LOCOMOTION AND TRANSPORTLOCOMOTION AND TRANSPORT
CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN HUMANS & ANIMALS
SUPPORT IN PLANTS
TYPES OF SKELETON
Muscles, ligaments & tendon
LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTSTERRESTRIAL
PLANTS
BirdsHydrostatic skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Fish
Axial skeletonAppendicular
skeleton
Grasshopper
Earthworms
LEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMES To explain the necessity for support and
locomotion in humans and animals,
To describe problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion,
To explain how problems in support and locomotion are overcome in humans and animals,
To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton of the human body
The Necessity for Support & The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsAnimalsWHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS NEED SUPPORT?
1.1. To find the foodTo find the food2.2. To find partner for matingTo find partner for mating3.3. To protect/escape from To protect/escape from
their predatortheir predator4.4. To shelter from bad To shelter from bad
environmentenvironment
The Necessity for Support & The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsAnimals
Without support, animals & humans would not be able to maintain their body shape their body collapse under the weight of their own tissues.
Support are provided by some form of skeleton.
Hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeleton endoskeleton
Support are provided by some form of skeleton:
1.Hydrostatic skeleton2.Exoskeleton 3.Endoskeleton
HYDROSTATIC SKELETONHYDROSTATIC SKELETON A fluid-filled internal body cavity in
which the fluid is held under pressure . This also can be usedd to maintan the
body shape & provide support for internal organ
The cavity is surrounded by muscles arranged in layers.
The body shape of the animal changes as these muscles contract & relax.
The animals are soft & flexible, the hydrostatic fluid does protect body parts by acting as a shock absorber.
Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpillar.
EXOSKELETONEXOSKELETON A rigid outer covering usually made up
of protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt.
Insects – the cuticle (covered with wax to prevent water loss from the body), cover the body’s surface.
The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged = certain points of the skeleton are flexible & can bend enabling the movement.
Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals the exoskeleton must be shed from time to time in order for the animal to grow. (ecdysis)
Also found in the shells of molluscs & the bony plates of tortoises.
Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise
ENDOSKELETONENDOSKELETON Found in the bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.
Consist of hard skeleton of bones & cartilage found inside the body – made up of calcium & phosphate.
Works with the muscular system to perform movement & locomotion. It support the body & protects the organs.
The Necessity for Support & The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsAnimals The functions of skeleton :
Provide shape & supportEnables movement (locomotion)Protects internal organsStores calcium & phosphate ionsProduces blood cellsA firm base for the attachment of muscles
The Necessity for Support & The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsAnimals
Problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion,
gravitational force, friction & resistance when moving around
Aspect need to be considered when describing the locomotion of an animal :-
Stability – when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but its stability will be restored when it stops.
Support – must have enough support from its body’s skeleton
Propulsion – must be propelled in order to move
HOW TO OVERCOME THE HOW TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS?PROBLEMS? RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by
streamlining their bodies.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most animals have their own supporting structures (fins – fishes, wings – birds & strong limbs – tetrapods & humans) provide the propulsive force to overcome the problem
The skeletal system together with its muscles are designed specially to overcome the problems associated with support & locomotion of humans & animals.
To initiate locomotion, the force required is generated by contraction of muscles, whereas the movement is transmitted by the skeleton.
THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEMTHE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM The adult human skeleton consist of 206
bones.
Divided into two main parts : the axial skeleton & the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that form the vertical axis of the body.
It supports & protects the organs of the head, neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)
The appendicular skeleton : made up of the bones that are attached to the axial skeleton.
Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.
FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONFUNCTION OF THE SKELETON
PROTECTION – the skull protects the brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord & the rib cage protects internal organs such as the heart.
SUPPORT – act as a framework to support the soft body parts, to maintain the upright position & to keep the body stable.
FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONFUNCTION OF THE SKELETON MOVEMENT – bones interact with the
skeletal muscle.
BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most of the blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of the long bones.
MINERAL STORAGE – bones act as a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
SKELETAL SYSTEMSKELETAL SYSTEMHUMAN SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE
PELVIC GIRDLE
FORELIMB BONES
HINDLIMB BONES
CERVICAL
THORACIC
LUMBAR
SACRUM
COCCYX
THE SKULLTHE SKULL
Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14 facial bones including the upper jaw & the lower jaw.
The facial bones also provide support & protect the entrances to the respiratory system.
SKULLSKULL
PARTSPARTS FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones8 Cranial bones Are fused to form immovable joints Are fused to form immovable joints called called suturessutures..
Protect the brain & the sensory organs.Protect the brain & the sensory organs.
Eye socketsEye sockets to protect the eye ball.to protect the eye ball.
Nasal bonesNasal bones to support nose tissuesto support nose tissues
Ear holesEar holes to protect inner part of earsto protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper Maxilla (upper jaw)jaw)
to support upper teethto support upper teeth
Mandible (lower Mandible (lower jaw)jaw)
to support lower teeth, to enable eating to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.& talking.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN Known as the spine/ backbone.
Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle.
Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each other by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) which absorb shocks & serve as flex point.
This S-shaped column supports & balances the body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord, supports the skull & provides a base for the attachment of muscles to the back.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebrae differ in structure & function in different regions of the vertebral column.
A vertebra typically consists of a main body (the centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
STRUCTURESTRUCTURE FUNCTIONFUNCTION
NEURAL SPINENEURAL SPINE Provides surface for attachment of Provides surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles.ligaments & muscles.
TRANSVERSE TRANSVERSE PROCESSPROCESS
Provides surface for attachment of Provides surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles.ligaments & muscles.
NEURAL ARCH/ NEURAL ARCH/ VERTEBRAL VERTEBRAL FORAMENFORAMEN
Protects the spinal cord.Protects the spinal cord.
CENTRUMCENTRUM Provides support & absorbs shocks.Provides support & absorbs shocks.
NEURAL CANALNEURAL CANAL Provides the passage of nerves from Provides the passage of nerves from the spinal cord.the spinal cord.
ARTICULATING ARTICULATING SURFACESURFACE
Provides surface which articulates Provides surface which articulates with the next vertebra.with the next vertebra.
TYPES OF VERTEBRAETYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF TYPE OF VERTEBRAVERTEBRA
EE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Cervical Cervical VertebraVertebra
Below the Below the skullskull
77 11stst one – atlas one – atlas
vertebravertebra 22ndnd – axis – axis
vertebraevertebrae Large neural Large neural
canal/vertebral canal/vertebral
foramenforamen Short neural spineShort neural spine Flat centrumFlat centrum Short transverse Short transverse
processesprocesses Has a pair of Has a pair of
vertebrarterial vertebrarterial
canalscanals
CERVICAL VERTEBRACERVICAL VERTEBRA
TYPE OF TYPE OF VERTEBRAVERTEBRA
EE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Thoracic Thoracic VertebraVertebra
ThoraxThorax 1212 Neural canal/ Neural canal/
vertebral foramen vertebral foramen
is smaller than is smaller than
cervical cervical vertebra’svertebra’s
Long neural spine/ Long neural spine/
spinous processes spinous processes
(for attachment of (for attachment of
back muscle)back muscle)
Thick & big Thick & big centrumcentrum
Short transverse Short transverse
processesprocesses
THORACIC VERTEBRATHORACIC VERTEBRA
THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRATYPE OF TYPE OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Lumbar Lumbar VertebraVertebra
WaistWaist 55 small neural small neural canal/ canal/
vertebral foramenvertebral foramen
short neural spineshort neural spine
thick & big thick & big centrumcentrum
long transverse long transverse
processes for processes for
muscle attachmentmuscle attachment
LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA
SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYXTYPE OF TYPE OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
SacrumSacrum Pelvic Pelvic regionregion
5 fused5 fused Vertebrae fused to Vertebrae fused to
each othereach other
Has four pairs of Has four pairs of
openingsopenings
Triangular shapeTriangular shape
CoccyxCoccyx Caudal Caudal regionregion
4 fused4 fused Bones fused to Bones fused to each other forming a each other forming a triangular shape triangular shape which tapers at one which tapers at one endend
SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYX
The rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs with the thoracic vertebrae at the back portion of the body & join to the sternum in the front portion.
Movement of the rib cage are brought about by intercostal muscles between the ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS
The sternum & ribs enclose & protect the internal organs (the lungs & heart) & play an important role in breathing.
THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS
Consist of scapula & clavicle.
Links the upper limbs bones to the axial skeleton.
The scapula : bound by muscles to the back of the thorax. It is a flat, triangular bone which provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.
PECTORAL GIRDLEPECTORAL GIRDLE
The clavicle :The clavicle : a rod- a rod-shaped bone placed shaped bone placed horizontally above the horizontally above the scapula.scapula.
It It links the scapula links the scapula to the sternumto the sternum. It . It limits the movements limits the movements of the scapula.of the scapula.
Consists of 6 fused bones – support the weight of the body from the vertebral column.
Also protect the internal organs – urinary bladder & reproductive organs.
Made up of two halves, each consists of 3 bones (ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is attached to the sacrum of the vertebral column.
The asetabulum / socket for femur articulates with each side of the pelvic girdle at the hip joint.
PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE
FORELIMB BONESFORELIMB BONES Consists of humerus, radius & ulna.
The Humerus : The long bones of the upper arm
Rounded head end fits into an open socket of the scapula forming a ball-and-socket joint (allow movement in all planes)
The posterior end of the humerus forms a hinge joint with the ulna with the ulna-radius bones, allowing movement in one plane only.
The radius & ulna : The bones on the forearm in which the ulna is longer than the radius.
It has a notch at its upper end which articulates the humerus at the elbow.
The carpals : The bones that form the wrist.
Consists of 8 small bones
The metacarpals : The rod-shaped ones that form the palm.
The phalanges : The bones that form the fingers.
HINDLIMB HINDLIMB BONESBONES Consists of femur, tibia & fibula.
The femur : The longest, strongest & heaviest bone in the body.
Support the tight. Play an important role in maintaining the body’s upright position & in locomotion as it is attached to massive muscles.
The head of femur fits into the pelvic girdle to form a joint.
Other end, articulates with the tibia & fibula at the knee.
The tibia & fibula : The bones of the lower leg.
Support the shank. Tibia larger than fibula & is the weight-bearing bone of the leg.
Fibula is a long & thin bone – not bear any load more important for attachment of muscles than for support.
Articulate with the tarsals of the ankle.
The tarsals : The 7 bones that form the ankle.
The metatarsals : The 5 rod-shaped bones that form the foot.
The phalanges : The bones that form the toes.
The patella/kneecap : A small rounded, movable bone.
Protect the knee joint.
