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Learning and Memory How do experiences produce relatively
permanent changes in behavior? What are the principles behind the two
types of associative learning, classical and operant conditioning?
How are memories encoded, stored, and retrieved?
What role does memory play in shaping our lives?
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
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Memory Processes
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Attention
Focusing attention on a narrowed range of stimuli Sustained v. Divided Filter
Early? (sensory input) Late? (after brain processes)
Top Down v. Bottom Up
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Encoding The transformation of information so
the brain can process it
Levels-of-processing theory *Craik and Lockhart Structural Phonemic Semantic
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Retention at three levels of processing. In accordance with levels-of-processing theory, Craik and Tulving (1975) found that structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding led to progressively better retention.
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Enriched Encoding
Elaboration
Visual Imagery
Self-Referent Encoding
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Storage• The process by which information is
maintained over a period of time:
– Sensory memory– Short-Term memory– Long-Term memory
• Primacy – Recency Effect – the ability to remember items at the beginning and ending of a list
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
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Retrieval The process of obtaining
information that has been stored in memory Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomena
Recognition – identifying something that may or may not have been experienced before
Recall – memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material
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Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention. Luh (1922) had subjects memorize lists of nonsense syllables and then measured their retention with either a recognition test or a recall test at various intervals up to two days. As you can see, the forgetting curve for the recall test was quite steep, whereas the recognition test yielded much higher estimates of subjects’ retention.
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Memory Systems
Implicit
Explicit
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Implicit Memories
Procedural Learned skills Does not
require conscious recollection
Conditioned responses“automatic
memory”
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Explicit Memories Declarative
Can be accessed directly
Involves episodic and semantic memory
Semantic General knowledge
not attached to time Language
Episodic Chronological
recollection of experience
“Flashbulb memory”
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Memory for the past and future events Retrospective
Remembering events from the past or previously learned
Prospective Memory for future
events “What do I have to
do today?”