentiate them. Ifpreviously existing street numbers have been obliterated, an attempt should be madeto re-establish the numbering system based upon one or more structures that stilldisplay an existing number. The front of structures are clearly marked using“International Orange” spray paint with the assigned number. The boundary frontageof individual structures is also indicated using the spray paint or barrier tape.

Identification of bridges, flyovers & trains

Structural collapses involving bridges and flyovers can be sectored into manageablesections along their length. Once again, the size of sectors will be based on theincident and geography of the area.

COLLAPSED BRIDGE

SECTOR A SECTOR B SECTOR C SECTOR D



Zone/barrier marking system (INSARAG)

General cordon markings (cordon banners, flagging, etc.) are to be used for smalldefined area. They can be enlarged to include other non-buildings (i.e., bridge,dangerous zones, security, etc.). Large areas may require barricades/fences/patrol/etc.

Operational Work Zone

Collapse/Hazard Zone

Other markings

Facility

All team facilities (medical facility, ICP, etc.) must be identified by team name (Iconicflags, banners, balloons, etc)

Vehicle

Vehicles must be marked with team name and function (flag, magnetic sign, etc.).

Teams

Response teams must be identified by country and team name (uniform, patch, etc.)

PELIGRO PELIGRO PELIGRO

PELIGRO

PELIGRO

PELIGRO

PELIGRO

PELIGRO

PELIGRO



FEMA Structure Hazard EvaluationThe FEMA Structure Hazard Evaluation is used by Task Force team members toindicate structural integrity and other dangers associated with the site. This is adifferent marking system to the structure/search assessment marking explainedunder the section labelled Search & Victim Marking System

Task Force members will place the markings adjacent to the safe entry point of thestructure. This marking system where appropriate will also occur inside the structureadjacent to rooms, hallways, stairwells, etc.

The marking consists of a 1m x 1m square box in international orange. The inside ofthe box may contain a “/” or and ‘X”

Safe Needs Shoring Unsafe

“HM” is placed on the outside of the box to indicate hazardous material and an arrowis located next to the marking to indicate the direction of safe entrance into thestructure should the marking need to be made away from the indicated entrance.

The example below indicates a safe point of entry to the left of the marking. Thestructure may require some shoring and/or bracing. The assessment was made on19 November by New Zealand TF1. There is also a risk of LPG in the building

19 Nov 1730 Hr HM - LPG NZ TF1



Collapse Plan PhasesThe following information is intended as a guide for those teams who initially respondto a structural collapse incident. It is not intended to become a Hard & Fast rule forofficers to adhere to regardless of what type of incident they are confronted with. Adegree of common sense must prevail, as flexibility is one of the signs of a good plan.

Since the Second World War and the Blitz experiences' of numerous major cities astandard plan was designed to ensure those involved in collapse rescue situationswere not prone to indecision and delay. This methodical approach was vital for teamsto perform in a professional manner. Over the passing years this basic plan of initialaction has been updated by numerous emergency agencies, however the basicstandard format still remains very similar to it's original concept. The following is adeveloped version of the plan combined into a mnemonic for ease of learning andremembering by the USAR team member.

PHASES OF A COLLAPSE PLAN

Reconnaissance & survey.Elimination of utilities.Primary surface search & rescue.Exploration of all voids spacesAccess by Selected debris removal.Terminate by general debris removal.

Reconnaissance & survey

When the rescue team arrives at the site the Team Leader should immediately sethis/her team to work attending to surface casualties which are not trapped and notwithin the collapsed structure. It may be that surface casualties have already beenremoved and in this case the rescuers will be instructed to go rapidly over the area,working in from the perimeter of damage to check that all such casualties have in factbeen cleared. It is the Team Leader‘s responsibility to ensure that work undertakenby others is properly completed. Therefore the Team Leader should consider specificassignments for incoming teams to perform a thorough site survey.

Surface casualties are not generally trapped in any way and would suffer mostly frominjuries inflicted by flying fragments. The work of attending to them or having themremoved could generally be nearing completion when the Team Leader returns fromhis/her reconnaissance provided the site is not too large an area.

It must be remembered that the Team Leader of the incident may change as theincident escalates. For more information on escalating incidents, consult with yourinstructor, or refer to your agencies Incident Management System manual.

Reconnaissance and survey work is not confined to phase 1. It should continuethrough all phases until the last casualty is located. What is implied by this phase titleis preliminary collecting of information and careful surveying which covers the wholearea and guides the Team Leader to his/her decisions on priorities and methods ofextrication.



The collecting of relevant information is an important part of rescue reconnaissance.It will assist in the technical work of extrication; it will also be beneficial to the TeamLeader to identify casualties and so save valuable time in accounting for missingpersons.

The following headings summarise the information which the Team Leader shouldseek from persons who know the area affected e.g. residents of nearby propertywhich is unaffected, local Police etc.

The extent of the area of damage that the team must cover needs to take intoaccount the hazards from damage to public services, e.g. gas, flooding, andelectricity. The nature of the damage and any particular hazards involved must alsobe considered and includes leaning roofs and walls, explosives, flammablesubstances or radioactive sources.

Compile a list of the normal occupants of damaged structures, plus particulars ofthose already rescued or who have left the area. Note the position of trapped victimsalready located; the suspected location of those who have not been contacted andalso any injuries demanding special attention and what treatment has previouslybeen given, (e.g. in the case of crush injury, what treatment has been given?).

The Team Leader should consider the removal of casualties, position of ambulanceloading points; position of a temporary mortuary; the use of medical teams etc.

To supplement the information on casualties already obtained it may be necessaryfor the Team Leader to question bystanders. It is very important in this connectionthat he/she should keep in mind the distinction between fact and opinion (orhearsay). Information secured from excited or distressed people is liable to begarbled, incoherent and misleading. The Team Leader should to use the services ofPolice Officers when collecting and checking information from bystanders. This wouldleave freedom for the work of observation that he/she must carry out.

The Team Leader should ensure a rapid tour of damaged buildings where casualtiesare trapped is undertaken. He/she should note the various forms of collapse andattempt to establish the likely position of casualties in the debris. The survey shouldform a preliminary plan for the extrication of casualties and develop a sequence ofpriorities.

It is advantageous to the Team Leader in this work if he/she is able to mentallyreconstruct the structure as it stood before the collapse. Local information may be ofassistance by comparing similar structures which are undamaged or less severelydamaged.

Hazards should be noted such as a wall leaning dangerously; a floor where asupporting wall is displaced; a gas filled basement; dangerous stairs etc.

All this must be done rapidly. A reconnaissance at this phase is general in nature andshould not be carried down to minute details. It is important that the Team Leadershould get back to the team as soon as possible and get them operating to a logicalplan. During this initial reconnaissance phase, the Team Leader (if possible) shouldbe accompanied by a member of the team who can assist in hazard assessment.



Elimination of utilities

Phase II is one of the most important phases and can often be overlooked becauseof the scene of carnage often presented to the initial responding teams. It is a vitalassignment of any team to ensure the elimination of all utilities is completed as soonas possible.

A broken gas pipe leaking flammable gas throughout the area can cause a severeexplosion and possible secondary collapse. Leaking gas can also accumulate inconfined spaces where victims may be trapped thus causing them to becomeasphyxiated and possibly die.

Damaged electrical wiring not isolated can cause fires to break out and possibleelectrocution of rescuers.

Leaking water can form at lower levels and victims have been known to drown inthese situations. Broken water pipes can cause mortar to form into sludge and causepossible secondary collapses throughout the debris.

Primary surface search and rescue

Slightly damaged buildings may be defined as structures in which the floors or roofshave not collapsed. These should be systematically searched and any injured ortrapped people attended to and removed. Care in approach and entry to this type ofbuilding is important. Floors that are still in position may be precariously supportedand temporary shoring may be required.

Where a number of structures have to be searched, it will be vital to adopt adisciplined Priority Structure Assessment (PSA), also a Hazard Marking System andSearch Marking System which will indicate clearly that all areas have been hazardassessed and searched by a USAR team. Agencies should teach their USAR teamsto understand these systems and how to apply them in practical situations.

If casualties are conscious a 'calling and listening period' may locate them (the Lineand Hail Technique is covered later in this manual). The Team Leader positionsteams along the fringe of the debris near the position where casualties are thought tobe trapped. They lie on the debris and if possible get their heads close to openingsthat go down into the debris. The Team Leader calls for silence on the site and ifnecessary asks the Police to ensure that silence is maintained while the calling lasts.Each team member in turn is instructed to call, using terms such as "rescue teamabove, can you hear me?" All listen intently for any answering sound from a trappedcasualty and if a reply or knocking sound is heard each rescuer indicates with anoutstretched arm in the direction from which they think the sound originated.



The Team Leader, observing the various bearings given by team members should beable to estimate the position of the casualty with a good degree of accuracy.

If there is no reply to the rescuers a good tactic is to try knocking on objects such assteel beams which go deep into the debris. This sound may reach the casualty eventhough the calls have failed to do so, and they in turn may be able to knock in reply.

When contact has been established the rescuer must question the casualty (if theyare able to speak). The questions should be confined to ones aimed at receivinginformation that will help the Team Leader in forming a strategic plan for theextrication. The nature of the casualty's injuries, for instance, is often significant inthis regard. How are they trapped? Are there any openings in the walls in theirvicinity? This latter question is of great importance. A lane cleared through the debrisin a straight line towards the casualty, for instance, may bring the rescuers up againsta blank wall. Such a clearance should be aimed at doors or windows or otheropenings formed in the walls by the collapse.

Once communication of this kind has been established with a person it should, as faras it is possible, be maintained for the following reasons:

• It helps to maintain the casualties’ morale. It helps them to withstand whateverpain and discomfort they may be suffering and may even give them sufficient hopeto keep them alive.

• It helps rescuers to work in the right direction - sometimes a difficult matter in thedark.

• The victims, if sufficiently conscious, may be able to give warning of anydisplacement or movement in the debris likely to cause them further injury, or giveinformation of any other casualties whom may be located nearby.

• Conversation with a trapped person must always be of a reassuring nature.

Exploration of all voids and spaces

In this phase rescuers explore all places where trapped casualties might havesurvived the collapse even when there is no evidence of the presence of suchcasualties. Examples of survival points are:

• Sheltered parts of buildings likely to have withstood damage.• Voids under collapsed floor. (NB USAR teams must remember different Collapse

Patterns and void locations).• Under stairs.• Beside chimney breasts in older constructions (especially where there are

cupboards).• In basements.• In rooms which have not completely collapsed but where the entrance is blocked.



Access by selected debris removal

Phase V is generally associated with collapsed structures where casualties aretrapped by debris, but their whereabouts is known or can be inferred with reasonablecertainty. This locating of trapped casualties should be, where possible, verified bytechnical devices and/or canine search teams. This is vitally important at largeincidents where a multi-collapse situation exists with numerous victims reportedtrapped. Rescue teams must be deployed to a place where a high probability ofsaving life exists and not to a site where evidence of survival is minimal.

The rescue teams should make themselves familiar with the different types ofcollapse patterns and understand the locations where to start removing debris in anorderly manner and with the best chances of finding people alive.

It must be noticed that in general the casualty's chance of survival decreases witheach succeeding phase. Many persons buried under debris in this phase willunfortunately be dead but their positions nevertheless must be explored and allcasualties located before work starts on phase VI.

Terminate by general debris removal

When rescue teams have gone systematically through the first five phases and thereare still some casualties to be accounted for (or even in cases where parts of bodiesare still missing), the whole area must be stripped of debris until they are recovered.

Unless special orders to the contrary are given, a rescue operation must be carriedon diligently without interruption until phase VI is completed. Every person known orlikely to have been in the building must be accounted for. In the absence of specificinstructions to the contrary there should be no relaxation of effort until this phase isreached, no matter how long the work may take. It should never be assumed,because persons have not been extricated after several days' work that they must bedead and there is no further need for strenuous work. Persons have, in fact, beenrecovered alive after being trapped under debris for many days, for example, in the1976 Terngshan China Earthquake 459 people were rescued alive after 5 days.

It is impossible for even the most experienced USAR team members to tell from anexternal inspection of a pile of debris whether casualties buried in the debris will bealive or not. Even the most tightly packed debris may be quite loose underneath and,in fact, experience has shown that this is often the case.

When rescue operations are prolonged, work can be carried on continuously only byemploying relays of rescuers working at high pressure for short periods. Only in thisway can the attack be maintained with undiminished effort. Rescuers must not beallowed, in their own interest or in the interest of the rescue effort, to work until theyare exhausted. Few can carry on rescue work efficiently at really high pressure for acontinuous period of more than about four hours, and even though they may be keenand willing to work longer, it is much better to bring another team into action to effectrelief.

The question of how many teams can be spared for relief will need to be consideredby the Team Leader. It is his/her duty however, to call for a relief team as soon as



they know the operation is likely to be prolonged and prior to the team starting toshow signs of fatigue.

In this regard the Team Leader must bear in mind that it may take a relief team sometime to arrive because of distance, even if one is immediately available.

As has already been indicated, the Team Leader’s principal duties is to decide on thebest method of tackling the incident and to see that teams and equipment areemployed to the best possible advantage with the minimum risk. The Team Leader ofmethods is by no means an easy one largely because it is impossible to foreseeexactly whether or not certain strategies and tactics are going to be the most efficientuntil they have been tried. For example, almost insurmountable difficulties may beencountered in approaching a casualty from one direction whereas, later efforts mayreveal that an approach from another direction is much easier. Difficulties of this kindcannot be avoided, no matter how good the judgement and experience of the TeamLeader may be.

If sufficient rescuers are available, considerable time can be saved by trying differentapproaches simultaneously, although simultaneous action of this kind has thedisadvantage that unless the strictest command and control is maintained by theTeam Leader, the work of one team may endanger the lives of another. Two teams orhalf teams working simultaneously in the same site must always be under thedirection of one Sector Team Leader and not be allowed to work independently

` The six phases sequence gives the Team Leader a meaningful checklist and ahelpful order of priorities.

It does not suit every collapse scenario nor is it applicable to widespread areas ofdamage where a large number of casualties are involved e.g. mass area earthquake.It also does not take account of First Aid or Medical priorities; however it is structuredin being used as a starting point for operations to commence and flexible enough inapplication to be expanded into an overall large rescue strategy.



Warning Signals

INSARAG warning signals

At any Urban Search and Rescue operation, there needs to be a set of standard,internationally accepted signals that can be conveyed over the entire area ofoperations in case of an emergency. An example may be where another aftershockoccurs or a secondary explosive device is suspected or found.

There also needs to be a signal when search teams require quiet, for example if theybelieve they have heard a survivor, and need to fix a bearing on where they are.

The most commonly used apparatus for warning signals is the air horn, either a fixedmodel, or a portable rechargeable model.

Search crews will normally have a portable air horn with them in the structure, andwill sound it when required.

The Internationally accepted warning signals are:

Action required Signal

Evacuate 3 X short blasts

Cease operations, all quiet 1 X long blast

Resume operations 1x long blast followed by 1x shortblast

Short blasts = 1 secondLong blasts = 3 seconds

Other considerations

You can use whistles, portable air horns or vehicle horns. Ensure everyone is briefedon the method you will be using

The evacuation signal should be relayed by members of the team to ensure thateverybody on the work site can hear the signal.

During briefing remind the team that only INSARAG signals are to be used, asdifferent whistle signal systems are used in other rescue disciplines. ASTM RopeRescue Standard F1768-97 for down rope = INSARAG evacuate signal for example



Search & Victim Marking System

Structure/search assessment marking

The basic symbol consists of a 1-metre X 1-metre square box at the primary accesspoint into any compromised structure. The marking will identify any known hazards,whether it is safe to search (G or N), the team name and the start time and date ofthe search.

The structure/search markings should be made with florescent colour, preferably‘International orange’

Sample marking box

Completed marking box

Once a search has been completed a circle is put around the entire search marking

As the incident progresses, further information may indicate that the structure needssearching again, if this were the case a new search marking would be made by thenew search team.



Victim area marking

During the search function, it is necessary to identify the location of any known orpotential victim. The amount and type of debris in the area may completely cover orobstruct the location of the known or potential victim. The victim location markings aremade by the Search Team or other individuals conducting search and rescueoperations whenever a known or potential victim is located and not immediatelyremoved.

The victim location markings should be made with florescent colour, preferably‘International orange’

Potential Victim Location

Draw a large "V" near the location of the known or potential victim. The letter “L” with anumber will denote the number of live victims. The letter “D” with a number will denotethe number of dead victims.

Confirmed Victim Location

Draw an arrow beside the "V" when the location of a victim has been confirmed eithervisually, vocally or hearing specific sounds, which would indicate a high probability of avictim. This may be done when the victim is initially located or may need to be donelater after some debris removal or use of specialised search equipment. A canine alertwill initially receive the "V" without an arrow to indicate a potential victim.



Dead/Live Victim(s) Location

Only Dead Remain

Draw a horizontal line through the “V” to indicate only dead victim(s) remain.

Extricated All Victim(s)

A circle would be drawn around the "V" when all victims have been extricated from thatlocation.



Rubble CrawlWhen a rescue team arrives at a structural collapse incident one of the firstconsiderations for the Team Leader is surface casualties who are not trapped andnot within the collapsed structure. Where it is safe to do so, rescue teams canremove these victims to the casualty staging area. Surface casualties are notgenerally trapped in any way and are usually suffering from injuries caused by flyingfragments.

Rescuers working on a rubble pile need a co-ordinated team approach whensearching and subsequently rescuing victims. Rescuers should keep as low aspossible, watching where they place their hands and feet. Three points of contactshould be kept with the rubble pile at all times to ensure maximum stability. Fullsafety gear must always be worn and hazards such as protruding reinforcing barsshould be pointed out to all team members.

Picture 12. Highlights three points of contact with rubble and correct safetygear.



Line & Hail SearchOnce a zone has been identified, rescuers can conduct an audible search for trappedsub-surface victims. A collapsed area is selected and the rescue team members -except for the Team Leader - stand in a straight line approximately 1.5 metersapart. The Team Leader remains behind the line of rescuers ensuring he/she can seeall of the rescue team. The line of rescuers is numbered sequentially from the TeamLeader’s left-hand side, number 1, number 2, and so on.

Under the direction of the Team Leader the line moves 2 -3 metres forward into therubble pile and all rescuers crouch with their heads as low as possible. Rescuer No 1shouts the rescue call, “RESCUE TEAM ABOVE; CAN YOU HEAR ME?" The entirerescue team listens for a response for 15 - 20 seconds. If nothing is heard rescuer No1 will shout, “NOTHING HEARD”

This is the cue for No 2 to shout the rescue call and again, the rescue team listens fora response, then rescuer No 3 shouts the rescue call, and so on. Once all rescueteam members have shouted the rescue call and nothing has been heard, the linemoves forward 1.5 - 2 metres and the evolution is repeated. A large area of collapsecan be covered using the audible search method.



Rescuers who hear a call or any other noise coming from the collapse site must raisetheir arm until acknowledged by Team Leader. They must then point with their armfully extended in the direction they believe the noise is coming from and remain inthat position until otherwise directed by the Team Leader. The Team Leader can thenmove individual team members to pinpoint the source of the noise.

“RESCUE TEAM ABOVE, CAN YOU HEAR ME?”



During an audible search all unnecessary noise must be kept to a minimum. It mustalso be remembered that metal is an excellent conductor of sound. A person trying toattract attention below the rubble surface may tap steel RSJ with a piece of brokenconcrete or other hard object. The tapping sound at surface level, depending on thecollapse may be several metres away from the victim. It is worthwhile during theaudible search for rescuers to tap any protruding steel structural members with ahard object and listen for a response.

Casualties found buried or partly buried must be approached with extreme caution. Itcan be difficult to determine if these casualties are in a vertical or horizontal positionbelow the rubble. Debris removal must start a few metres from, and around, thecasualty. This prevents rescuers standing on any unseen parts of the casualty justbelow the debris if he/she is in a horizontal position and provides a reasonable step-down distance if the casualty is in a vertical position.

Picture 13. Category 2 Urban Search and Rescue operators preparing for a lineand hail search.

Identify casualties as soon as possible and mark the victim's location with a ‘V’painted in orange paint. The bottom of the ‘V’ should point towards the victim. It isimportant to mark the victim's location, for you may at any stage be evacuated orrelieved from the area, and a different crew may be assigned to remove the victim.

Ask the victim if they know of any other victims and where they are or were located.Always consider the possibility of Crush Syndrome for trapped casualties andconduct basic First Aid requirements as required.



Stretcher WalkCasualties should only be moved in a stokes litter, stretcher or other carrying device.Rescuers, working in a team of seven can use one member to “scout” in front of thecarrying team when removing victims from a structure. This person selects theeasiest route, identifies any hazards and informs the team. Keep in mind that theshortest route may not always be the easiest.

The carrying team, working three members each side, pass the stretcher forward,hand-over-hand, allowing the rear two members to release their hold of the stretcherand carefully move to the front of the team whilst the other four members bear theweight of the victim.

Clear, loud orders such as “BREAKING”, “SAFE”, and “PASSING” must be givenduring the operation. Team members need to rest at regular intervals and maintaintheir fluid levels. Protect and reassure the casualty during the rescue, know wherethe patient staging area is located before you commence return and relay relevantinformation to the Team Leader via situation reports (SITREP).

When breaking from the stretcher and moving forward, never lean on crewmembersholding the litter to support yourself. You may stumble and possibly cause themember supporting you to fall as well and as a consequence the rescue crew maydrop the stretcher and victim.

Picture 14. Stretcher handling exercise.



Further Reading

NZ Colour Light Stick Codes

Some specialist rescue teams in New Zealand use a Colour Light Stick codingsystem for night operations, this however is not an internationally approved codingsystem and some countries have their own system which differ from the systembelow.

Colour Use

Green Personnel & general illumination

Red Hazard/Danger – Keep Away

Blue Patient location/ID

Yellow Rope monitoring or as decided bycommand

Green/Red Team Leader

Operational Briefings

Formal briefings convey a large amount of important information in a logicalcomprehensive way. This process enables events to be managed more efficientlyand effectively either as a response to a known event or upon subsequent situationreports of an events magnitude

Often briefings are not given because the event seems so insignificant that thebriefing would seem ‘over the top’ and a source of ridicule. With the benefit ofhindsight it would have, in a number of situations been beneficial.

A common briefing pneumonic used in many countries by Defence Forces andEmergency Services is called SMEAC. In New Zealand this has been modified and iscalled SMEACQ (Situation, Mission, Execution, Administration and Logistics,Command and Communication, Questions)



Situation (introduction, terrain & risk)

Give the team enough information on the current activity to enable them to completetheir tasks. If this is a continuation from a previous activity then it may only include anupdate on that briefing.

When covering the terrain also mention the current location. Should you or a memberof your team suffer harm it is important that other team members know where todirect other emergency crews to for assistance

Ensure your team is advised of risks that they may have to deal with, e.g. tide times,gas, power, unstable or slippery surfaces, etc.

Mission

This is a concise statement of what is to be achieved by the team and is for theparticular briefing been given. You should state the mission and then restate it again;your team must leave the briefing knowing what the mission is.

Execution

Give a brief overview of how the mission will be achieved. Describe each personsrole and what they are to do, but keep it simple. Cover details like sequencing ofevents, priorities, key timings, etc.

Administration and Logistics

This section covers essential administration and logistic information regarding themission. It may contain information on vehicles, equipment, stores, forms to becompleted and even when lunch is.

Command and Communication

Give details on who is in charge and whom the team or members within the team areto report to. You should cover how reporting to the person in charge should takeplace, i.e. by whom, through what process and when.

When covering communication you may wish to remind the team of light stickcolours, radio call signs, phone and fax numbers, whistle and evacuation signals, etc.

Questions

It is important to ask the team if they have any questions to ensure they understandtheir role. Once all the questions are answered it is important to check theirunderstanding of the briefing. This can be achieved by asking several team membersquestions about what was covered in the briefing. If the person giving the briefing haslearned the Pose, Pause, Pounce, Praise method of questioning, it should be used.



The use of the SMEACQ format for briefings can be great time saver as well as achecklist for the team leader. It should be used in any situation where a briefing isrequired.

Other guidelines you should consider:

• Briefings may be given daily, or more frequently as situation demand

• Briefings should be brief but to the point , it is not a discussion on what should bedone or a detailed guide on how to perform each task

• Do not allow discussion during the briefing as it may distract others

• Have the team take notes as they may have to relay the briefing to othermembers of your team as they arrive

• Ensure that everyone who the briefing is intended for is present

• Advise the team you are about to give a formal briefing

Team effectiveness

Any incident requiring the mobilisation of an USAR team is likely to be conductedover a long time frame. The incident is likely to require the resources of more thanone agency, and possibly even the need for USAR teams from regions.

Each person at an USAR incident must realise that there are a number of roles thatcombine to make an effective USAR team. In particular, the Incident Controller has anumber of roles that increase with the size of the incident.

An example of the need for USAR teamwork was the bombing of the Alfred P Murrahbuilding in Oklahoma City, 1995. The rescue operations at this incident involved 682USAR Trained personnel, 20 search dogs, 460,000 pounds of rescue equipment,1000 Oklahoma City Fire Department members, and 100's of Local and State Policeand Federal Agents. The co-ordination and control of an incident of this magnituderequires effective teamwork at all levels of the operation.

Each individual who responds to a USAR incident will have a different role to playthat is dependent upon their agency’s role. These roles are primarily legislative, andwill be in accordance with each agency’s SOP's.



Effective teamwork

In order to achieve effective teamwork, there are three sets of needs that have to bepresent. These are:

Task NeedsTeam Needs

Individual Needs

Task needs are the successful concluding of the incident itself, and the task you willbe required to perform based on legislation, resources, training etc.

Team needs are how you fulfil your role as a team member, and what your team isrequired to do.

Individual needs are how you perform at the incident, and how you cope with thework and stress of the incident.

One of the problems that face any team is that each individual may have a differentperception of how these three needs fit together.

For example, at an incident, one person's perception may be like the diagram below,with their task needs being the dominant factor.

Another's perception may have a greater emphasis on the team as shown in thediagram below.



This is called personal paradigms and means that each individual has a differentperception of the incident based on how they feel, their experience, what they knowand what they have been told.

The role of the Team Leader is to ensure that each part balances, and whencombined with the personal traits of the individual, the team is working towardsreaching the objectives set by the Incident Controller.

This requires you to understand where you fit into the overall team, to understandthat your perception of an incident may not be the same as that of the IncidentController, and that you are a part of a team working towards an overall objective.

At different stages of an incident, there will also be a different relationship betweenthe three parts.

For example, when you arrive at an incident, the relationship may look like thediagram below with the greatest emphasis being on the task at hand.

But after four or five days at an incident, as you become tired and stressed, therelationship between the parts may begin to look like the diagram below as yourindividual needs become greater.

In order to ensure that the overall incident objectives are always met, Team Leaderswill need to continually monitor their team and how their three sets of needs arebalanced.

It needs to be impressed upon all individuals who attend an incident, that not everyindividual team member can be working at the 'coal face' conducting rescues. Youragency will have a role, and through your agency, your role will be defined. All of this



information is used by the Incident Controller and Incident Management Teamtowards formulating an objective for the effective completion of the incident.

In summary, each person has an individual role that helps ensure that the overallincident objectives are met. Despite these different roles, you are still a part of ateam, achieving its task.

In theory, the ideal balance of task team and individual needs should appear like thecircles shown below.

Different types of people within a team.

In order to effectively manage an USAR incident, the Incident Controller and eachTeam Leader, must be aware of the way individuals approach their work. Dr SusanSegal has identified four different approaches that people have to work, these are:

BULLETS An example of a bullet will be a responder whooften goes straight into an incident, withoutweighing up the consequences of their actions,and possibly putting themselves at risk.

DIGGERS An example of a digger is someone who doesnot like to make a quick decision, but wouldrather weigh up the facts before acting.

INVOLVERS An example of an involver is the person whokeeps the group together and provides harmony.

DREAMERS An example of a dreamer is someone who hasall the creative ideas, but relies on the rest of theteam to make them a reality.



BulletsGive job progressNot good managersTask orientedMake things happenRisk takersWilling to compromiseMotivated by results

DiggersLike information in writingDo not like quick decisionsNeed proof of everythingVery thoroughWill not compromiseNeeds lot of time to thinkMotivated by recognition as an expert

InvolversThere to promote harmonyThink about people and likely reactionsMake people rather than task things happenWill compromiseMotivated by acceptance and belonging

DreamersInnovative lateral thinkersCreativeTheir thought processes are conceptualCan facilitate changeNot good at implementationUsually generate enthusiasmDislike detailMotivated by recognition or ego.

Each person will have an assigned job at an incident, whether that is medicalsupport, logistical support, or rescuer. In addition to how you approach your work asan individual, the team that you form a part of will go through various phases before itis able to function effectively.



Picture 15. Teamwork is essential to ensure operations such as this areconducted effectively!

Phases of Teamwork

Tucklan's model for teams defines four specific stages that a team will go throughwhen they are put together. The first four phases that any team goes through are:

Forming (Either at the incident or before)

This is the stage where the team comes together, establishes a structure andidentifies common goals.

Storming (Each person having a different view of the objective)

This is the stage where conflict occurs normally due to the issues of autonomy withinthe group, and dependence on the group.

Norming (Working together as a team)

This is the stage where group goals are re established and group norms appear andare reinforced. Definite roles will appear for members that help the group to functioneffectively. If roles are defined before an incident, this phase can be reached quicker.



Performing (Meeting incident objectives)

This is the stage where group energy is now being channelled into the task. This iswhen the designated leader begins to take a less active and more supporting role.

These four phases will always occur to varying degrees whenever a team is formed.Sometimes teams never progress beyond the storming phase, and as a result,incident objectives cannot be met.

The final phase that some teams will go through is called the mourning stage, whenthe incident is over and the teamwork is no longer required. This is a topic beyondthe scope of this manual, and is an issue for Critical Incident Stress Debriefing(CISD) teams.

Phases of Team Formation

In addition to these four phases, there are another four phases that the formed teamwill go through. These phases relate directly to the four phases of teamwork and are:

Dependence (Upon each other)Forming

Independence (Different points of view)Storming

Interdependence (Working together as a team)Norming

Synergy (Getting more out than you put in)Performing

The appreciation process

The appreciation process is a simple method of problem solving which is effective inrescue situations. It involves the logical assessment of the situation, and thereconnaissance, and results in the formation of the workable plan.

The appreciation process consists of six steps:

Step One – Define The Problem

The problem to be solved, or task to be accomplished must be clearly defined. Theproblem may be too large or complex to be easily tackled, and may be divided into anumber of manageable elements, each with a set aim.



Step Two – State The Aim

The aim is a clear statement of what the team has to achieve in order to solve theproblem. The aim must be clear, concise, achievable, and expressed in positiveterms. The aim will form the mission statement in an operational briefing and shouldbe as simple as: “To rescue the casualty from the bottom of the lift shaft”.

Step Three – Consider The Factors

Factors are points relevant to the problem that has to be solved. Some factors thatmay have to be considered in an operational situation are:• Number and location of casualties• Time and space• Topography• Weather• Available resources, both personnel and equipment• Support requirements and availability• Communications• Logistics• Priority of tasks.

Each factor will lead to one or more logical deductions, so that the leader should bein a position to say: “If this is the case – then…”

Factors in an appreciation may be set out as in the following example:

Factor The casualty’s legs are trapped under a heavy steelbeam.

Deduction The rescue team must use cutting and liftingequipment to free the casualty.

Each factor should be thoroughly examined and care should be taken not tointroduce irrelevant facts into the examination.

Step Four – Determine Courses Open

All possible courses that will attain the aim and that are practical must be consideredin the ‘Courses Open’ segment. Only facts dealt with in the ‘Factors’ should beconsidered and no new material should be introduced at this stage.

Step Five – Decide On Best Course

At this stage, a choice must be made from one of the possible solutions developed bythe appreciation process. If more than one workable solution is produced and thebest course is not obvious, the following criteria should be applied to each:Risk — Which solution carries the least risk factor in its execution, or theconsequence of failure?Simplicity — Which is the simplest course?Time — If urgency is a factor, which course can be completed in the shortest time?Economy — In the terms of resources, which solution imposes the least demand?



Step Six – Plan

The plan will result from the choice of the best course open. That is, it will be thebest solution to the problem with the most advantages and the least disadvantages.The plan must be simple, and it must relate directly to the aim. When completed, theplan should be checked against the following test questions:• Is the reasoning sound?• Is it set out in a logical order?• Is everything relevant to the problem?• Has anything relevant been left out?• Is it free of uncertainties or ambiguities?• Is it accurate (positions, timings and so on)?• Has the aim been kept in mind throughout?• Can the plan achieve the aim?

Continuing Action

Having made decisions and deployed personnel, Team Leaders must ensurereconnaissance is continued with a view to allocating priorities for the furtherdeployment of resources.

Rescuers deployed on a particular building, damaged by blast or natural causes,should make careful observation of how that building has collapsed. The art ofrescue lies in being able to identify and exploit to the maximum, all debris formationssuch as voids etc, which can be used to facilitate access to casualties once theirwhereabouts have been fixed by firm information or inference.

Attempt to locate and identify the parts of the building and especially those parts inwhich casualties are reported to be. This will provide a rough idea where casualtiesmight be found in relation to the various parts of the damaged structure.

At times such as this, a leader will need to call upon all accumulated experience andtraining and combine them with effective decision-making



AcknowledgementsDeveloped by

Manager

Steve Glassey

Project Manager – USAR CAT 1 Course DevelopmentNew Zealand Fire Service – Training SystemsNational USAR Training Standards Committee

Author

Shane Briggs

Private Contractor to New Zealand Fire Service – Training Systems

On Behalf of

National USAR Steering Committee

Technical Editors

Ian Craig

USAR Technician (NZ TF-2)National USAR Standards CommitteeEnvironment Canterbury Civil Defence

Bernie Rush

National Rescue ManagerNZ-TF1 ManagerNew Zealand Fire Service

Dave Brunsden

Structural EngineerNational USAR Steering Committee

Editor

Daphne Sutton

New Zealand Fire Service – Training Systems



Acknowledgements

The author and project manager wishes to thank the following individuals andorganisations that have contributed to the development of this manual.

Bernie Rush, Jim Dance, Ian Craig, David Brunsden, Des Bull, Trevor Brown, LeonceJones, David Guard, Graeme Mills, Charles Ollivier, Daphine Sutton, Geoff Williamsand the following organisations:

• New Zealand USAR Task Force 1• National USAR Standards Committee• Federal Emergency Management Agency (USA)• New South Wales Fire Brigade• Australian Capital Territory Fire Brigade• Melbourne Metropolitan Fire & Emergency Management• Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management• Unit Nations: International Search & Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG)• Information Centre, Professional Development Unit (NZFS)• Assessment Coordination Team, New Zealand Fire Service• Cue Design

Photos

Picture 1. NZ Fire Service Information LibraryPicture 2. NZ Task Force 1Picture 3. NZ Task Force 1Picture 4 FEMAPicture 5. NSW Fire Brigade's Rescue sectionPicture 6. Chase Sargent Virginia Beach F.D. USAPicture 7. FEMAPicture 8. NSW Fire Brigade's Rescue sectionPicture 9. NZ Task Force 1Picture 10. S.O. Bruce Johnston WA Fire and RescuePicture 11. ACT Fire BrigadePicture 12. Pat Jones, ACT Fire BrigadePicture 13. NSW Fire Brigade's Rescue sectionPicture 14. NSW Fire Brigade's Rescue section

Download - NZ USAR Awareness Manual

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