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Life
• Individual survival
• Reproduction
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Bacteria
Archaea
Protozoa
Algae
Plants
FungiAnimals
InvertebratesVertebrates
US
UCA
Prokaryotes
Euk
aryo
tes
Sin
gle-
celle
d
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Cell Functions• Maintenance
– Recovery of energy from nutrients– Storage of energy– Synthesis of correct proteins and other cell
components
• Perpetuation of self– DNA replication– Cell division
• Specialized functions– e.g. muscle, blood, nerve cells
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The molecules of life
• Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Lipoproteins, glycoproteins, vitamins….
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• DNA, the blueprint for the cell– Four bases, A,C,G,T– The order of the bases dictates amino acid sequence in proteins -
“codes for synthesis of proteins”
• Double strand, coiled in Double Helix– Arranged in chromosomes– About 1 yard total in each human cell
• Inside nucleus• RNA takes instructions from nucleus to endo-plasmic
reticulum where proteins are made
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DNA RNA Protein
DNA + DNA
Translation protein synthesis
DNA ReplicationCell division
The ProteomeThe ProteomeProteomicsProteomics
GenomicsGenomicsThe GenomeThe Genome
Transcription
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PROTEINS
• Chains of amino acids
• Structural elements - cell walls, membranes
• Catalysts - enzymes
• Communication devices - within cells, between cells• Cytokines• Signal transduction factors• Receptors
–Vital in regulation of cell growth, replication
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Schematic metabolic cycleCellular components
Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates, Protein,
Fat
Metabolic intermediates
NADPHNADP+
Work
TransportAssemblyMovementHeat
ATP
ADP + Pi
Food
Carbohydrates, Fats, Glucose,
Proteins
Wastes
CO2, H2O, lactic acid
ATP
ADP + Pi
NAD+
NAD+
NADH
NADH
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Viruses
• 0.02-0.3 micrometers diameter• Genetic material: ss or ds DNA, RNA • Protein coat• Some enzymes• Lipid envelope – enveloped/non enveloped
viruses• Nomenclature semi-systematic
– Hepatitis A Virus, HAV
• Need host cell for replication
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The Flu Virion
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• Envelope: lipid bilayer membrane + glycoproteins, typically acquired from host cell membranes
• Capsid (protein coat): multiple copies of 1 or more proteins in an array
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Life-cycle of virus
• Particle, virion
• Infects host cell
• Genetic material uses host’s replication apparatus to produce new viral components (capsid, core proteins, genetic material)
• Components assemble into viral particles, exit host cell, sometimes lysing host cell
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• Each type of virus has its own specific host
• Viruses that colonize bacteria are bacteriophage viruses (bacteriophages).
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Viruses in the Environmment• Must be able to survive outside host cell• Non-enveloped viruses are more persistent than
enveloped viruses– lipid envelope more easily damages, protein
coat confers stability • Enteric viruses are almost all non-enveloped
– Hepatitis A, poliovirus, noroviruses, rotaviruses – transmitted by direct and indirect contact, fecally
contaminated water, food, fomites and air. • Respiratory viruses: adenoviruses, coronaviruses
– transmitted by direct and indirect contact, air and fomites (some also by water and food).
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Unicellular organisms
• Bacteria - procaryotes
• Protozoa
• Algae - eucaryotes
• Fungi
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Procaryotic Cell (left) and Eucaryotic Cell (right)
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Procaryotes: Bacteria and Others
Unicellular organisms
Simple internal organization
Multiply by binary fission
Diameter ~0.5-1.0 micrometer
Envelope: cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall & capsule (polysaccharide)
Some have appendages:
flagella: for locomotion
pili: attachment to other cells for genetic transfer; virus receptor site
Standard Linnean nomenclature: Genus species
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Bacterial types
• Gram positive• Gram negative• Aerobes• Anaerobes• Facultative aerobes• Rods (bacilli)• Spherical (cocci)• Comma-shaped (vibrios)• Spiral (spirochetes)
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Bacteria in the Environment
Some bacteria form spores:
– highly resistant to physical and chemical agents and
– very persistent in the environment
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Pathogenic Bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria possess structures or chemical constituents that contribute to virulence properties – Outer cell membrane of Gram
negative bacteria: endotoxin (fever producer)
– Exotoxins– Pili: for attachment to cells and
tissues– Invasins: to invade cells
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Unicellular Eucaryotes:
• More complex internal organization:
– organelles: discrete nucleus, mitochondria
• Wide range of sizes: 2 micrometers and larger
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Protozoa• Unicellular; non-photosynthetic; flexible cell membrane;
no cell wall; some are parasites, have complex life-cycles • Wide range of sizes and shapes; 2 micrometers to 2 mm• Disease-causing:
– Amoebae: Entamoeba histolytica– Flagellates: Giardia lamblia– Ciliates: Balantidum coli– Sporozoans: Plasmodium vivax– Coccidians: Cryptosporidium parvum– Microsporidia – Cyclosopora cayetanensis
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Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: ~5 m diameter
Acid fast stain of fecal preparation
Wet mount by differential interference contrast microscopy
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Giardia lamblia cyst: ~10 x 8 micrometers
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More Protozoans: Fungi
Fungi (yeasts and molds):•non-photosynthetic• immotile; •rigid cell wall
Molds:•grow as branched, interlacing chains or filaments (hyphae) called mycelia
•Yeasts:• do not form mycelia •grow as single cells that bud •sexual reproduction possible
Mitospores (conidia) of Penicillium, one of the asexual Ascomycota
Yeasts
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Algae
• Photosynthetic• Rigid cell wall • Simple plants, protists,
protozoa, plancton, derived from cyanobacteria ?
• Wide range of sizes and shapes – 2 micrometers and larger
• Some algae are harmful– Algal booms
• Toxins– Anabaena, anatoxins
Nostoc
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Helminths (Worms)
• Multicellular animals• Some are human and/or animal
parasites • Eggs pass via human and animal
excreta to water, food, soil.• Several major groups:
– Roundworms, Nematodes eg. Ascaris, Trichinella spiralis, hookworms
– Flatworms Platyhelminthes: Cestodes (tapeworms): pork, beef tapeworms, and Trematodes (flukes) eg Schistosomes
– Annelids (leeches)
Necator (hookworm)
eggs
adult
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• Eggs hatch in soil• Infective stage: larvae• Penetrate skin, migrate to
blood, lungs, trachea • or are ingested• Adults mature in intestine• Attach to intestinal walls
– anemia– Necator americanus ,
Ancylostoma duodenale (hookworm)
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Trematodes
• Schistosomes (blood flukes)
• Liver fluke
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Cestodes
• Head (scolex) attaches to tissue– beef tapeworm,
Taenia saginata– pork tapeworm (T.
solium)
• Grows in intestine
http://www.marvistavet.com/html/body_tapeworm.html
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Multicellular organisms
• Plants
• Animals– Invertebrates– Vertebrates
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The plasma membraneLipid bilayer
Polar
Non-polar
(Lipid)
Protein
Av. Width
7.5 nm
(75 Å)
Sugar
GlycolipidGlycoprotein
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The cell cycle
GG11
SS
GG22
MMGG00
AA
Mitosis (Cell division)
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Different cell types
• Connective tissue, fibroblasts• Endothelial cells, lining of blood
vessels• Epithelial cells, “outside” of several
tissues• Hepatocytes, liver cells• Some cell populations are continually
being renewed (turnover), others are “permanent”
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Rat fibroblasts
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Cell renewal• Renewal by
duplication - proliferation– eg endothelial
cells– pancreas– hepatocytes ?
• Renewal by differentiation of stem cells– eg skin, intestinal
wall, blood cells
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Cell reproduction, cell development
“Generic” Specialized
Stem cells Differentiated cells
Pluripotent stem cells Different types of
differentiated cells
Totipotent (embryonic) stem cells Organs, organisms ?