89
HUMAN MOVEMENT
vol. 7, number 2, 2006
MOVEMENT
HUMAN
former ly
Czlowiek i Ruch (Human Movement)l
University School of Physical Edu ca tion in Wroclaw
University School of Physical Edu ca tion in Poznan
l
’
poczatkowe_an01.indd 89 12/15/2006, 8:04:12 AM
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu (University School of Physical Education in Wrocław)
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Eugeniusza Piaseckiego w Poznaniu (University School of Physical Education in Poznań)
HUMAN MOVEMENT
formerly Człowiek i Ruch (Human Movement)vol. 7, number 2, 2006, pp. 89–188
Editor-in-Chief Ryszard Panfi l
University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland
Associate Editor Wiesław Osiński
University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
Editorial Board
Tadeusz Bober University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandJan Celichowski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandTadeusz Koszczyc University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandStanisław Kowalik University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandŁucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandMarek Zatoń University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland
Advisory Board
Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USACharles Corbin Arizona State University, East Mesa, Arizona, USAGudrun Doll-Tepper Free University, Berlin, GermanyJózef Drabik University School of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, PolandKenneth Hardman Manchester University, Manchester, United KingdomAndrew Hills Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, AustraliaZofi a Ignasiak University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandSlobodan Jaric University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAAnna Jaskólska University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Toivo Jurimae University of Tartu, Tartu, EstoniaHan Kemper Vrije University, Amsterdam, The NetherlandsWojciech Lipoński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandGabriel Łasiński University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandRobert Malina Tarleton State University, Stephenville, Texas, USAMelinda Manore Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USAPhilip E. Martin Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USAJoachim Mester German Sport University, Cologne, GermanyToshio Moritani Kyoto University, Kyoto, JapanJohn S. Raglin Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USARoland Renson Catholic University, Leuven, BelgiumTadeusz Rychlewski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandJames F. Sallis San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USAJames S. Skinner Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USAJerry Thomas Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USAKarl Weber German Sport University, Cologne, GermanyPeter Weinberg Hamburg University, Hamburg, GermanyMarek Woźniewski University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandGuang Yue Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USAWladimir M. Zatsiorsky Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USAJerzy Żołądź University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
Translation: Tomasz SkireckiDesign: Agnieszka Nyklasz
Copy editor: Typoscript: Anna Noga, Barbara BrzezickaProofreading: Iwona Kresak, Halina Marciniak
Indexed in: SPORTDiscus, Index Copernicus, Altis, Sponet
© Copyright 2006 by Wydawnictwo AWF we Wrocławiu
ISSN 1732-3991
http://www.awf.wroc.pl/hum_mov
Editorial Offi ceSecretary: Dominika Niedźwiedź
51-617 Wrocław, ul. Banacha 11, Poland, tel. 071 347 31 [email protected]
Print: Agencja Reklamowa i Drukarnia KONTRACirculation: 300
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2006, vol. 7 (2)
Editorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Ingrid Bakker, André G. Uitterlinden, Jos W.R. Twisk, Willem van Mechelen, Huibert A.P. Pols, Han C.G. Kemper
Genetic determinants and gene–environment interactions in relation to the 10-year longitudinal
development of lumbar bone mineral density in (young) adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Krzysztof Sas-Nowosielski
Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity of Polish adolescents . . . . 105
Agata Konarska, Joanna Karolkiewicz, Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak
Melatonin and other parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players during an annual training cycle . . . 111
Edward Superlak
The structure of volleyball playing dispositions in players aged 14–15, candidates for the Polish national team . . . . . . . 118
Krzysztof Karpowicz
Interrelation of selected factors determining the effectiveness of training in young basketball players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak, Grażyna Lutosławska, Andrzej Kosmol, Szymon Zuziak
The effect of training experience on arm muscle anaerobic performance in wrestlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Elżbieta Kaluga, Elżbieta Rostkowska
A comparative analysis of changes in tactile sensitivity in men and women practicing selected sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Marek Bolanowski, Wojciech Pluskiewicz, Anna Skrzek, Piotr Adamczyk, Janusz Bolanowski
Bone properties assessed by quantitative ultrasound at the hand phalanges in women exercising Tai Chi . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Krzysztof Buśko, Radosław Rychlik
Changes of the maximal muscle torque in women training Power Yoga (Astanga Vinyasa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Józef Lipiec
Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Competition of research papers on Physical Education Teaching for Prof. Bogdan Czabański’s Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Resolution of the International Scientific Conference “Aging and Physical Activity: Application to Fitness,
Sport and Health”, Rydzyna, Poland, September 15–17, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
CONTENTS
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The contents of the articles in the present issue of Human
Movement confirm the constantly increasing quality of our
journal. The range of research areas in various aspects of hu-
man motor activity covered by Human Movement has again
been broadened.
The introductory article in the volume is concerned with
the genetic and environmental conditions of skeletal develop-
ment. It is an excellent example of the systemic approach to
research on factors conditioning human development in ge-
neral. The next article discusses psychological and social
aspects of motor activity in the life of young people.
The present volume also includes studies on the relation-
ships between motor activities of different intensity and range,
professional or recreational, and structural and functional
ontogenetic features.
Two other papers are successful attempts to show the sys-
temic conditioning of training effectiveness in different
sports. The volume also includes a review of a monograph
presenting team games as an important area of human activity
and as an interesting and original field of research.
We are also proud to inform you that Professor Karl Weber
of the German Sports University in Cologne has joined the
Human Movement Advisory Board. His significant position
in the academic community of the sports and exercise scien-
ces, as well as the outstanding scholarly competence and
experience, will undoubtedly contribute to the good reputa-
tion of our journal.
Our cooperation with the Associate Editor, Consultant
Editor and Advisory Board has been crucial in accomplish-
ment of our mission. We should be especially grateful to the
reviewers for their critical evaluation, as thanks to them our
journal remains at a high scientific level. My special thanks
go to reviewers of both 2006 volumes:
Zdzisław Adach, Gorzów Wielkopolski (Poland)
Bożena Biniakiewicz, Poznań (Poland)
Tadeusz Bober, Wrocław (Poland)
Eugeniusz Bolach, Wrocław (Poland)
Jan Celichowski, Poznań (Poland)
Stanisław Chełpa, Wrocław (Poland)
Ewa Demczuk-Włodarczyk, Wrocław (Poland)
Wiesława Dłużewska-Martyniec, Poznań (Poland)
Gudrun Doll-Tepper, Berlin (Germany)
Józef Drabik, Gdańsk (Poland)
Lechosław Dworak, Poznań (Poland)
Piotr E. Dylewicz, Poznań (Poland)
Anatol G. Feldman, Montreal (Canada)
Stanisław Gołąb, Kraków (Poland)
Henryk Grabowski, Kraków (Poland)
Jacek Gracz, Poznań (Poland)
Piotr Gronek, Poznań (Poland)
Kenneth Hardman, Manchester (United Kingdom)
Andrew Hills, Queensland (Australia)
Zofia Ignasiak, Wrocław (Poland)
Lidia Ilnicka, Warszawa (Poland)
Slobodan Jaric, Newark (USA)
Zbigniew Jethon, Wrocław (Poland)
Grzegorz Juras, Katowice (Poland)
Toivo Jurimae, Tartu (Estonia)
Maria Kaczmarek, Poznań (Poland)
Roman M. Kalina, Rzeszów (Poland)
Tadeusz Kasperczyk, Kraków (Poland)
Han C.G. Kemper, Amsterdam (The Netherlands)
Barbara Kłapcińska, Katowice (Poland)
Tadeusz Koszczyc, Wrocław (Poland)
Stanisław Kowalik, Poznań (Poland)
Andrzej Krawański, Poznań (Poland)
Marcin Krawczyński, Gdańsk (Poland)
Mark Latash, Penn State (USA)
Józef Lipiec, Kraków (Poland)
Wojciech Lipoński, Poznań (Poland)
Gabriel Łasiński, Wrocław (Poland)
Krzysztof Łastowski, Poznań (Poland)
Tadeusz Maszczak, Warszawa (Poland)
Marek Mędraś, Wrocław (Poland)
Julian Migasiewicz, Wrocław (Poland)
Edward Mleczko, Kraków (Poland)
Władysław Mynarski, Katowice (Poland)
Zbigniew Naglak, Wrocław (Poland)
Wiesław Osiński, Poznań (Poland)
Ryszard Panfil, Wrocław (Poland)
Derek M. Peters, Worcester (United Kingdom)
Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Poznań (Poland)
Joachim Raczek, Katowice (Poland)
Aleksander Ronikier, Warszawa (Poland)
Elżbieta Rostkowska, Poznań (Poland)
Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska, Wrocław (Poland)
Tadeusz Rychlewski, Poznań (Poland)
Antonin Rychtecky, Prague (Czech Republic)
Igor Ryguła, Katowice (Poland)
Tadeusz Rynkiewicz, Gorzów Wielkopolski (Poland)
Tadeusz Sankowski, Poznań (Poland)
Małgorzata Słowińska-Lisowska, Wrocław (Poland)
Henryk Sozański, Warszawa (Poland)
Włodzimierz Z. Starosta, Warszawa (Poland)
Ryszard Strzelczyk, Poznań (Poland)
Tadeusz Trzaska, Poznań (Poland)
Zbigniew Trzaskoma, Warszawa (Poland)
Czesław Urbanik, Warszawa (Poland)
Zbigniew Waśkiewicz, Katowice (Poland)
Peter Weinberg, Hamburg (Germany)
Andrzej Wit, Warszawa (Poland)
Barbara Woynarowska, Warszawa (Poland)
Marek Woźniewski, Wrocław (Poland)
Jerzy Zagórski, Lublin (Poland)
Adam Zając, Katowice (Poland)
Krystyna Zatoń, Wrocław (Poland)
Marek Zatoń, Wrocław (Poland)
Janusz Zdebski, Kraków (Poland)
Stanisław Żak, Kraków (Poland)
Jerzy Żołądź, Kraków (Poland)
EDITORIAL
2006, vol. 7 (2)
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GENETIC DETERMINANTS AND GENE–ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS IN RELATION TO THE 10-YEAR LONGITUDINAL DEVELOPMENT OF LUMBAR BONE MINERAL DENSITY IN (YOUNG) ADULTS
ABSTRACT
Purpose. Genetic factors, as well as environmental factors (e.g. physical activity, nutritional intake, and body composition) are consi-
dered to influence the regulation of (young) adult bone quality. The association between lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD) and
polymorphisms of three genes (i.e. VDR, ER�, COLIA1), as well as gene–environment interactions over a period of 10 years were in-
vestigated in (young) adult men and women. Basic procedures. The study was conducted in participants of the Amsterdam Growth
and Health Longitudinal Study. Longitudinal analyses were performed in Dutch Caucasian males and females, including measure-
ments at their mean ages of 27, 32 and 36 years. LBMD measurements were performed at the L2-L4 region by dual energy X-ray ab-
sorptiometry (DEXA). Polymorphism-containing regions were amplified from genomic DNA with the restriction fragment length po-
lymorphism-polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR). Genotyping was performed for the BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI polymorphisms of the
VDR, for the PvuII and XbaI polymorphisms of the ER�, and for the G-to-T polymorphism in the COLIA1 gene. Main findings. A po-
sitive allele-dose effect of the ER� haplotype PX on the development of (young) adult LBMD was found. Dietary calcium intake mo-
dified the relationship between VDR haplotypes and LBMD, and fat-free mass modified the relationship between COLIA1 polymor-
phisms and LBMD. Conclusions. An allele-dose relationship with LBMD during the third and fourth decades of life was detected for
the PX haplotype allele of the VDR gene. Most Caucasian lumbar bones are likely to benefit from an increased calcium intake, and
all will benefit from an increased fat-free mass.
Key words: polymorphisms, COLIA1, vitamin D receptor, estrogen receptor, lumbar bone mineral density, longitudinal, gene–envi-
ronment interactions, adults
Introduction
Environmental factors, such as physical activity, nu-
tritional intake, the use of oral contraceptives, smoking,
alcohol consumption, and body composition, contribute
to the regulation of bone quality. They are known to in-
fluence the peak bone mass and probably the rate of
change in bone mineral density at adult age [1–3].
On the other hand, from twin and family studies, it
has been shown that genetic factors account for 50–85%
of the variance in bone mineral density, depending on
the site of interest [4]. Of all sites, the lumbar spine bone
mineral density (LBMD) is suggested to have the hi-
ghest heritability [5]. Genetic variation in several genes
is thought to be responsible for this genetic contribution.
The vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene, the estrogen re-
ceptor alpha (ERα) gene, and the collagen type I alpha 1
(COLIA1) gene are potential regulatory and structural
candidate genes in this respect.
Regarding the VDR gene, three common polymor-
phisms, detected as BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI restriction
fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP’s), are investiga-
ted frequently [6, 7]. The biochemical mechanism of the
VDR gene influence on bone density is uncertain, but it
is thought that the VDR mediates vitamin D action by
binding the active metabolite of vitamin D, and subsequ-
ently increasing or decreasing the transcription of target
genes [8]. The active hormonal form of vitamin D is
a central regulator of bone and calcium homeostasis, mo-
dulating intestinal calcium absorption, bone formation,
recruitment and function of osteoclasts, parathyroid hor-
mone production and renal vitamin D activation. The
VDR is therefore a good candidate as a prime regulator
of bone and calcium homeostasis and bone density [9].
Ingrid Bakker1, André G. Uitterlinden2, Jos W.R. Twisk1, 3, Willem van Mechelen1, 4,
Huibert A.P. Pols2, Han C.G. Kemper1*
1 Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine (EMGO), VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands3 Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands4 Department of Social Medicine, and “Body@Work”, Research Centre for Physical Activity, Work and Health TNO-VU, VU
University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
*Corresponding author.
2006, vol. 7 (2), 93–104
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
The estrogen endocrine system has an important
role in the regulation of BMD and the occurrence of
osteoporosis. Exposure to low estrogen levels, as occur-
ring after menopause in women, is associated with a de-
crease in bone mass and, subsequently, in an increased
risk for osteoporosis. Estrogen exerts its effect primari-
ly via the ERα gene. Several genetic variations in the
ERα gene have been described, including two polymor-
phisms, detected as PvuII and XbaI RFLP’s [10–13].
Type 1 collagen is the major protein component of
the bone matrix. A guanine-to-thymidine (G-to-T) sub-
stitution in the first intron of the COLIA1 gene has been
described [14–16], and from this polymorphism, the
T allele was found to be associated with reduced BMD
[17–18].
Of major interest for developing preventive strate-
gies on osteoporosis are the possible gene–environment
interactions. Knowledge of these interactions would
give health care providers the possibility to adapt pre-
ventive and/or curative strategies against osteoporosis
on the subjects’ genetic predisposition. If, for example,
persons with certain genotypes respond less well to cal-
cium supplementation, such therapies may be of less
benefit to them. Alternatively, in subjects with another
genotype, calcium supplementation may be of greater
importance.
How and how much the genetic polymorphisms
mentioned above influence BMD, and if, the way in
which they interact with environmental factors, remains
poorly understood. Up to date, it has not been thorough-
ly examined what the (combined) influence of the gene-
tics and environmental factors is on bone mineral deve-
lopment during (young) adulthood, that is, during the
third and fourth decades of life.
In this study, we investigated the relative contribu-
tion of the polymorphisms and we searched for possible
gene–environment interactions concerning the 10-year
development of lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD)
in men and women crossing mean ages 27 to 36 years.
We focused on three polymorphisms of the vitamin D
receptor (VDR) gene (i.e. BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI), on the
PvuII and XbaI polymorphisms of the estrogen receptor
alpha (ERα) gene, and on the G-to-T polymorphism in
the collagen type I alpha1 (COLIA1) gene. The environ-
mental effect modifiers analyzed in this study are phy-
sical activity, calcium intake, and fat-free body mass
(FFM).
Material and methods
Design and subjects
The study described in this paper comprises a 10-year
longitudinal analysis in males and females, including
measurements at the mean ages of 27, 32 and 36 years.
The study was conducted in participants of the Amster-
dam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study (AGAHLS)
[19]. The data used for assessing the 10-year longitudi-
nal relationship came from 59 men and 58 women who
were measured once, 106 men and 118 women who
were measured twice, and 60 men and 64 women who
were measured at all the three time points. For each pe-
riod of measurements, all subjects gave their informed
consent. The study was approved by the Medical Ethi-
cal Committee of the VU University Medical Center,
Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Measurements
Lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD)
Bone mineral measurements were performed at the
lumbar spine (L2-L4) by dual energy X-ray absorptio-
metry (DEXA). An estimation of LBMD was made on
each lumbar vertebral body L2-L4, from which the ave-
rage LBMD was obtained. For measurements at the
mean age of 27 years, the Norland XR 26 (Norland
Corp., Fort Atkinson, WI, USA) was used. Because of
the replacement of the Norland XR 26 by the Hologic
QDR-2000 (S/N 2513; Hologic, Inc., Waltham, MA,
USA) during the measurements at the mean age of 32
years, some subjects (n = 295) were measured by the
Norland XR 26 and others (n = 109) by the Hologic
QDR-2000. For all measurements at the mean age of 36
years, the Hologic QDR-2000 was used. Both DEXA
machines were calibrated daily. Differences in absolute
values could be present between the measurements on
both machines. Therefore, standardized values (z-sco-
res) against the mean LBMD of all measured subjects
were used for each measurement. For the bone measu-
rements at the age of 32 years, the subjects measured
with the same machine were grouped together as z-scores
were calculated.
Genotypes
Genomic DNA was extracted from samples of peri-
pheral venous blood, in accordance with standard pro-
cedures. Genotyping for the BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI poly-
morphisms of the VDR, for the PvuII and XbaI poly-
morphisms of the ERα, and for the G-to-T polymorphism
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
in the COLIA1 gene was carried out by using methods
based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism-
-polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR), as described
elsewhere [10, 14, 20]. In short, each RFLP-PCR was
carried out in a 10 µl reaction volume containing 5 ng of
genomic DNA, 1.5 mM magnesium chloride, 0.2 mM
deoxy-NTP, 2 pmol of each primer, 0.2 units of Taq po-
lymerase (Promega) and 10x PCR buffer (Promega)
containing 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 100 mM KCl,
0.1 mM EDTA, 1 mM DDT, 50% glycerol, 0.5% Noni-
det®-P40 and 0.5% Tween®20. The reactions were per-
formed in a 384-well thermocycler (MJ Research Te-
trad) with different cycling protocols for each amplicon.
The genotypes were detected by the Single Base Exten-
sion (SBE) procedure using SBE primers of different
lengths. The SBE reactions were performed in accor-
dance with the details provided by the manufacturer
(ABI Prism® SNaPshotTM) and analyzed with software
programs called Gene Mapper 1.1 and Genotyper 3.7.
The genotypes thus generated were also checked by eye.
To confirm the accuracy of the genotyping, 150 random-
ly selected samples were genotyped for a second time
with the same method. No discrepancies were found.
All samples were genotyped blind.
The different genotypes of the genes are named ta-
king into account the absence (capital letter) or presence
(small letter) of the restriction enzyme recognition sites
that are created or abolished by the polymorphism.
Environmental factors
Previously, it was reported that the ground reaction
forces from weight-bearing physical activities (GRF)
[2], the total fat-free body mass (FFM) [3], and the in-
take of alcohol [21] significantly influenced the deve-
lopment of lumbar bone mineral density in the longitu-
dinal cohort. Calcium intake [22], tobacco consump-
tion [23], and estrogen [24] are also considered as
important environmental determinants of lumbar bone
mineral development.
Habitual food intake was measured by a detailed
cross-check dietary history face-to-face interview me-
thod, based on the method developed by Beal [25] and
Marr [26], and adapted to the AGAHLS [27, 28]. This
method provides information about the habitual dietary
intake of the subjects, using the preceding 4 weeks as
a reference period. Another reference period, as close to
the time of measurement as possible, was used in case
subjects were of the opinion that their dietary intake
during this 4-week period was abnormal (e.g. because
of illness, holiday or pregnancy). The interview compri-
ses the entire range of foods and drinks. Only items that
were consumed at least twice a month were recorded.
The cross-check consisted of an additional check on the
reported frequency of meals, items contained, and amo-
unts of the consumed foods and drinks. From this inter-
view, the mean daily intake of, among others, total
energy, calcium and alcohol was calculated by use of
the 1996 database from the Dutch Food and Nutrition
Table [29]. At the mean ages of 27 and 32 years, a stan-
dard form containing cues to record the habitual dietary
intake was used during the interview. At the mean age
of 36 years, an identical interviewer-administered, com-
puter-assisted version of the interview was used. The
relation between both dietary interview methods was
analyzed and showed sufficient agreement for the data
to be used in longitudinal analyses [30].
Daily physical activity was measured also by means
of a structured detailed interview [19]. All reported ac-
tivities during the preceding 3 months (during courses,
at work, at home, during leisure time, organized and
unorganized sports, stair climbing, and transportation
used), with a duration of at least 5 minutes continuously,
and exceeding the level of intensity of 4 times the basal
metabolic rate, were taken into account [27]. Physical
activity was expressed in a score for its biomechanical
ground reaction forces (GRF), as described by Gro-
othausen et al. [31]. Based on these GRF, a total GRF
score was calculated as the sum of all GRF scores and
used in the analyses. This measure is irrespective of the
duration, intensity, and frequency of the activity. To
overcome the difficulty of interpreting results from the
two different methods of physical activity assessment,
standardized values of GRF were used in the analyses.
More detailed information is described elsewhere [2].
FFM was calculated as proposed by Durnin and Wo-
mersley, from measurements of total body weight, the
sum of four skinfolds (i.e. biceps, triceps, subscapular,
and suprailiac skinfold), gender, and age [32].
Smoking habits and use of birth control pills were
measured by questionnaire. The amount of smoked to-
bacco was expressed in grams of tobacco per week, as
described by Bernaards et al. [33]. The use of oral con-
traceptives (yes/no) was considered to be the best possi-
ble proxy of estrogen intake in this study.
Statistical analyses
To check for possible selection, the χ2-test was used
to examine if the distribution of genotypes followed the
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium within the total group of
men and women, and separately for both sexes.
For VDR haplotypes, three haplotypes were ob-
served: the baT-allele (haplotype 1 allele), the BAt-allele
(haplotype 2 allele), and the bAT-allele (haplotype 3 al-
lele). Only 4 subjects were homozygous for haplotype 3.
For the ERα gene, also three haplotypes were observed:
px (haplotype 1 allele), PX (haplotype 2 allele) and Px
(haplotype 3 allele). Only 5 subjects were homozygous
for the haplotype 3 allele. For the polymorphism in the
COLIA1 gene, three genotypes were compared: TT, GT,
and GG.
The longitudinal relationships were evaluated by
means of random coefficient analysis (MLwiN, version
1.10.0007; Centre for Multilevel Modeling, Institute of
Education, London, UK) [34]. Because the longitudinal
relationship consists of a within-subject relationship
(~“change over time” component) and a between-sub-
jects relationship (~“cross-sectional” component), both
relationships should be taken into account in the inter-
pretation of the longitudinal relationship. The random
coefficient analysis was chosen because the estimated
regression coefficient combines the two possible rela-
tionships into one regression coefficient. The capability
of this statistical technique to take the between-subject
relationship into account allows the inclusion of subjects
who were measured only once during the 10-year fol-
low-up period. The regression coefficient has the follo-
wing interpretation: suppose that the regression coeffi-
cient for the relationship between a certain genotype
(coded as 1) and the standardized LBMD is 0.1000, then
subjects with that particular genotype have a 0.1000 SD
higher LBMD compared with the others (coded as 0)
over this 10-year adult period. Because 1 SD in the
LBMD in this study is approximately 0.15 g/cm2, a 0.1
SD higher LBMD means approximately a 0.015 g/cm2
higher LBMD. From the regression coefficient no state-
ment can be made on changes (increase or decrease) in
LBMD. In addition, random coefficient analysis was
performed because repeated measurements (at the mean
ages of 27, 32 and 36 years) are clustered within indivi-
duals and therefore not independent. Furthermore, both
the number of observations per individual and the time
interval between observations may vary in random co-
efficient analysis. This analysis also does not use strict
conditions concerning the type of missing data because
it assumes missing data at random. Within the model,
the intercept was assumed to vary randomly between
subjects. The time variable was supposed to vary ran-
domly between subjects. All other determinants were
included as fixed variables [35].
Genetic determinants
To analyze the relationship between the different
polymorphisms and LBMD, the subjects were grouped
according to their genotype. Three effects were consi-
dered to determine the differences between groups: (1)
allele-dose effect, (2) dominant effect, and (3) recessive
effect.
The “allele-dose” was defined as the number of co-
pies of a certain allele in the genotype. For determining
the allele-dose effect, heterozygous and homozygous
subjects were compared with non-carriers (i.e. reference
group) for their relationship with LBMD. The obtained
regression coefficients were interpreted for an allele-
-dose effect.
For the dominant effect, test-allele carriers were
compared with the non-test-allele carriers, and for the
recessive effect, homozygous test-allele subjects were
compared with heterozygous carriers and non-carriers
combined. The analyses on a dominant and/or recessive
effect were only performed if the effects were suspected
from the regression coefficients for heterozygotes and
homozygotes.
To analyze the relationship between genetic poly-
morphisms and LBMD, three analyses were performed:
(1) crude, with adjustment for gender; (2) further adju-
sted for FFM, GRF, calcium intake, total energy intake,
use of oral contraceptives, alcohol intake, and tobacco
consumption. Furthermore, possible interactions between
genetic polymorphisms and gender were investigated.
When the interactions showed a p-value < 0.10, separate
analyses were performed for males and females.
Gene–environment interactions
To analyze gene–environment interactions in the re-
lationship with LBMD, adjustment was made for the
factors mentioned above, except for the environmental
factor included in the interaction term. All interactions
were considered significant at p < 0.10.
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
Results
Characteristics of the subjects
Tab. 1 shows the means and their standard deviations
of the LBMD, total energy intake, calcium intake, alco-
hol consumption, GRF, FFM, tobacco consumption, and
the use of oral contraceptives, measured at the mean
ages of 27, 32, and 36 years in males and females. For
the measurements on the Norland apparatus, paired
LBMD measures obtained at the mean ages of 27 and 32
years showed a significant decrease in men (–0.017 g/cm2;
p = 0.02, n = 48), and a non-significant decrease in
women (-0.009 g/cm2; p = 0.19; n = 52). For the measu-
rements on the Hologic apparatus, paired analyses
showed no significant change in LBMD for either men
(0.003 g/cm2; p = 0.69; n = 41) or women (–0,007 g/cm2;
p = 0.18; n = 50) between the mean ages of 32 and 36
years.
Allele frequencies are shown in Tab. 2. The genoty-
pe distributions were found to follow the Hardy–Wein-
berg Equilibrium for VDR (pmen
= 0.88, pwomen
= 0.98),
ERα (pmen
= 0.50, pwomen
= 0.49), and COLIA1 (pmen
= 0.08,
pwomen
= 0.82). The distributions for ERα and COLIA1
appeared to differ significantly (p = 0.04 and 0.02 re-
spectively) between men and women.
Table 1. Characteristics of the study population: mean ± SD of the longitudinal data used
of (young) adult men and women at the mean ages of 27, 32, and 36 years
Men Women
27 years
(n = 84)
32 years
(n = 197)
36 years
(n = 170)
27 years
(n = 97)
32 years
(n = 207)
36 years
(n = 182)
LBMD (g/cm2)
– Norland
– Hologic
1.170 ± 0.158
–
1.158 ± 0.180a
1.121 ± 0.146b
–
1.111 ± 0.160
1.143 ± 0.138
–
1.125 ± 0.134c
1.093 ± 0.113d
–
1.065 ± 0.120
Calcium intake
(mg/day)
1363 ± 549 1376 ± 626 1431 ± 607 1152 ± 414 1189 ± 417 1256 ± 411
Alcohol consumption
(g/day)
11.7 ± 14.0 14.6 ± 16.1 18.4 ± 19.7 7.2 ± 9.9 7.2 ± 9.3 10.2 ± 13.1
Total energy intake
(MJ/day)
12.0 ± 2.8 12.5 ± 3.2 12.4 ± 3.1 8.9 ± 2.0 9.3 ± 2.0 9.7 ± 2.1
GRF (score) 5.2 ± 2.7 5.8 ± 3.0 9.5 ± 3.6 4.8 ± 2.5 5.3 ± 2.6 9.2 ± 3.9
Tobacco (g/week) 37.2 ± 65.4 19.5 ± 49.2 19.9 ± 49.3 20.7 ± 50.2 14.8 ± 39.1 14.5 ± 38.3
Oral contraceptives
(% yes)
n.a. n.a. n.a. 62% 56% 41%
FFM (kg) 64.5 ± 6.1 65.4 ± 6.3 66.4 ± 6.9 47.3 ± 4.9 46.7 ± 4.8 48.0 ± 5.5
LBMD – lumbar bone mineral density, GRF – ground reaction forces, FFM – fat-free mass, a N = 146, b N = 51, c N = 149, d N = 58, n.a. – not applicable
Table 2. Allele frequencies of candidate genetic determinants
Men Women
Number (frequency, %) Number (frequency, %)
VDR haplotypes – baT (1)
– Bat (2)
– bAT (3)
164 (51%)
120 (37%)
38 (12%)
195 (53%)
137 (37%)
36 (10%)
ERα haplotypes – px (1)
– PX (2)
– Px (3)
164 (51%)
133 (41%)
27 (8%)
177 (49%)
131 (36%)
52 (14%)
COLIA1 – G
– T
262 (81%)
60 (19%)
318 (88%)
44 (12%)
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
Table 3. Linear regression coefficients (SE); p-value for the longitudinal relationships
between polymorphisms and standardized LBMD in (young) adults
Crude Adjusted
VDR haplotypes
allele-dose effect
– baT (1) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
– Bat (2) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
– bAT (3) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
dominant effect
– baT (1) – non-carriers
– carriers
recessive effect
– Bat (2) – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
– bAT (3) – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
0
0.2296 (0.1227); p = 0.06
0.1152 (0.1251); p = 0.36
0
0.0735 (0.1157); p = 0.53
-0.1369 (0.1706); p = 0.42
0
-0.1581 (0.1233); p = 0.20
0.7070 (0.5084); p = 0.16
0
0.1640 (0.1281); p = 0.20
0
-0.1801 (0.1589); p = 0.26
0
0.5795 (0.5002); p = 0.25
0
0.2000 (0.1178); p = 0.09
0.0938 (0.1206); p = 0.44
0
0.0774 (0.1104); p = 0.48
-0.1258 (0.1624); p = 0.44
0
-0.1220 (0.1199); p = 0.30
0.5513 (0.4848); p = 0.26
0
0.1395 (0.1222); p = 0.25
0
-0.0212 (0.1061); p = 0.84
0
0.4539 (0.4762); p = 0.34
ERα haplotypes
allele-dose effect
– px (1) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
– PX (2) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
– Px (3) – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
dominant effect
– px (1) – non-carriers
– carriers
– PX (2) – non-carriers
– carriers
recessive effect
– px (1) – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
– PX (2) – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
– Px (3) – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
0
-0.1587 (0.1148); p = 0.17
-0.2317 (0.1417); p = 0.10
0
0.1650 (0.1138); p = 0.15
0.2427 (0.1383); p = 0.08
0
-0.0741 (0.1214); p = 0.54
0.1833 (0.4494); p = 0.68
0
-0.1780 (0.1098); p = 0.11
0
0.1905 (0.1051); p = 0.07
0
-0.1223 (0.1184); p = 0.30
0
0.1523 (0.1238); p = 0.22
0
0.1272 (0.4399); p = 0.77
0
-0.1614 (0.1107); p = 0.14
-0.2263 (0.1363); p = 0.10
0
0.1895 (0.1089); p = 0.08
0.2530 (0.1331); p = 0.06
0
-0.0800 (0.1167); p = 0.49
0.0193 (0.4288); p = 0.96
0
-0.1789 (0.1057); p = 0.09
0
0.2100 (0.1006); p = 0.04
0
-0.1155 (0.1139); p = 0.31
0
0.1489 (0.1194); p = 0.21
0
-0.0418 (0.4194); p = 0.92
COLIA1
allele-dose effect
– T – non-carriers
– heterozygotes
– homozygotes
recessive effect
– T – non-homozygotes
– homozygotes
0
0.2053 (0.1287); p = 0.11
-0.2600 (0.2960); p = 0.38
0
-0.3158 (0.2952); p = 0.28
0
0.1125 (0.1235); p = 0.36
-0.3223 (0.2813); p = 0.15
0
-0.3538 (0.2796); p = 0.21
In the crude model, adjustment was made for gender. The adjusted model is the crude model extended by adjustment for fat-free
mass, standardized ground reaction forces, calcium intake, total energy intake, alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and
the use of birth control pills.
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
Longitudinal relationships
Genetic determinants
Results on the longitudinal relationship between the
genetic polymorphisms and LBMD over the 10-year
period between the mean ages of 27 and 36 years are
shown in Tab. 3.
VDR gene. No allele-dose, dominant or recessive
effect was detected for the longitudinal relationship be-
tween the VDR haplotypes and LBMD over the 10-year
period.
ERα gene. A positive allele-dose effect of the ERα
haplotype 2 (PX) on the development of (young) adult
LBMD was found. In the adjusted model, compared with
non-2-carriers (1.1, 1.3, 3.3), haplotype 2-heterozygotes
(1.2, 2.3) had a 0.19 SD higher LBMD (p = 0.08), and
2-homozygotes (2.2) had the highest LBMD (βadj
= 0.25,
p = 0.06). The haplotype 1 (px) of the ERα gene showed
no significant effect on LBMD during (young) adult-
hood, but a trend for a negative allele-dose effect was
apparent. In the adjusted model, compared with non-1-
-carriers, haplotype 1-heterozygotes had a 0.16 SD lower
LBMD (p = 0.14), and haplotype 1-homozygotes had
the lowest LBMD (βadj
= -0.23, p = 0.10). For haplo-
Figure 1. Regression coefficients for the longitudinal
relationship between the dietary calcium intake (g/day)
and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in baT-homozygotes,
baT-heterozygotes, and non-baT-carriers of the VDR
haplotypes in (young) adults. Adjusted for gender, fat-free
mass, standardized ground reaction forces, total energy
intake, alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and use
of birth control pills
baT
homozygotesbaT
heterozygotesnon-baT
carriers
baT-calcium interaction
0.20
0.10
0.00
–0.10
–0.20
regre
ssio
n c
oeff
icie
nt
p = 0.31
p = 0.06
p = 0.83
Figure 2. Regression coefficients for the longitudinal
relationship between the dietary calcium intake (g/day)
and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in BAt-carriers
and non-BAt-carriers of the VDR gene in (young)
adults. Adjusted for gender, fat-free mass, standardized
ground reaction forces, total energy intake, alcohol
consumption, tobacco consumption, and use
of birth control pills
BAt
carriersnon-BAt
carriers
BAt-calcium interaction
0.20
0.10
0.00
–0.10
–0.20
regre
ssio
n c
oeff
icie
nt
p = 0.06
p = 0.28
Figure 3. Regression coefficients for the longitudinal
relationship between the fat-free mass (kg)
and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in TT, GT, and GG
polymorphisms of the COLIA1 gene in (young)
adults. Adjusted for gender, standardized ground
reaction forces, calcium intake, total energy intake,
alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and use
of birth control pills
TT
COLIA1-FFM interaction
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
regre
ssio
n c
oeff
icie
nt
p < 0.001
GT GG
p < 0.0001p < 0.0001
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
type 3 (Px), no effect on LBMD during (young) adult-
hood was found.
COLIA1 gene. No recessive, dominant or allele-
-dose effect on (young) adult LBMD was found for po-
lymorphisms in the COLIA1 gene.
Gene–environment interactions
Dietary calcium intake appeared to modify the rela-
tionship between VDR haplotypes and the LBMD du-
ring the 10-year (young) adult period. While the intake
of calcium was not found to be related with LBMD in
baT-homozygotes (haplotype 1-homozygotes) (p = 0.31)
or in non-baT-carriers (p = 0.83), a trend (p = 0.07) for
a positive relationship with LBMD was found in the
baT-heterozygotes, as illustrated by Fig. 1. In BAt-carriers
(haplotype 2-carriers), the intake of calcium was also
found to be positively related to LBMD development
(trend: p = 0.06); this was not found for non-BAt-carriers
(Fig. 2).
FFM was found to modify the relationship between
COLIA1 polymorphisms and LBMD. As shown in
Fig. 3, the significant positive effect of FFM on LBMD
in subjects carrying the TT-genotype turned out to be
higher than in GT and GG subjects.
No environmental effect modifiers in the relation-
ship between polymorphisms of the ERα gene and
LBMD could be detected. Weight-bearing physical acti-
vity (GRF) was not found to interact with any of the
three investigated genes.
Discussion
The risk of developing osteoporosis later in life is
not only determined by the attained level of peak bone
mass during adolescence, but also by the rate of bone
mineral loss during adulthood. Besides by environmen-
tal factors, bone mineral development is thought to be
determined by genetic factors and by an interaction be-
tween environmental and genetic factors. The relative
contribution of these factors in regulating BMD is in-
completely understood. In this study, the association of
several such genetic factors in the regulation of lumbar
bone mineral development, as well as the possible mo-
dification of the relationship by environmental factors
were assessed in a longitudinal cohort study of healthy
(young) adult Dutch men and women.
Genetic determinants
A genetic effect was detected for the haplotype 2 al-
lele (PX ) of the ERα gene. Men and women carrying
this haplotype showed a positive relationship with
LBMD at (young) adult age, with evidence for an allele-
-dose effect. Effect modification by the environmental
factors, FFM and dietary calcium intake, was detected
in the relationship between polymorphisms of respecti-
vely the COLIA1 and VDR genes and LBMD.
VDR gene
In the study, no relationship between VDR haplo-
type 2 allele (BAt) and LBMD was detected. However,
a meta-analysis (including 16 papers, and performed in
1996) revealed that bone mass was lower in individuals
with the BB-genotype of the BsmI polymorphism, com-
pared with the bb-genotype. The difference in LBMD
was –2.5% [36]. In a study among healthy Caucasian
females, BB-genotype was also significantly correlated
with decreased LBMD in 197 girls (aged 7–18 years),
but not in 172 premenopausal (aged 18–56 years) adult
females [37]. In addition, from a study among 164 wo-
men aged > 30 years, it was concluded that the VDR
effect in younger adult women was relatively stronger
than in older women [38]. In an 18-months longitudinal
study in 72 elderly subjects, BB-homozygotes lost
LBMD, while bb-homozygotes did not [37]. In a study
among 229 postmenopausal women, loss of LBMD
over a period of 2 years was greater in the BB group,
compared with the bb group [39]. On the other hand, in
28 premenopausal Finnish women, a trend for a higher
LBMD among the BB-genotype subjects was found.
This non-significant finding was possible owing to
a lack of power. However, a significant difference in
calcium absorption between the genotypes was found,
which could be explained by the better vitamin D status
among the BB-genotype group [40]. More in accordance
with our results, but with BsmI, TaqI and ApaI analyzed
separately, the VDR genotypes did not predict bone
turn over or BMD in a sample of 189 healthy premeno-
pausal French women (aged 31–57 years) [41].
ERα gene
A role for estrogen and its action mediated through
the ERα gene in attainment and maintenance of BMD
has been suggested, i.e. estrogen action has been asso-
ciated with the maintenance of BMD following meno-
pause and in the prevention of fractures [42].
The study showed a positive allele-dose and a domi-
nant effect for the ERα haplotype 2 allele (PX ) on the
longitudinal development of LBMD in Dutch Caucasian
(young) adults. For the allele-dose effect of haplotype 1
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
(px), and thereby also for p, a trend for a negative rela-
tionship with LBMD was found.
Inconsistent associations of the ERα polymorphisms
with BMD have been reported. Recently, in 2042 indi-
viduals of the Rotterdam Study, a significant negative
allele-dose effect of the ERα haplotype 1 allele (px) on
LBMD was found in elderly women, but not in elderly
men [43]. In a population-based study of pre- and peri-
menopausal women, PvuII and XbaI ERα genotypes
were both associated separately with the levels of
LBMD (i.e. a negative allele-dose effect for both p and
x on LBMD), but not with the change in LBMD over
a 3-year period [18].
Although several studies have identified an associa-
tion between ERα genotype and BMD, the allele that
predicts low or high BMD may be population-specific.
In Caucasian populations, the p allele was found to be
associated with low BMD [18, 43], while in Japanese
women, the P allele is likely to be associated with low
BMD [44]. In other population groups, no obvious rela-
tionship between ERα genotype and BMD have been
found [45, 46], which might be caused by differences in
the distribution of alleles among population groups or
by variable effects of modifier genes or environmental
factors in a given population.
COLIA1 gene
No relationship was found between COLIA1 poly-
morphisms and LBMD in (young) adult subjects. In the
largest study to date (1778 postmenopausal Dutch wo-
men), the effects of the COLIA1 polymorphisms on
BMD were found to depend on age (since menopause),
which suggests their role in determining the rate of
postmenopausal bone loss. The overall effect on LBMD
was, however, small, accounting for 2% of the variance
in LBMD in women aged 75–80 years [14]. Langdahl et
al. [16] reported that subjects with the TT-genotypes had
significantly lower LBMD values than subjects with the
GT- or GG-genotypes. In 583 women aged 24–44 years
from the Michigan Bone Health Study, no relationship
between COLIA1 polymorphisms and LBMD was
identified [18].
Gene–environment interactions
The mechanism through which the studied polymor-
phisms influence LBMD is likely to be modified by the
presence of various environmental factors like calcium
intake, GRF and FFM. The knowledge on the interac-
tion between genetic and environmental factors gives
health care providers information to tune preventive or
curative treatment strategies in relation to bone health
to the subjects’ genetic predisposition.
VDR gene
The finding of an interaction between calcium intake
and VDR genotype in the relationship with BMD has
been described by other investigators, especially in
postmenopausal women [37, 39, 47]. However, the re-
sults in postmenopausal women appear to be conflic-
ting: one study demonstrated an interaction between the
BB-genotype and calcium in the relationship with BMD
[39], another study found an interaction involving the
Bb-genotype [37], and a third study implicated an inter-
action concerning the bb-genotype group [47]. These
findings may, however, not be “conflicting” if the
VDR–calcium interaction depends on the level of dietary
calcium intake. The level of dietary calcium intake varied
considerably between the 3 described studies: values of
274–530 mg calcium/day, 1226–1235 mg calcium/day,
and 827 mg calcium/day were mentioned.
In a study in premenopausal women, an interaction
between VDR genotype and calcium intake was descri-
bed [48]. The BB- and Bb-genotypes were found to de-
monstrate an association between high calcium intake
(> 1036 mg/day) and greater femoral BMD. These and
other findings of Salamone et al. suggest that increasing
calcium intake and/or physical activity may be impor-
tant in maximizing one’s genetic potential for achieving
and maintaining BMD [48]. Krall et al. [39] also sugge-
sted that the association between VDR genotype and
bone loss depended on the level of calcium intake.
The mechanism of calcium being associated with
greater BMD only for those with the BB- or Bb-genotype
is not fully understood. One possible explanation is that
the B allele is in linkage disequilibrium with another
sequence variation elsewhere within the VDR gene,
which promotes calcium absorption [47]. In this, Krall
et al. [39] have suggested that there may be a functional
defect in the intestinal vitamin D receptor in subjects
carrying the BB-genotype of the VDR gene, resulting in
reduced calcium absorption efficiency. A significantly
reduced fractional absorption capacity was observed in
a group of calcium-depleted women with the VDR 2.2
genotype (BAt.BAt), compared with those with the VDR
1.1 genotype (baT.baT). This suggests a lower intestinal
calcium absorption efficiency among subjects with the
VDR 2.2 genotype [49, 50]. Also in the VDR gene, a si-
gnificant association between the TaqI polymorphism
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
and bone loss at the lumbar spine was found, which was
strongest in those in the lowest tertile of calcium intake
[51].
From the results of the study, it can be concluded
that increasing calcium intake in (young) adults is pro-
bably not always effective for LBMD. The effect of cal-
cium on LBMD is likely to depend on the VDR poly-
morphism of the subject. Subjects heterozygous for the
VDR haplotype 1 allele (baT), and/or carrying the VDR
haplotype 2 allele (BAt) are most likely to benefit from
increasing calcium intake. Further analysis on the sub-
jects with VDR 1.2 genotype (baT.BAt), which is the most
common one (in our study population; n = 136, 38%), in-
deed showed a positive relationship between calcium in-
take and LBMD (standardized βadj
= 0.13, p = 0.02).
Thus, the majority of the population is likely to benefit
from an increased calcium intake. For this, no statement
can be made on the amount of calcium needed to bene-
fit most.
COLIA1 gene
In the study, an interaction with FFM in the relation-
ship between COLIA1 polymorphism and LBMD was
observed. Increasing FFM or muscle mass was found to
be related to a higher (young) adult LBMD in all sub-
jects, but the extent depends on the COLIA1 genotype
of the subject. From the study, no information can be
provided about how much FFM would be beneficial for
bone health or how to achieve an increased FFM. To our
knowledge, no other study has found an interaction be-
tween COLIA1 polymorphisms and FFM in the rela-
tionship with LBMD. However, in a study among com-
munity-dwelling elderly men, the findings suggested
that the COLIA1 genotype-specific differences for
BMD might be mediated, at least in part, by differences
in muscle strength. In the study performed by van Pot-
telbergh et al., the COLIA1 polymorphism was associa-
ted with BMD and with the muscle strength [52].
Questions can be raised about whether FFM is an
intermediate factor in the relationship between COLIA1
polymorphisms and LBMD. Further analyses of the
data showed a strong relationship between COLIA1 ge-
notype and FFM. Via this pathway, FFM can be the
factor that influences LBMD accrual, as was demon-
strated in an earlier study [3]. The results from an ad-
ditional analyses on the relationship between COLIA1
genotype and FFM indicated that subjects with the
GG-genotype have significantly less (> 2 kg) FFM
(βadj
= –2.12, p < 0.001). If FFM were an intermediate
factor, a lower LBMD would be expected in the GG
group. In the study, the recessive effect of the G-genotype
on LBMD was negative, but not significant. These
findings are in agreement with the “mechanostat”, as
described by the Utah paradigm [53]. In the mechano-
stat hypothesis, the genetic factors are thought to deter-
mine the thresholds for modelling and remodelling of
the bone, above which GRF and muscle-bone contrac-
tions will strengthen the bone.
Study limitations
In the study on the longitudinal association between
genotypes and (young) adult LBMD and the interplay
of environmental factors, the statistical power was of
concern. The number of subjects was small and therefore
the study had limited power to detect significant asso-
ciations. A larger sample would have also resulted in
a narrowing of the confidence intervals around the ob-
served regression coefficients.
Calcium intake, which is a modifier in the relation-
ship between VDR genotypes and LBMD, is known to
differ widely between populations. Therefore, it is pos-
sible that the influence of VDR genotypes on bone me-
tabolism could be observed only among populations
with a relatively low calcium intake, which was not the
case in the study. Here, the calcium intake was rather
high, compared with other studies [37, 47, 48].
LBMD levels are likely to be determined by several
genes, acting collectively. The combination of alleles at
different loci may be more important than any genotype
at a particular locus. In addition, genes that primarily
influence bone accretion may be different from those
that affect bone resorption [18]. Therefore, future re-
search should also focus on the gene–gene interactions
and the relationship with LBMD.
Conclusions
In conclusion, a genetic relationship with LBMD du-
ring the third and fourth decades of life was only found
for the PX haplotype allele of the PvuII-XbaI polymor-
phism in introns of the ERα gene, i.e. an allele-dose ef-
fect and a dominant effect. Gene–environment interac-
tions were found for the VDR gene in combination with
calcium intake and for the COLIA1 gene in combination
with FFM. Increasing calcium intake is likely to have
a positive effect in the majority of the subjects: in the
VDR non-1.1 (baT.baT) subjects, and/or in the carriers of
the VDR haplotype 2 (BAt) allele. The most common
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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults
VDR genotype in the group of Dutch subjects was the
1.2 (baT.BAt) genotype (~38% of the study population),
which is also likely to benefit from extra calcium. No
statement can be made about how much calcium is
needed. All subjects are likely to benefit from an increase
in FFM, but this effect is most apparent in subjects with
the COLIA1 TT-genotype (~3.5% of the population).
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all subjects from the AGAHLS co-
hort for their cooperation during the past 25 years.
This paper is published as Chapter 6 in: I. Bakker, Affectors
of the adult lumbar bone: genetics body composition, and life-
style; Results from the Amsterdam Growth and Health Lon-
gitudinal Study. Gezondheid in Beweging (GIB) publication
no. 12, 2003. ISBN: 90-802727-7-9.
This study was supported by grants from the Dairy Founda-
tion on Nutrition and Health, the Dutch Heart Foundation
(grant 76051-79051), the Dutch Prevention Fund (grants
28-189a, 28-1106 and 28-1106-1), the Dutch Ministry of Well
Being and Public Health (grant 90-170), the Dutch Olympic
Committee/Netherlands Sports Federation, Heineken Inc.,
and the Scientific Board of Smoking and Health.
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Paper received by the Editors: February 6, 2006.
Paper accepted for publication: June 23, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Han C.G. Kemper
EMGO Institute
VU University Medical Center
Van der Boechorststraat 7
1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
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APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR IN PREDICTING LEISURE TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF POLISH ADOLESCENTS
Introduction
Even though regular participation in physical acti-
vity leads to manifold and well documented benefits,
many people in Poland, including youth, are sedentary
or their physical activity is too low to meet the recom-
mended level [1, 2]. It is so in spite of numerous ac-
tions aimed at increasing people’s physical activity,
including obligatory physical education in schools,
which is expected to prepare for lifelong physical acti-
vity. To make the process more effective, it is necessa-
ry to recognize factors that determine volitional physi-
cal activity. One of the most promising current areas
of research aimed at understanding these factors and
the relationships between them is empirical verifica-
tion of various theoretical models of behaviour change
[3]. One such model is Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Be-
haviour (TPB) [4] (Fig. 1).
The TPB proposes that the direct determinant of vo-
litional behaviour is a person’s intention to perform the
behaviour in a given context and time. Intention is the
degree to which a person formulates volitional plans of
action and as such should not be confused with the no-
tion of expectations, which are rather some form of
wish ful thinking and assessing in terms of probability
that the desirable behaviour will occur in future (“I wo-
uld like to ...”, “It would be a good thing to ...”) [5].
Intention is determined by three variables: (1) attitude
toward the behaviour, defined as “... the individual’s posi-
tive or negative evaluation of performing the particular
behaviour of interest” [4, p. 117]; (2) subjective norms,
defined as “the person’s perception of social pressure to
perform or not to perform the behaviour” [4, p. 117]; (3)
perceived behavioural control (PBC), defined as “per-
ceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour” and
assumed to “reflect past experience as well as anticipa-
ted impediments and obstacles” [4, p. 132]. PBC, besides
exerting motivational consequences on intention, is sug-
gested to directly influence behaviour because “in many
Krzysztof Sas-Nowosielski
Chair of Educational Sciences, Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The study was aimed at examining the usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in predicting leisure time
physical activity of Polish adolescents aged 13–19, thus explaining how the TPB constructs (behavioural intention, attitude, subjective
norms and perceived behavioural control) influence their participation in leisure time physical activity. Basic procedures. Anonymous
questionnaires were completed by 303 students (206 girls, 97 boys) aged 13–19 (M 16.15, SD 1.56). The obtained data were analysed
with the use of structural equation modelling (path analysis). Main findings. The results of the analyses indicated that intention was
a significant predictor of participation in leisure time physical activity and that significant predictors of intention were attitude and
perceived behavioural control. The influence of subjective norms was insignificant. Attitude was the strongest predictor of intention,
with the value of the standardised path coefficient over 0.4, while values greater than 0.5 are considered as large effect. Conclusions. The findings of the study provide partial support for the application of the TPB in predicting leisure time physical activity of
adolescents and suggest that educational interventions should focus on shaping attitudes and increasing the level of control over
young people’s behaviour.
Key words: physical activity, youth, theory of planned behaviour
2006, vol. 7 (2), 105–110
Figure 1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour
Subjectivenorms
BehaviourIntention
Attitude
Perceived behavioural
control
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K. Sas-Nowosielski, Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity
instances, the performance of a behaviour depends not
only on motivation to do so but also on adequate control
over the behaviour in question. It follows that perceived
behavioural control can help predict goal attainment in-
dependent of behavioural intention to the extent that it
reflects actual control with some degree of accuracy” [4,
p. 134]. The concept of PBC to some degree refers to the
concept of perceived self-efficacy in Bandura’s Self-effi-
cacy Theory [6], although the question whether both
these notions could be identified is contentious, as while
some authors treat both notions as synonyms, others ar-
gue that their complete identification is unfounded [7–
10]. Supporters of the latter approach point out that self-
-efficacy, as Bandura defines it, reflects only a degree to
which a person perceives his or her control over the beha-
viour, whereas the notion of PBC relates also to “external”
aspects of such control, e.g. barriers of physical activity.
From the three aforementioned determinants of in-
tention, attitude and PBC seem to be the most important
in influencing it [11]. After reviewing over 70 research
studies Hagger et al. conclude that “... people’s attitudes,
and to a lesser extent perceived behavioural control and
self-efficacy, seem to be the key influences in forming
intentions to participate in physical activity. In practical
terms this suggests that interventions based on the en-
hancement of attitudes toward physical activity may
lead to a concomitant increase in physical activity beha-
viour” [11, p. 25]. The most controversial construct of
the TPB is subjective norms, as in many research stu-
dies its influence on intention was at most weak [10–14].
For this reason some authors cancel this variable from
their research [14], while others claim that the influence
of the variable on intention is dependent on other varia-
bles, like the extent to which people are concerned with
Table 1. Items assessing the Theory of Planned Behaviour variables
Intention
“I plan to ...”
“I intend to ...”
“I will ...”
“... participate in physical activity in my leisure time within the next few weeks.”
Attitude
“According to me leisure time physical activity is ...”
“healthy – unhealthy.”
“pleasant – unpleasant.”
“interesting – boring.”
“joyful – stressful.”
“necessary – unnecessary.”
“important – unimportant.”
“useful – harmful.”
Subjective norms
“Do people who are important to you and whose opinions you are taking into account (parents, peers, teachers etc.) think that
in your leisure time ...”
“you should be physically active – you should avoid physical activity?”
“physical activity is useful for you – physical activity is useless for you?”
“Are their opinions relating to physical activity in your leisure time ...”
“important for you – unimportant for you?”
“influencing your behaviour – not influencing your behaviour?”
Perceived Behavioural Control
“To what extent participation in leisure time physical activity for you is ...”
“easy – difficult?”
“completely under your control – completely out of your control?”
Physical activity
“In your leisure time do you participate in physical activity which lasts at least 15 minutes each time and is intense enough to
raise your heart rate and breath, and to lead to sweating, like walking briskly, jogging, aerobics, cycling, gymnastics, resistan-
ce exercises etc.?”
“no”
“yes”
……. days a week
……. hours/minutes each time
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K. Sas-Nowosielski, Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity
others’ approval of them [15], or that it should be redefi-
ned and broadened with other elements of social influ-
ence, like social support [16, 17].
Despite the reservations, the TPB and its earlier ver-
sion, labelled the Theory of Reasoned Action, contribu-
ted much to understanding the factors lying at the base
of performing volitional physical activity and other he-
alth behaviours. However, in Poland it is only mentio-
ned by some authors [examples: 18, 19], but has never
been used in physical activity research.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the useful-
ness of the TPB in predicting leisure time physical acti-
vity of Polish youth, and to answer the question if the
variables predicted by the theory (attitude, subjective
norms and PBC) determine the intention to participate
in leisure time physical activity and if the intention pre-
dicts the behaviour.
Material and methods
The research was carried out in the fourth quarter
of 2004 in one of the schools in Mysłowice, Poland.
The participants were 303 students (206 girls, 97 boys)
aged between 13 and 19 (M 16.15, SD 1.56). They were
told that they were participating in the study concer-
ning their physical activity behaviours and that it was
voluntary. A diagnostic poll method of research was
adopted.
The participants filled in an anonymous question-
naire designed by the author for the needs of the study
and based on suggestions on how to develop a TPB
questionnaire published by Ajzen [4, 20] (Tab. 1). Inten-
tion was measured by three statements relating to parti-
cipation in leisure time physical activity and evaluated
on a Likert scale from 1 (“definitely not”) to 5 (“definitely
yes”). Attitude, subjective norms and PBC were measu-
red by 7-point scales anchored to appropriate statements
(see Tab. 1). The respondents” behaviour was assessed
by a question if they participated in leisure time physi-
cal activity that was at least moderate in intensity, like
walking briskly, jogging, aerobics, cycling, gymnastics,
resistance exercises etc. Participants answered on how
many days a week and how long each time they under-
took such physical activity.
The reliability of the scales measuring TPB varia-
bles was assessed by Cronbach’s coefficient α. Accor-
ding to Sokołowski and Sagan [21], an instrument is re-
liable if α > 0.6. All scales fulfilled this criterion, obta-
Table 2. Means (M), standard deviations (SD) of physical activity and correlations
between the four Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) variables
M SD Physical
activity
Intention Attitude Subjective
norm
Respondents total
Physical activity (min/week) 134.75 139.68
Intention 3.53 0.96 0.43*
Attitude 1.92 0.96 0.30* 0.50*
Subjective norms 1.14 1.26 0.18* 0.31* 0.44*
Perceived Behavioural Control 1.44 1.30 0.26* 0.42* 0.54* 0.39*
Girls
Physical activity (min/week) 116.35 123.01
Intention 3.46 0.94 0.45*
Attitude 1.88 0.99 0.30* 0.45*
Subjective norms 1.04 1.28 0.22* 0.36* 0.45*
Perceived Behavioural Control 1.43 1.32 0.29* 0.38* 0.56* 0.40*
Boys
Physical activity (min/week) 173.81 163.69
Intention 3.67 1.00 0.39*
Attitude 2.00 0.88 0.31* 0.62*
Subjective norms 1.36 1.21 0.07 0.18 0.40*
Perceived Behavioural Control 1.47 1.24 0.24* 0.50* 0.47* 0.35*
* p < 0.05
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K. Sas-Nowosielski, Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity
ining α values between 0.72 (subjective norm’s scale)
and 0.88 (scales of intention and attitude).
Means and standard deviations were calculated for
each scale. Correlations between variables were calcu-
lated by Pearson’s correlation coefficient r. Compari-
sons between means for both sexes were calculated by
the t-Student’s test. For determining relationships be-
tween the TPB variables, the structural equation model-
ling technique was adopted, which is rather rarely ap-
plied in social research in Poland, but considered one of
the best methods for causal interpretation of statistical
data [22]. This technique enables testing of causal rela-
tionships between variables, in order to assess how well
the theoretical model fits the data obtained (more on
structural equation modelling see: [22]). The evaluation
of goodness-of-fit of the model to the data was per-
formed with the use of: χ2 (the obtained p value associated
with the χ2 should be relatively large, p > 0.05), good-
ness-of-fit index (GFI) and adjusted goodness-of-fit in-
dex (AGFI) (in both cases a model is considered as
good-fitted to the data if values of both indexes are
> 0.95), root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) (when < 0.05, the model is considered as
good-fitted, when < 0.01 – as excellent-fitted), and Aka-
ike Information Criterion (the more this index is close
to 0, the better the model fits the data). All calculations
were carried out in Statistica 5.5.
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations between va-
riables are presented in Tab. 2. When the entire sample
data were used, all correlations between the variables
turned out significant – the strongest correlations existed
between attitude and PBC (r = 0.54) and between attitude
and intention (r = 0.50), the weakest correlation was be-
tween subjective norms and physical activity (r = 0.18).
When calculated for each sex separately, the data sho-
wed that for boys the correlations between subjective
norms and physical activity and between subjective
norms and intention were insignificant. Com parisons
between boys and girls demonstrated that the average
amount of time devoted to leisure time physical activity
was significantly higher for boys (p = 0.002) and that
boys seemed to perceive greater social pressure on per-
forming physical activity (the mean of subjective norms
scale was higher at p = 0.036). In the case of intention
only tendency toward statistical difference was obse-
rved (with boys showing stronger intentions; p = 0.078).
The assessment of causal relationships between varia-
bles was performed with structural equation modelling
(path analysis). Indexes of goodness-of-fit showed an
adequate fit of the TPB model to the data: χ2 p = 0.90;
RMSEA = 0.001; GFI = 0.99; AGFI = 0.99, Akaike In-
formation Criterion = 0.092. Causal relationships be-
tween the variables and obtained values of structural
path coefficients are shown on the path diagram in
Fig. 2. Single-headed arrows show causal effects, point-
ing from cause to effect, double-headed arrows show
merely a correlation between variables. Arrows point-
ing at the variables of “intention” and “physical activity”
that are not anchored to another variable of the model
show the so-called residual error, and represent the in-
fluence of factors not included in the analysis.
The intention toward physical activity had a signi-
ficant and strong influence on this kind of behaviour
(β = 0.73, p = 0.000), while the influence of PBC on
physical activity was insignificant (β = 0.03, p = 0.774).
The significant contributors to intention were identified
as attitude (p = 0.000) and PBC (p = 0.004), whereas
the influence of subjective norms was insignificant
(p = 0.228). The stronger of the two significant predic-
tors was attitude, whose effect size was β = 0.43, which
is considered the upper level of medium effect, while
values of path coefficients greater than 0.5 are conside-
red large effect. The influence of PBC was small, but
close to medium: β = 0.23. Thus, attitude appeared to be
the most important source of influence on intention.
This conclusion is also supported by calculation of indi-
rect influences of attitude, subjective norms and PBC
on physical activity: indirect influence of attitude was
Figure 2. Path diagram showing causal relationships between
the four Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) variables and
sizes of the path coefficients found in the study
Subjectivenorms
Physical activityIntention
Attitude
Perceived behavioural
control
0.54*
0.43*
0.23*
* Path significant at p < 0.05
Note: the two unanchored arrows pointing at Intention and Physical activity are residual errors
0.44*
0.38*
0.09 0.73*
0.03
0.85* 0.68
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K. Sas-Nowosielski, Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity
0.31, comparing with 0.17 for PBC and 0.06 for subjecti-
ve norms. Path analyses performed separately for both
sexes (not shown in path diagrams) disclosed that the
influence of attitudes on intentions was the most impor-
tant source of influence both in boys and in girls, and
especially strong among the former (β = 0.62, p = 0.000;
compared with β = 0.33, p = 0.000 for girls). The sexes
differed in relation to the size effect of subjective norms
on intention and PBC on intention. In the first case the
influence was insignificant for boys (p = 0.11), and
significant, although weak, for girls (β = 0.19, p = 0.029).
It may suggest that although boys perceive more social
pressure to be physically active, girls are more influenced
by it. The influence of PBC on intention was significant
and moderately strong for boys (β = 0.33, p = 0.008) and
weak and insignificant for girls (β = 0.18, p = 0.062).
Discussion
The study shows that the TPB may pose a useful
theoretical framework for explaining the leisure time
physical activity behaviours of youth aged 13–19. The
intention toward leisure time physical activity at least
partially influenced participation in this kind of exerci-
se behaviour. Attitude, subjective norms and PBC acco-
unted for about 29% of variance in intention (F(3, 299)
= 39.87; p = 0.000; R2 = 0.29). From the three determi-
nants of intention predicted by the TPB, attitude and
PBC were significant, while the influence of subjective
norms on intention was not. This finding is in accordan-
ce with many studies in which the first two variables
turned out much stronger predictors of intention than
the third one, with their influence on intention small or
insignificant; see e.g. Hagger et al. [11]. Our results may
suggest that other forms of social influence on intention
should be taken into account, like social support. The
suggestion found its preliminary confirmation in the
study of Courneya et al. [16], who discovered that this
construct better predicts intentions than subjective
norms. In our study social influence on intention was
restricted to subjective norms and operationalised in
accordance with the original TPB model. As mentioned
previously, the influence of subjective norms on inten-
tion may also be mediated by other variables, not con-
trolled in the study. As the study of Latimer and Ginis
[15] shows, one such variable may be the extent to
which people are concerned with others’ approval of
them: for people highly concerned with receiving disap-
proval from others (i.e. with high fear of negative evalu-
ation) the influence of subjective norms on intentions to
exercise was higher than for people who were low on
the aforementioned kind of fear.
The research also showed that the direct effect of
perceived behavioural control on physical activity was
insignificant. It should be noted, however, that the qu-
estion of such an influence, although assumed in the
theory, is not conclusive amongst investigations. Some
research has found the influence to be significant and
strong [10], in others it turned out insignificant, and
some authors believed themselves justified to ignore the
path between the variables completely [23].
There were differences between sexes in relation to
the influence of TPB variables on intention, although
there was a relatively small number of males in the cur-
rent study. This question is undoubtedly interesting
from both theoretical and practical point of view, as it
may provide information to design effective educational
interventions taking into account potential sex-based
differences in physical activity determinants.
Conclusions
The study showed that the TPB may be a useful
model to identify factors that potentially influence in-
tention to undertake leisure time physical activity
among adolescents aged 13–19. Two conclusions for
educational interventions could be drawn from the
study. Firstly, the results suggest an important role of
attitudes in forming behavioural intention. This fin-
ding supports the view of those theoreticians of physi-
cal education in Poland who claim that developing atti-
tudes is the most important goal of education toward
physical activity [19]. Secondly, perceived behavioural
control must be enhanced by convincing young people
that they possess appropriate resources (such as skills)
to perform the behaviour of interest, and they must be
taught techniques to cope with common barriers to
physical activity.
References
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5. Courneya K.S., McAuley E., Predicting physical activity from
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6. Bandura A., Self-efficacy. The exercise of self-control. W.H.
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13. Hagger M.S., Chatzismantis N., Biddle S.J.H., The influence of
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tions within the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Br J Health
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14. Armitage C.J., Conner M., Efficacy of the Theory of Planned
Behaviour: A meta-analytic review. Br J Social Psych, 2001,
40, 471–499.
15. Latimer A.E., Martin Ginis K.A., The importance of subjective
norms for people who care what others think of them. Psych
Health, 2005, 20, 53–63.
16. Courneya K.S., Plotinikoff R.C., Hotz S.B., Birkett N.J., Social
support and the Theory of Planned Behaviour in the exercise
domain. Am J Health Beh, 2000, 24, 300–309.
17. Rhodes R.E., Jones L.W., Courneya K.S., Extending the Theory
of Planned Behaviour in the exercise domain: A comparison of
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2002, 2, 193–199.
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Ośrodek Wspierania Edukacji Zdrowotnej, Warszawa 2001,
94–100.
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enough? [in Polish]. Phys Educ Sport, 2005, 4, 277–282.
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methodological considerations. (September 2002).
Available from: URL: http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~aizen/
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Paper received by the Editors: May 30, 2005.
Paper accepted for publication: April 4, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Krzysztof Sas-Nowosielski
Zakład Pedagogiki i Edukacji Zdrowotnej
Katedra Humanistycznych Podstaw Kultury Fizycznej
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Mikołowska 72A
40-065 Katowice, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
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MELATONIN AND OTHER PARAMETERS OF BLOOD ANTIOXIDANT SYSTEM IN VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS DURING AN ANNUAL TRAINING CYCLE
Introduction
The first report on the antioxidant properties of mela-
tonin was published by Tan et al. [1] in 1993. Since this
publication melatonin has been a subject of numerous
studies carried out on humans and test animals [2–8].
The existence of an indole cycle in the melatonin
molecule is the reason for its anti-oxidative properties
[2, 9]. Reiter [10] revealed in his research that melatonin
was a scavenger of peroxyl anion radicals and a poten-
tial scavenger of hydroxyl. Following Reiter, Hardeland
et al. [2] and Poeggeler et al. [9] suggested a mechanism
through which melatonin functioned as an antioxidant.
According to them, the reaction between the indole cyc-
le and hydroxyl or peroxyl radicals produces an indole
cation, which is then converted into a stable form of
N1-acetyl-N2-5-methoxykunuramin (AMK). According
to Halliwell [11], melatonin antioxidant activity is reali-
zed through two mechanisms: scavenging free radicals
and inhibiting their formation. The melatonin antioxi-
dant activity is also manifested by detoxicating hydro-
gen peroxide and lipid peroxides [3, 6, 12, 13].
Melatonin features a great ability of cell penetration.
It is easily dissoluble in the hydrophobic and hydrophi-
Agata Konarska1, Joanna Karolkiewicz2, Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak2,*
1 Chair of Sports Medicine and Physicotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland2 Chair of Physiology, Biochemistry and Hygiene, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The aim of the study was to analyze changes in prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters, with special focus on melatonin
as an antioxidant, in volleyball players during an annual training cycle. Basic procedures. The study was attended by eleven
volleyball players aged 16–17 years from the UKS “Budowlanka” Poznań sports club. The measurements were taken on five dates: in
the preparatory “A” period (September 2002), in the pre-starting period (October 2002), in the starting period (March 2003), in the
transient period (May 2003) and in the preparatory “B” period (September 2003). On all the dates, venous blood from the basilic vein
was drawn from resting players. The concentration of melatonin (MLT), creatinine and creatine kinase (CK) in venous blood serum
was estimated. Also, the total antioxidant capacity (TAS) and concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the
blood plasma were determined. Main findings. The obtained results showed that the parameters of prooxidant-antioxidant balance
in players during an annual training cycle differed significantly in individual periods. The lowest level of concentration of both MLT
and TAS occurred in the starting period (the third date of measurements), when the subjects were training with the heaviest physical
loads. MLT concentration at the beginning of the pre-starting period, as compared with the preparatory period, was increasing,
however, without statistical significance. A highly statistically significant difference was noted between the pre-starting period and
the starting period (p ≤ 0.01), when the level of MLT was reduced from 26.04 to 15.2 pg/ml. A statistically significant increase in MLT
concentration in relation to the starting period was observed in the transient period (p < 0.05). In the analysis of the concentration of
the total antioxidant capacity of plasma (TAS) on five dates of measurements, a significant decrease on the third date, as compared
with the first one, was found; from the third date of measurement, the TAS level grew systematically. Nevertheless, the difference in
TAS at the beginning and at the end of the study was not statistically significant, although there was a growth tendency from 1.6 to
1.7 mmol/l. In the period between the first and the third dates of measurement, an increase was observed in the concentration of
TBARS, i.e. products of peroxidation of lipids reacting with thiobarbituric acid. On the third date of measurement, the concentration
of the compound in question increased significantly (p ≤ 0.01), as compared with the second date of measurement; on the fourth
date, no statistically significant changes in the concentration of this parameter were observed. Conclusions. (1) The average resting
concentration of melatonin in blood serum depends on the type of training load, which confirms its participation in eliminating
oxidative stress induced by the character of training load. (2) Concentrations of the studied oxidative stress parameters in the blood of
volleyball players in individual mesocycles of an annual training cycle seem to be determined by the type of training load. The lowest
concentrations of the parameters of the antioxidant system were observed in the starting period, i.e. when the players were training
with the heaviest training loads.
Key words: melatonin, antioxidant system, physical activity
2006, vol. 7 (2), 111–117
*Corresponding author.
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A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players
lic environment, and its intracellular concentration is
often higher than its concentration in body fluids. De-
spite its lower concentration than glutathione, melatonin
is widely available in the cell and thus regarded by
a number of researchers as one of the most important
antioxidants [2, 3, 10]. Pieri et al. [4], in their in vitro
study, showed that melatonin was a scavenger of hydro-
xide radicals – belonging to the most reactive and toxic
free radicals – five times more effective than glutathione
and ten times more effective than mannitol. They also
revealed that melatonin was a far more effective peroxyl
radical scavenger than vitamin C, vitamin E and redu-
ced glutathione. A study by Alonso et al. [14] showed
that melatonin acted as a protection against exercise-in-
duced inflammatory damage in rat muscle by inhibiting
the expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and NF-
-κB kinase. The majority of studies on the antioxidant
activity of melatonin were conducted in vitro [2, 9] or
on test animals [15]. The results of human studies are
fewer; moreover the researchers have worked in various
conditions.
In regard to melatonin’s possible significance in the
system of endogenous antioxidant defense, research was
undertaken here aimed at specification of changes in
prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters in volleyball
players in an annual training cycle, with a special em-
phasis on melatonin as an antioxidant.
Material and methods
The study sample consisted of eleven volleyball
players from the UKS “Budowlanka” Poznań sports
club. The anthropometric profiles of the subjects, as
well as their training experience during five successive
measurement periods are presented in Tab. 1.
The subjects were training for 90 minutes, four times
a week on the average. During an annual training cycle
they took part in two training camps (a 14-day camp in
July and a 12-day camp in August). At the camps, the
subjects trained three times a day.
The measurements were taken during the annual
training cycle at the turn of 2002 and 2003, on five da-
tes: in the preparatory “A” period (September 2002), in
the pre-starting period (October 2002), in the starting
period (March 2003), in the transient period (May 2003)
and in the preparatory “B” period (September 2003).
Table 1. Basic characteristics of subjects in five study periods (n = 11)
Study period
± SD
I II III IV V
Age (years) 16.0 ± 0.45 16.0 ± 0.45 16.5 ± 0.69 16.6 ± 0.67 17.1 ± 0.30
Body height (cm) 183.0 ± 6.12 183.0 ± 6.42 184.0 ± 6.44 184.0 ± 6.37 185.0 ± 6.97
Body mass (kg) 73.0 ± 8.46 73.7 ± 8.42 73.9 ± 8.91 74.6 ± 9.60 76.6 ± 8.59
BMI (kg/m2) 21.9 ± 2.34 21.9 ± 2.22 21.8 ± 2.48 22.0 ± 2.77 22.4 ± 2.78
Training experience (years) 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 5.3 ± 2.45
Table 2. The mean active training time with consideration of versatile exercises (V), guided exercises (G),
special exercises (S) and exercise intensity in the study periods of the volleyball players’ annual training cycle
Training period
Exercise category Energy range
Total
time
(hours:
minutes)V G S
Maintenance
Development
Aerobic MixedAnaerobic
– lactic
Anaerobic
– nonlactic
Intensity range
1 2 3 4 5
Preparatory “A” period 51% 30% 19% 12.0% 22.0% 33.0% 16.5% 16.5% 82:30
Pre-starting period 19% 31% 50% 11.0% 16.5% 25.0% 22.0% 25.5% 36:00
Starting period 10% 27% 63% 14.0% 10.5% 14.5% 28.0% 33.0% 162:00
Transient period 60% 31% 9% 12.0% 33.0% 28.5% 12.5% 14.0% 31:30
Preparatory “B” period 50% 31% 19% 10.0% 21.0% 34.0% 18.0% 17.0% 120:00
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A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players
The training loads during each period are presented in
Tab. 2.
The blood for tests was taken from the basilic vein of
the subjects with an empty stomach, between 8 a.m. and
9 a.m. in a room in broad daylight (the subjects did not
exercise on the preceding day). The melatonin (MLT)
concentration in the venous blood serum was marked
with the ELISA immunoenzymatic method using the
ICN Biomedicals set (USA). The following parameters
were estimated in the blood plasma: total antioxidant
capacity (TAS, total antioxidant status) – with a test
developed by the Randox Laboratories Ltd. based on in-
hibition of ABTS (2,2’-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoli-
ne-6-sulfonic acid) oxidation; concentration of thiobar-
bituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) – with a spec-
trophotometric method with n-butanol extraction of
chromogen, following the guidelines suggested by Bu-
ege and Aust [16]; creatine kinase activity – with the
Cormay test (Poland). Lactate concentration in the capil-
lary blood from the tip of the finger was marked with the
enzymatic method using a Boehrringer–Manheim test.
In order to estimate the effect of training loads on
the prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters, as well
as on melatonin concentration in blood serum, an analy-
sis of the subjects’ training loads in the successive pe-
riods of the annual training cycle was performed. The
training loads were classified according to the applied
training means: versatile, guided and special. A collec-
tive registration sheet of training loads and a register of
training means categories were used [17].
The obtained study results were then statistically
processed. All parameters were checked in terms of
conformity of their distribution with normal distribu-
tion. The conformity was evaluated with the Shapiro–
Wilk test; the level of statistical significance was set at
p = 0.05. To estimate the statistical differences signifi-
cance, Chi-squared test was used. All calculations were
made with Statistica 6.0 PL software.
The study was conducted with the subjects’ consent
and was granted the approval of the Local Ethics Com-
mittee of Scientific Research at the University School of
Medical Sciences in Poznań, Poland.
Results
The results of the study are presented in Tab. 1–3
and graphically illustrated in Fig. 1–3. Tab. 1 presents
the basic characteristics of the subjects in five periods
of the annual training cycle (from September 2002 to
September 2003). The mean age of the subjects ranged
from 16 to 17 years, and their average training experien-
ce amounted to five years.
Tab. 2 shows the mean training active time and inten-
sity in the studied periods of the training cycle. The sub-
jects were training for 90 min, four times a week. During
the annual training cycle they took part in two training
camps (a 14-day camp in July and 12-day camp in
August). At the camps the training sessions took place
three times a day. The study was conducted at the turn of
2002 and 2003.
The mean values of prooxidant-antioxidant parame-
ters in the blood of resting players during each period of
measurement are shown in Tab. 3 and graphically illu-
strated in Fig. 1–3.
Statistically significant differences, at 1% confiden-
ce level, in blood melatonin concentration were noted
between the pre-starting and starting periods (11.2 pg/
ml decrease). Differences at the 5% confidence level
were observed between the preparatory “A” period and
starting period (7.5 pg/ml decrease), preparatory “A”
period and preparatory “B” period (4.5 pg/ml decrease),
pre-starting period and preparatory “B” period (8.2 pg/
ml decrease), and starting period and transient period
(10 pg/ml increase).
Statistically significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) in the
total antioxidant capacity of the subjects’ blood plasma
Table 3. Mean values of selected parameters of oxidative stress in volleyball players’ blood
Parameter
Measurement dates
± SD
I II III IV V
TAS (mmol/l) 1.6 ± 0.50 1.3 ± 0.43 1.2 ± 0.37 1.3 ± 0.39 1.7 ± 0.52
MLT (pg/ml) 22.7 ± 9.24 26.4 ± 9.80 15.2 ± 4.69 25.2 ± 12.37 18.2 ± 5.76
TBARS (µmol/l) 2.2 ± 0.89 2.0 ± 0.64 3.0 ± 0.46 3.1 ± 0.85 2.2 ± 0.18
CK (U/I) 60.8 ± 9.36 65.2 ± 19.29 62.8 ± 13.12 57.1 ± 13.33 54.4 ± 17.84
TAS – total antioxidant status, MLT – melatonin, TBARS – thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, CK – creatine kinase
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A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players
were noted between the starting period and the prepara-
tory “B” period (0.5 mmol/l increase), and, at the 5%
confidence level, between the preparatory “A” period and
starting period (0.4 mmol/l decrease), pre-starting and
preparatory “B” periods (0.4 mmol/l increase), starting
and transient periods (0.1 mmol/l increase), and transient
and preparatory “B” periods (0.4 mmol/l increase).
Statistically significant differences in the concentra-
tion of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS),
at the 1% confidence level, were observed between the
preparatory “A” and starting periods (0.8 µmol/l incre-
ase), pre-starting and starting periods (1 µmol/l incre-
ase), pre-starting and transient periods (1.1 µmol/l in-
crease), starting and preparatory “B” periods (0.8 µmol/l
increase), and transient and preparatory “B” periods
(0.9 µmol/l decrease). Differences at the 5% confidence
level were noted between the preparatory and transient
periods.
Discussion
Intense physical exercise is a commonly recognized
factor inducing oxidative stress. The level of prooxidant
changes intensification is determined by the exercise
intensity and duration [18–22]. The above-mentioned
effect of exercise is clearly demonstrated by the study of
Goto et al. [23]. For twelve weeks, the authors observed
three groups of young men performing exercises on
a cycle ergometer with different intensities (25, 50, 75%
VO2max
); the increase in peroxidative processes was re-
gistered only in the group performing exercises of the
highest intensity.
Karolkiewicz and Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak [24] in
their study of male rowers, proved that the increase in
the physical capacity in the annual training cycle corre-
sponded to the increase in glutathione (GSH) – a basic
intraerythrocyte antioxidant. Jenkins et al. [25] noted
that oxygen uptake by a human muscle in vitro was clo-
sely related to catalase and superoxide dismutase activi-
ty, which can suggest that an increase in muscle aerobic
metabolism corresponds to an increase in the muscle
antioxidant potential. During the study mentioned, the
activity of the enzymes of the “enzymatic triad” and the
concentration of reduced glutathione in red cell hemoly-
sate were not marked. Instead, the authors focused on
the dynamics of the changes in total antioxidative capa-
city, including melatonin.
Tab. 3 and Fig. 1–3 show that the concentrations of
the studied parameters in the five periods of the annual
training cycle (from 2002 preparatory period until 2003
preparatory period) differed significantly. The different
values of the studied parameters observed in individual
training mesocycles seem to confirm their dependence
Figure 1. Mean resting concentration of melatonin (MLT)
(pg/ml) in the annual training cycle
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
meanmean ± SDmin.-max.
�2 = 14.28
p < 0.01
MLT
(p
g/m
l)
I II III IV V
Measurement dates
The level of statistical significance between the study periods: p ≤ 0.01: II-IIIp < 0.05: I-III, I-V, II-V, III-IV
Figure 2. Mean resting total antioxidant status (TAS)
(mmol/l) in the annual training cycle
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
meanmean ± SDmin.-max.
�2 = 10.12
p < 0.05
TA
S (
mm
ol/
l)
I II III IV V
Measurement dates
The level of statistical significance between the study periods:p ≤ 0.01: III-Vp < 0.05: I-III, II-V, III-IV, IV-V
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A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players
on the character of training loads applied. The lowest
MLT and TAS concentration was noted in the starting
period (the third period under study), i.e. when the sub-
jects were training with the heaviest training loads.
Such changes noted during the third period under study
can result from the high MLT and TAS depletion in re-
sponse to long-lasting intense exercise, which, during
the third period, was characterized by the highest con-
tribution of phosphagen and glycolytic-lactic metabo-
lism to the coverage of energy expenses.
In the starting period, the total training volume amo-
unted to 9720 min (6121 min for special training loads,
814 for guided training loads, and only 97 for versatile
loads). In the remaining training mesocycles the pro-
portions between training loads were different. For
instance, in the preparatory period, the volume of spe-
cial training amounted to 940 min, and that of versatile
training – to 2524 min. Thus, in the starting period,
about 60% of the training work involved a significant
contribution of anaerobic metabolism, whereas in the
preparatory period 50% of the training work consisted
of aerobic loads. Because of prooxidant changes intensi-
fication in the starting period, a significant increase in
creatine kinase was noted [26]. Creatine kinase contri-
butes to the production of phosphocreatine and cata-
lyzes the reversible transfer of high energy pho-
sphate between phosphocreatine and adenosine-5-di-
phosphate (ADP) [27]. Radda’s study [28] proved that
the volume of absorbed oxygen depended on creatine
kinase activity, which was limited by the cell ratio be-
tween creatine and phosphocreatine. During the star-
ting period, the activity of this intracellular enzyme was
higher than in the other periods, with the exception of
the pre-starting period (Tab. 3), and was correlated with
the TBARS concentration near the level of statistical si-
gnificance (r = 0.543; p = 0.0810). In the second period
under study, characterized by the highest activity of
creatine kinase (CK), the correlation CK activity and
TBARS concentration appeared to be statistically signi-
ficant (r = 0.527; p < 0.05). It shows that the subjects’
heavy training loads in the pre-starting and starting pe-
riods contributed to the increase of their oxidative
stress. It should be added, however, that there may be
more reasons for the increase in CK activity. Apart
from exercise duration and intensity, an increase in CK
activity in blood may depend on training experience,
type of muscle contraction or gender [29–32]. Poprzęcki
et al. [31] showed that the increase in CK activity follo-
wing concentric exercise was lower than that following
eccentric exercise.
The significant correlation between the training me-
socycles and melatonin blood concentration and total
antioxidant capacity is reflected in the changes observed
in the remaining periods under study. The melatonin
concentration in the pre-starting period was higher than
in the preparatory period, but the difference was not sta-
tistically significant. A statistically significant difference
was recorded between the pre-starting period and the
starting period (from 26.4 to 15.2 pg/ml; p ≤ 0.01). Ano-
ther statistically significant difference in melatonin
concentration was noted between the starting period
and the transient period (p < 0.05). Alongside the chan-
ges in melatonin concentration, also changes in the total
antioxidant capacity in blood plasma were observed. It
can be concluded that melatonin is an integral compo-
nent of the plasma total antioxidant capacity, despite the
fact that no significant correlation between the studied
parameters was found. Data from literature indicate
that melatonin participates in antioxidant defense by
stimulating the activity of hepatic peroxidase glutathio-
ne [33], which decomposes hydrogen peroxide and,
thus, inhibits peroxidation processes.
It should be emphasized, however, that changes in
melatonin concentration, as compared with TAS con-
centration, featured significantly higher dynamics (one
Figure 3. Mean resting concentration
of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) (µmol/l)
in the annual training cycle
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
meanmean ± SDmin.-max.
�2 = 24.02
p < 0.01
TB
AR
S (
µm
ol/
l)
I II III IV V
Measurement dates
The level of statistical significance between the study periods:p ≤ 0.01: I-III, II-III, II-IV, III-V, IV-Vp < 0.05: I-IV
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A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players
has to bear in mind that the subjects were not supple-
mented with antioxidative preparations). The level of
melatonin and TAS concentration declined from the
first to the third period; however, only in the case of
MLT were the differences statistically significant, at 1%
confidence level. A similar tendency was observed du-
ring the time between the transient period and the star-
ting period; in the former, both MLT and TAS concen-
trations were significantly higher, at 5% level of confi-
dence (Fig. 2, 3).
A manifestation of the increasing oxidative stress
between the first and third periods is an increase in
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The
TBARS concentration in blood serum reflects the level
of peroxidation of cell membrane lipids and their cle-
arance in the liver [21]. In the starting period, the
TBARS concentration was significantly higher than in
the pre-starting period (p ≤ 0.01); no statistically signifi-
cant differences were noted between the transient and
preparatory “B” period. Different studies have indicated
that exercise intensity has a decisive effect on lipid pe-
roxidation [34, 35]. Exercise of high intensity signifi-
cantly increases TBARS concentration, whereas exercise
of low intensity causes no changes in the concentration
of this parameter.
The total antioxidant capacity of blood serum (TAS)
was significantly lower in the starting period than in the
preparatory “A” period, and significantly higher in the
fourth and fifth periods. The difference in the TAS le-
vel between the first and fifth periods was not statisti-
cally significant, but an increase was noted from 1.6 to
1.7 mmol/l. The increase in all the studied parameters
in the fourth and fifth periods is associated with the
subjects’ lighter training loads at that time. In the tran-
sient period, aerobic exercises constituted about 60% of
the training work, whereas anaerobic exercises only
9%, i.e. 170 min. In the preparatory “B” period, aerobic
exercises amounted to 50% of the training time (3600
min), and anaerobic exercises only 1368 min. It is also
interesting that no statistically significant correlations
between the periods mentioned were noted. The chan-
ges in the studied parameters in the transient period are
difficult to explain. As Tab. 3 shows, an increase in
TAS and MLT concentration, as well as a slight in-
crease in TBARS and decrease in CK activity were re-
corded in the transient period. On the one hand, these
positive changes in the studied parameters can be attri-
buted to the application of lighter training loads, on the
other hand, the higher TBARS concentration is not
indicative of such influence of training loads. Some stu-
dies show that in highly trained athletes the TBARS
concentration is correlated with maximal absorption of
oxygen and is higher than in untrained subjects [22,
36].
Between the first and the fifth periods under study
(preparatory season 2002 and 2003), statistically signi-
ficant differences in melatonin and creatine kinase con-
centration were observed. The mean values of other pa-
rameters were almost identical. The causes of melatonin
concentration lowering are numerous; however, in the
present study, the factor of lighting, the time of drawing
blood and physical exercise preceding drawing the
blood samples were excluded.
Conclusions
1. The average resting concentration of melatonin in
blood serum depends on the type of training load,
which confirms its participation in eliminating oxidati-
ve stress induced by the character of training load.
2. Concentrations of the oxidative stress parameters
in the blood of volleyball players in particular mesocyc-
les of the annual training cycle seem to be determined
by the type of training load. The lowest concentrations
of the parameters of the antioxidant system were noted
in the starting period, i.e. when the subjects were tra-
ining with the heaviest training loads.
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Paper received by the Editors: June 1, 2006.
Paper accepted for publication: October 3, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak
Zakład Higieny
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Królowej Jadwigi 27/39
61-871 Poznań, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
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2006, vol. 7 (2), 118–129
THE STRUCTURE OF VOLLEYBALL PLAYING DISPOSITIONS IN PLAYERS AGED 14–15, CANDIDATES FOR THE POLISH NATIONAL TEAM
Introduction
Complex practical problems connected with the spe-
cificity of players’ actions during a sports competition
are often studied from the scientific and cognitive
points of view. Gaining information by way of an objec-
tive analysis of the conditions of players’ actions in
achieving the game’s objective is an issue of fundamen-
tal significance. Its effective solution can vastly contri-
bute to the development of individual sports games in
theory and praxis. One of the most basic concepts lin-
ked to the problem mentioned is the player’s action,
which is understood as the player’s conscious, intentio-
nal and free behaviour in particular game situations [1].
The player’s action skills are conditioned by his
situation in the field, as well as his psychological, intel-
lectual and motor abilities, called ontogenetic disposi-
tions. “A good player is characterized by his personality
traits, specialist knowledge of the game and training,
effective decision-making processes, special motor
skills, coordination skills, fitness and agility” [1].
According to Panfil [2], the terms “traits” or “abili-
ties”, commonly used in anthropomotorics or theory of
sport, refer to the athlete’s body in general. If there is,
however, a visible significant relationship between
a player’s abilities and effectiveness in action, such abi-
lities should be understood as dispositions to play,
which make the player’s action possible. Naglak [1] de-
fines athlete’s abilities as individual differences which
make individuals – uniformly trained and motivated
– achieve different effects in learning and acting. Accor d-
ing to Panfil [2], the basic ontogenetic traits manifes ting
particular dispositions to play include constitutional
traits, intellectual traits (states of mind), coordina tive
traits (abilities), fitness traits (abilities), psychological
traits (states), social traits (skills), and organizational
traits (skills).
Following Morawski [3], it can be assumed that man
is a subject characterized by cohesion (everything has
its cause), complexity (existence of different levels, each
being necessary for effective action), and dynamics
(a given state in time can be altered without external
Edward Superlak
Chair of Team Sports Games, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. Skills of players in complex game situations are conditioned by the range and level of their ontogenetic dispositions, which
are usually classified into psychological, intellectual, coordinative, fitness-related, organizational and social. A player’s highly
developed dispositions may form new qualitative complexes of dispositions, called interdispositions, being effects of the player’s
dispositional synergy. The study aims at a multi- and interdisciplinary identification of dispositions to play volleyball in young players
with a high level of playing skills, necessary to achieve the game’s objectives. Basic procedures. The range of volleyball skills includes
service, reception, game tactics, offensive action, blocking and defensive action skills. The subjects for the study were 84 talented
young volleyball players, aged 14–15. The methods used in the study included pedagogical tests and anthropometric measurements.
Main findings. The analysis of the collected data showed that the highest percentage of players were distinguished by their intellectual
potential (IQ, 19%), body mass (19%) and the level of specialist knowledge (17.9%). The lowest percentage of players were
distinguished by their short response time to the test of knowledge (10.7%) and jumping ability (11.9%). The applied model of internal
synergy constituted a structure of dispositions on a significantly high level featured by one of the players. In order to achieve the aim
of the study, a multidisciplinary approach to players’ dispositions was adopted, combining elements of psychology, anthropomotorics
and theory of sports games. Conclusions. The high percentage of players with higher than average levels of two different dispositions
constitutes an important factor in seeking interdispositions, i.e. internal interdispositional synergy. It might be assumed that the fitness
interdisposition is composed of speed–strength–jumping ability dispositions. The intellectual (semantic-cognitive) interdisposition
consists of specialist knowledge and intellectual potential. If a player features a very high level of two different dispositions, not only
his dispositions, but also interdispositions can be determined. A player with a high level of skills in solving different situations during
a game who presents high levels of dispositions is a player with an interdisposition of rational and dynamic action.
Key words: ontogenetic dispositions, interdispositions, internal synergy, playing skills
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E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
influence). By accepting the above triad of factors, it
can be concluded that a player’s ontogenetic disposi-
tions, regardless of their number and level of segmenta-
tion, constitute a certain entity, i.e. structure.
Considering the different pace of mental and physi-
cal development of children and adolescents, particular
traits (abilities) are developed unequally, which means
that everyone possesses an individual and unique struc-
ture of dispositions. An action is undertaken by a player
in his internal sphere (perception, information proces-
sing, making decisions), and external sphere (realisation
of motor tasks). With regard to different ontogenetic dispo-
sitions, implementation of the same task (from its com-
mencement to its conclusion) by different players acti-
vates their individual dispositions on different levels.
This means that producing similar results during the
same action by different players is conditioned by the
individual (ontogenetic) activation of particular dispo-
sitions (internally and externally) (Fig. 1).
Due to its specificity of actions, each team game
predestines players with dispositions required for the
game.
Panfil [4], in his research on the possibilities of mu-
tual compensation of ontogenetic dispositions influen-
cing players’ effective action in play, observed that
some players featured a compensation of traits or abili-
ties. In consequence, a player’s dispositions (often diffe-
rent from those required for the game) contribute to
their effectiveness in action and achievement of the ga-
me’s objectives. This phenomenon is called “equi-fina-
lism”; thanks to it, players with different structures of
ontogenetic dispositions, by undertaking proper actions,
fulfil the praxeological criteria of effectiveness in play,
e.g. reliability, efficacy and activeness. The case of spike
in volleyball may serve as an illustration of this process.
The effectiveness of a spike depends on the player’s le-
vel of concentration, his perception of external factors
relevant to the performance of a spike (the number of
blocking players of the opposing team, receiving forma-
tion, set-up of the defensive players in the back court,
the score of the game, etc.), evaluation of the ball trajec-
tory in time and space, planning and realization of the
sequence of movements, largely dependent on the play-
er’s coordination abilities (spatial orientation, movement
smoothness and accuracy, motor adjustment) and fit-
ness (speed and strength). The same effects of action
can be achieved by players with different structures of
ontogenetic dispositions, e.g. body height, level of play-
ing skills, etc. Different players achieve the same effect
acting in the same conditions, but they “utilize” different
dispositions or the same dispositions on different levels
of activation (using them to a different extent). This pro-
cess is called compensation of action, or, more precise-
ly, mutual compensation of ontogenetic dispositions.
According to Panfil [4], individual dispositions af-
fect sports play interdependently but to a different
extent. In team games, different arrangements of mutual
ontogenetic dispositions can be observed. They form
interdispositions and ensure effective actions allowing
the game’s objectives to be achived. An interdisposition
is an arrangement of interrelated ontogenetic dispositions
which leads to formation of a new quality, and does not
constitute merely a direct sum of the constituent disposi-
tions. Interdispositions are formed through internal
synergic effects related to players’ psychophysi cal ca-
pabilities, and they are achieved through a perfect
cooperation of different body systems (Fig. 2). Synergy
in team games is an equi-final arrangement of facilita-
tion and organization effects that leads to achieving the
game’s objectives. The effects mentioned constitute the
so-called external synergy. It is determined by interde-
pendent ontogenetic dispositions of individual team
players, which form equi-final arrangements of syner-
gic dispositions. The synergic arrangements of ontoge-
netic dispositions to play are called internal synergy. Figure 1. Hypothetical participation of a selected player’s
ontogenetic dispositions during the player’s action
A
C
T
I
O
N
Reaction
Level of disposition activation
Psychological
Intellectual
Coordinative
Fitness-related
Categories of ontogenetic dispositions
Stimulus
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E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
Czajkowski [5], in his description of theories of per-
sonality referring to Eysenck’s theory of personality
traits, states that “a certain one-sidedness of this theory
is a perception of man as a collection of particular
features and properties, with insufficient emphasis on
the mutual interaction of these factors”. Czajkowski
concentrates on finding relationships between the traits
and properties within one sphere (mental sphere), i.e. on
finding a mental interdisposition.
Studies on intellectualization in young soccer play-
ers during learning special playing skills by way of
acquisition of specialist knowledge, its understanding
and application, were carried out by Duda [6]. The au-
thor shows that players featuring a higher level of intel-
lectual abilities develop better playing skills. Superlak’s
study [7] indicated that young volleyball players (14–15-
-year-old) with the training experience of 0.5–4 years
have acquired the specialist knowledge of the game in
6–48%. There was, however, no statistically significant
correlation between the level of acquired knowledge
and the actual results in sports competition.
In his work on tactical decisions in team games,
Krawczyński [8] notices “an unquestionable direct rela-
tionship between motor skills and intellectual proces-
ses”. The authors quoted by Krawczyński (Lacombe,
Sarrazin, Alain) are convinced that “making decisions
is an important aspect of the cognitive processes in
sport, as the quality of a single sports action depends
equally on the accuracy of movement and the speed of
decision-making processes”.
Ulatowski [9] stresses the concurrent learning of fac-
tors subject to training, as they are all interrelated. Some
dispositions can be, in fact, interrelated. The que stion of
difficulty in recognising dispositions to play which con-
dition success in sport is discussed by Szwarc [10], who
claims that “a comprehensive recognition of playing
talents is impossible because of the uneven personal
development and multidimensional space of the player’s
self-fulfilment”.
In their research, Raczek et al. [11] express an opi-
nion that the study of human motor function should
concentrate not only on a multidimensional analysis of
the performed movements, but also on the recognition
of internal individual dispositions. The main dimension
of motor function are predispositions, defined by Szopa
et al. [12] as the elementary structural and functional
characteristics of the human body, which, to a large
extent, are genetically conditioned.
Depending on the player’s needs, his different dis-
positions are activated on different levels in different
circumstances of his actions. A correct decision is a de-
cision which is plausible in a given situation, has been
chosen out of many possible variants, has been taken
promptly, and has produced the effect of surprise in the
opponent with its timing and means. For instance,
a volleyball player, before delivering a serve, must
Figure 2. Model of mutual arrangements of dispositions and formation of interdispositions
Psychological dispositions Somatic features
Ontogenetic interdisposition
motivation
personality
temperament
emotions
kineticsmotor adjust-ment
balancespatial orienta-
tion
speed of reaction
Coordinative dispositions
Coordinative interdisposition
Psychological interdisposition
Intellectual dispositions
perception
decisions
intelligence
knowledge
speed endurance
strength efficiency
Fitness dispositions
Intellectual interdisposition
Fitness interdisposition
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
121
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
choose one of many possible variants of action, conside-
ring his own skill level in performing different types of
service.
The player’s decision is based on his processing of
information regarding the receiving formation of the
opposing team. The serving player estimates the ability
to act in individual players of the receiving team and
chooses the player (or a spot on the court) with the
lowest level of playing skills (according to his own esti-
mates). Then he estimates the distance between the
served ball and the net (close or far). The player’s sequ-
ence of thoughts is his estimation of the probability of
an effective action (scoring a point). The external action
is the realisation of properly programmed and coordina-
ted motor tasks (following the player’s decision), i.e. se-
rving the ball, for example, into the back zone of the
opposing team’s court.
The player’s decisions are often determined by his
specialist knowledge about the game’s tactics and tech-
niques, by his intelligence (understood as an ability to
perceive and process information, draw conclusions and
implement the task), and by his emotional balance. It can
be assumed that the activated dispositions (satisfactory
condition) interact, on their different levels (necessary
condition), with one another, constituting a qualitatively
new arrangement of dispositions on a higher level (accu-
rate decision), called interdisposition. In a similar way,
interdispositions can be formed within particular sphe-
res of dispositions (psychological, intellectual, coordina-
tive, fitness-related) or across these spheres (Fig. 3).
Aim
The numerous studies on athletes’ ontogenetic dis-
positions, conditioning their effective actions, have been
mostly carried out from the standpoint of one particular
branch of science, e.g. psychology – Wlazło [13],
physiology – Chmura [14], bioengineering – Bober et
al. [15], biochemistry – Mędraś and Słowińska-Lisow-
ska [16], and the theory of human motor function
– Duda [6], Szwarc [10].
The aim of the study was a multi- and interdimen-
sional identification of dispositions to play volleyball in
young players featuring skills to act effectively during
a play. The basis for an effective action consists of indi-
vidual dispositions, hypothetically constituting a unique
qualitative and quantitative structure in each player.
The range of volleyball players’ skills includes effective
actions in service, reception, game tactics, offence,
blocking and defence.
The research questions were the following:
1. What are the disposition structures of players distin-
guished by particular categories of dispositions (in-
tellectual, fitness, somatic)?
2. Are there any internal synergies within the ontoge-
netic dispositions under study, manifested by a for-
Figure 3. Hypothetical arrangements of dispositions forming a player’s interdispositions of action
intelligence emotional balance
strength speed
perception knowledge
kinesthetic feeling
prompt reaction
motor adjustment spatial orientation
Accurate decision
– interdispositionPower
– interdisposition
Ontogenetic playing disposition
Accuracy of movement
– interdisposition
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
122
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young playersT
able
1. P
ears
on’
s co
effi
cien
t of
corr
elat
ion b
etw
een t
he
pla
yer
s’ o
nto
gen
etic
dis
posi
tion
s
Body h
eig
ht
0.6
3
0.9
5
0.9
5
0.7
3
0.7
9 –
0.0
7 –
0.1
3
0.1
7 –
0.3
4 –
0.2
6 –
0.1
2 –
0.0
7 –
0.0
7 –
0.1
1 –
0.2
0
0.0
4
0.0
4
0.0
2
Body m
ass
0.6
5
0.6
1
0.5
2
0.5
3 –
0.0
1 –
0.0
4
0.4
8 –
0.2
1 –
0.1
9
0.0
7
0.1
6
0.1
4
0.1
0 –
0.0
5 –
0.0
1
0.0
7
0.0
7
One-
arm
rea
ch
0.9
9
0.7
4
0.8
0 –
0.1
2 –
0.1
8
0.2
3 –
0.3
7 –
0.2
7 –
0.1
4 –
0.1
0 –
0.0
7 –
0.1
2 –
0.1
3
0.0
4 –
0.0
1
0.0
5
Tw
o-a
rm r
each
0.7
2
0.7
8 –
0.1
3 –
0.2
2
0.1
8 –
0.3
6 –
0.2
9 –
0.1
3 –
0.1
0 –
0.0
8 –
0.1
4 –
0.1
3
0.0
6
0.0
1
0.0
4
Jum
p w
ith o
ne
arm
up
0.9
3
0.5
8
0.4
2
0.3
3
0.0
3
0.0
4
0.1
2
0.0
0
0.0
9
0.0
0 –
0.0
1
0.1
5
0.0
2 –
0.0
7
Jum
p w
ith t
wo a
rms
up
0.4
1
0.4
4
0.2
7 –
0.0
8
0.0
7
0.1
0 –
0.0
2
0.0
7 –
0.0
4 –
0.1
2
0.1
4 –
0.0
1
0.0
5
Jum
pin
g a
bil
ity w
ith o
ne
arm
up
0.8
3
0.2
1
0.4
9
0.3
8
0.3
5
0.1
2
0.2
1
0.1
4
0.1
5
0.1
7
0.0
3 –
0.1
7
Jum
pin
g a
bil
ity w
ith t
wo a
rms
up
0.1
6
0.4
0
0.5
2
0.3
4
0.1
1
0.2
1
0.1
3
0.0
0
0.1
3 –
0.0
3
0.0
1
Dy
nam
ic f
orc
e
0.2
1
0.0
8
0.1
6
0.1
6
0.1
60.1
20.2
6–
0.0
10.2
9–
0.1
5
Loco
moti
ve
spee
d (
“envel
op
e”)
0.1
3
0.3
6
0.2
8
0.3
3
0.3
3
0.3
6
0.1
3
0.1
8 –
0.0
7
Sp
eed (
10m
ru
n)
0.0
9 –
0.1
6 –
0.0
1 –
0.0
9
0.0
5 –
0.0
2 –
0.0
3
0.0
5
Psy
cho
-moto
r re
spon
se 1
0.6
8
0.7
1
0.5
4
0.1
8
0.1
2
0.0
7
0.0
3
Tim
e 1
0.6
8
0.8
1
0.1
8
0.0
0
0.1
6
0.1
3
Psy
cho
-moto
r re
spon
se 2
0.8
3
0.1
5
0.0
7
0.0
0
0.1
4
Tim
e 2
0.1
5
0.0
4
0.1
6
0.2
0
Sp
ecia
list
know
ledge
–0.1
8
0.1
8 –
0.1
3
Know
ledge
test
tim
e –
0.1
1
0.1
4
IQ –
0.1
9
Tim
e IQ
AWF_7_2_04Superlak03_2k_DRUK.indd 122 12/15/2006, 10:55:05 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
123
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
mation of new qualitative arrangements, i.e. interdi-
spositions?
Material and methods
The subjects for the study were 84 volleyball players
aged 14–15 years, training volleyball on a regular basis
for 1.5–4 years. The players played in 14 teams from all
over Poland, competing in the Polish Tournament of
Young Olympic Hopes under the auspices of the Polish
Volleyball Association. The subjects trained in sports
clubs and they were selected (by way of measurements,
fitness and qualification tests) for regional teams. The
main objective of the tournament was the selection of
the most outstanding players to the School of Sports
Championship of the Polish Volleyball Association,
and, consequently, to the national junior volleyball
team.
The study was carried out with an exploratory ap-
proach to recognize the players’ dispositions to play
volleyball. Pedagogical tests were applied, classified as
research methods by Łobocki [17] and as measurement
techniques by Pilch and Bauman [18]. The tests were
used for assessing the subjects’ intellectual and fitness-
-related abilities, as well as psychomotor responses. The
following research tools were applied:
1. The test of intellectual potential (TIP1): task sol ving
time (min) and intelligence quotient (IQ) (pts).
2. The test of specialist knowledge (TSK2): answer
time (min), the number of correct answers given by
players versus the experts’ answers.
3. Psycho-motor response (perimeter test3): the num-
ber of perceived visual signals in perimeters 1 and 2,
total psycho-motor response time in perimeters 1 and
2.
4. Fitness test4: force – running jump with one arm up
(cm), standing jump with both arms up (cm); dyna-
mic force – 3 kg medicine ball overhand throw from
the kneeling position (cm); locomotive speed –
running with direction change (“envelope” run) (s);
speed – 10m distance run (s).
5. Somatic features: – body height (cm), body mass
(kg), one-arm reach in the standing position (cm),
two-arm reach in the standing position (cm).
In the statistical analysis, in order to determine the
normality of variable distribution, the Kolmogorov–
Smirnov test was used. With regard to the characteristics
of players distinguished by their ontogenetic disposi-
tions, the procedure of standardization [18] was carried
out (with normal distribution of variables), and the ob-
tained values were presented on a “Z” scale. The values
were marked “+” and “–”, and ranged from +3 to –3.
The results were grouped in the following ranges:
1. From –0.99 to 0 or from 0 to +0.99 – no significance.
2. From –1.99 to –1 or from +1 to 1.99 – lower signifi-
cance.
3. From –2.99 to –2 or from +2 to 2.99 – high signifi-
cance.
4. Below –3 or above +3 – very high significance.
Results
The statistical significance of correlations was esti-
mated with Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
(Tab. 1). High and very high significant correlations
(0.5 � r < 1) were observed in somatic features, running
jump with one arm up and standing jump with both
arms up. Similar levels of statistical significance were
noted in the psycho-motor response test. An ave-
rage significant correlation (0.3 � r < 0.5) was noted
between the dynamic force and jump with one arm up
and body mass, and locomotive speed and players’ jum-
ping ability.
In the quantitative analysis of the players distin-
guished by their level of manifested dispositions, raw
data were changed into standardized data. It was
assumed that if a given disposition achieved the value of
+1 on the “Z” scale, its rank was low but significant. The
number of players with significantly high levels of dis-
positions (in the range of +1 > z < +1.99) from among
the study sample (n = 84) constituted about 19–10.7% of
individual ontogenetic dispositions. The highest number
of players was distinguished by their body mass and in-
telligence quotient (19%), followed by their level of
specialist knowledge (17.9%). The lowest number of
players was distinguished by their answer time in the
test of specialist knowledge (10.7%) and the results of
the running jump with one arm up (11.9%) (Fig. 4). The
quantitative analysis of players is presented in Fig. 5.
1 Developed by Rican P., Psychodiagnosticke a didaktycke testy.
N.P., Bratislava.2 Developed by Superlak E., AWF, Wrocław.3 Developed by Machnacz W., AWF, Wrocław.4 Developed by volleyball coaches of regional teams and approved
by the Department of Training of the Polish Volleyball Associa-
tion.
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
124
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
Two observations can be made: first of all, there was
not a single player with a higher than average level of
psycho-motor response (in terms of reaction time and
the number of perceived signals); secondly, in terms of
task solving time (specialist knowledge and intellectual
ability), the number of players with positively signifi-
cant levels of dispositions (“+”) was lower than the
number of players with negatively significant disposi-
tions (“–”).
Among the players with significant body height
(n = 11; 13.1% of the sample), 27.3% featured a signifi-
cantly high IQ, 21% fitness level, and 18.2% specialist
knowledge level (Fig. 6). Among the players with signi-
ficantly high levels of at least two fitness dispositions
(n = 20; 23.8% of the sample), 43.6% featured a high le-
vel of fitness ability (one or more dispositions), 35% of
Figure 4. The percentage of players distinguished by significant levels of the studied ontogenetic dispositions (n = 84)
body height (13.1%)
body mass (19%)
one-arm reach (15.5%)
two-arm reach (14.3%)
jump with one arm up (13.1%)
jump with two arms up (15.5%)
jumping ability with one arm up (11.9%)
jumping ability with two arms up (14.3%)dynamic force (16.7%)
speed in the “envelope” run (16.7%)
speed (10m run) (13.1%)
correct answers (17.9%)
answer time (10.7%)
IQ (19%)
IQ answer time (13.1%)
Figure 6. The profile of dispositions in players with signifi-
cant body height (n = 11; 13.1% of the sample)
two-arm reach (91%)
fitness test
(21%)
IQ (27.3%)
specialist knowledge (18.2%)
Figure 5. The number of players with significantly low and
high levels of the studied dispositions (on the “Z” scale)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
“+” values
Somatic features
Motor ability Psycho-motor response
Specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential test
bo
dy
he
igh
t
bo
dy
ma
ss
on
e-a
rm r
ea
ch
two
-arm
re
ach
jum
p w
ith o
ne a
rm u
p
jum
p w
ith t
wo a
rms
up
jum
pin
g a
bili
ty w
ith o
ne a
rm u
p
jum
pin
g a
bili
ty w
ith t
wo a
rms
up
dyn
am
ic fo
rce
spe
ed in
th
e “
enve
lop
e”
run
spe
ed (
10m
ru
n)
pe
rim
ete
r 1
pe
rim
ete
r 1 t
ime
pe
rim
ete
r 2
pe
rim
ete
r 2 t
ime
corr
ect
an
swe
rs
an
swe
r tim
e IQ
IQ a
nsw
er
time
“–” values
AWF_7_2_04Superlak03_2k_DRUK.indd 124 12/15/2006, 10:55:10 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
125
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
two-arm reach, 17.5% of specialist knowledge, and 15%
of IQ (Fig. 7). Among the players with significantly
high intellectual dispositions (n = 9; 10.7% of the sam-
ple), 55.6% featured a high level of specialist know-
ledge, 44.4% of IQ, 33.3% of two-arm reach, and 19.4%
of fitness abilities (Fig. 8).
Among the players with at least two different signi-
ficantly high dispositions (n = 38; 45.3% of the sample),
28.9% featured a significantly high two-arm reach, 25%
of IQ, 23.7% of specialist knowledge, and 14.3 of fitness
(Fig. 9).
The most important part of data analysis in the pre-
sent study is the analysis of individual players’ disposi-
tions. Fig. 10–12 present dispositions of particular play-
ers; shaded areas indicate above-average levels of dispo-
sitions (z > 1). Particular players differ in terms of the
type, quantity and level of the featured dispositions, i.e.
each player possesses a different profile of ontogenetic
dispositions. Player K.J. (Fig. 10) represents length cha-
racteristics of the body, i.e. a longer arm-reach and gre-
ater jumping ability, as well as a higher level of specia-
list knowledge. Player B.Z. (Fig. 11) features significan-
tly higher jumping abilities and locomotive speed (10m
run), as well as the level of specialist knowledge. Also
players with the lowest levels of ontogenetic dispositions
were identified in the sample. The volleyball player in
Fig. 12 showed no disposition on the level higher than
average (z > +1), but nine lower-than-average disposi-
tions (z < –1). The collected research results referring to
a particular player create a specific hierarchic structure
of dispositions, which are distributed within the range of
values determined by the scale. The data presented in
Fig. 13 indicate that the player under study obtained
very high values in the case of two dispositions (z > +2),
high values in the case of six dispositions (+2 > z > +1),
low values in the case of one disposition (-2 < z < –1),
Figure 7. The profile of dispositions in players featuring
a significantly high level of fitness (at least two dispositions)
(n = 20; 23.8% of the sample)
two-arm reach (35%)
fitness test
(43.6%)
IQ (15%)
specialist knowledge (17.5%)
Figure 8. The profile of dispositions in players featuring
a significantly high level of intellectual dispositions (at least
two dispositions) (n = 9; 10.7% of the sample)
two-arm reach (33.3%)
fitness test
(19.4%)
IQ (44.4%)
specialist knowledge (55.6%)
Figure 9. The profile of dispositions in players featuring
a significantly high level of at least two ontogenetic disposi-
tions (n = 38; 45.3% of the sample)
two-arm reach (28.9%)
fitness test
(14.3%)
IQ (25%)
specialist knowledge (23.7%)
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
126
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
and average values in the case of the six dispositions left
(–1 < z < +1).
The obtained results constitute an attempt to explain
the formation of internal synergy within the sphere of
ontogenetic dispositions, leading to the emergence of
interdispositions. In the analysis of correlations between
the variables, first, the logic of correlation was taken
into consideration, followed by the level of significance
and its direction. The case of player K.M. was chosen as
an application model illustrating the interdispositions
(Fig. 14). The common feature of individual fitness abi-
lities are specific energetic changes in the player’s body.
Figure 10. The profile of dispositions in the player K.J.
“Z” scale
somatic features
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
–0.50
–1.00
real scaleb
od
y h
eig
ht
bo
dy
bo
dy
ma
ssm
ass
on
e-a
rm
rea
ch
two
-arm
re
ach
jum
p w
ith
on
e a
rm u
p
jum
p w
ith
two a
rms
up
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
on
e a
rm u
po
ne a
rm u
p
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
two a
rms
up
two a
rms
up
dyn
am
ic
forc
e
spe
ed in
th
e “
enve
lop
e”
run
spe
ed
spe
ed
(10
m r
un)
(10
m r
un)
kno
wle
dg
e
(su
m o
f a
nsw
ers
)
kno
wle
dg
e
(answ
er
time)
IQ
IQ
an
swe
r tim
e
1.05
0.10
1.25
1.521.631.63
1.21
0.87
–0.30
0.13
0.96
–0.72
1.15
1.55
–0.09
0.21
fitness specialist knowledge test and specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential testintellectual potential test
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
09.13
100
4.4941.4914.52
8.58.5
4869
303
325
255255256256
70
192192
1.84
Figure 11. The profile of dispositions in the player B.Z.
“Z” scale
somatic features
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
–0.50
–1.00
–1.50
real scale
bo
dy
he
ight
bo
dy
bo
dy
ma
ssm
ass
on
e-a
rm
rea
ch
two
-arm
re
ach
jum
p w
ith
on
e a
rm u
p
jum
p w
ith
two a
rms
up
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
on
e a
rm u
po
ne a
rm u
p
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
two a
rms
up
two a
rms
up
dyn
am
ic
forc
e
spe
ed in
th
e “
enve
lop
e”
run
spe
ed
(10
m r
un)
kno
wle
dg
e
(sum
of
an
swe
rs)
kno
wle
dg
e
kno
wle
dg
e
(an
swe
r (a
nsw
er
time)
time)
IQ
IQ
an
swe
r tim
e
0.75
–0.01
1.04 0.97
2.172.171.92 1.92
1.61
–0.24 –0.31
1.47
1.04
-0.92 –0.09
0.82
fitness
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
07.34
100
6.5340.5315.43
7.9
6077
310
331
250
254
69
190
1.59
specialist knowledge test and specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential testintellectual potential test
AWF_7_2_04Superlak03_2k_DRUK.indd 126 12/15/2006, 10:55:14 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
127
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
If these changes are on a significantly high level, it can
be concluded that a new qualitative fitness relationship
– speed–strength interdisposition – is formed between
the strength disposition (z = 3.57) and the speed disposi-
tion (z = 2.38). Together with above-than-average jump-
ing ability, a new strength–speed–jumping interdisposi-
tion is created. Similarly, in terms of the relationship
between the level of specialist knowledge (z = 1.7) and
intelligence (z = 1.47), a new semantic-cognitive inter-
disposition is created. From the analysis of the interdis-
positions of player K.M. it can be concluded that his
profile features a structure of a significant fitness inter-
Figure 12. The profile of ontogenetic dispositions in the player with the lowest levels of dispositions (in the sample studied)
“Z” scale
somatic featuressomatic features
0.50
0.00
–0.50
–1.00
–1.50
–2.00
–2.50
–3.00
real scaleb
od
y b
od
y h
eig
ht
he
ight
bo
dy
bo
dy
ma
ssm
ass
on
e-a
rm
on
e-a
rm
rea
chre
ach
two
-arm
tw
o-a
rm
rea
chre
ach
jum
p w
ith
jum
p w
ith
on
e a
rm u
po
ne a
rm u
p
jum
p w
ith
jum
p w
ith
two a
rms
up
two a
rms
up
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
on
e a
rm u
po
ne a
rm u
p
jum
pin
g
jum
pin
g
ab
ility
with
a
bili
ty w
ith
two a
rms
up
two a
rms
up
dyn
am
ic
dyn
am
ic
forc
efo
rce
spe
ed in
sp
ee
d in
th
e “
enve
lop
e”
the “
enve
lop
e”
run
run
spe
ed
spe
ed
(10
m r
un)
(10
m r
un)
kno
wle
dg
e
(su
m o
f a
nsw
ers
)
kno
wle
dg
e
kno
wle
dg
e
(an
swe
r (a
nsw
er
time)
time) IQIQ IQ
IQ
a
nsw
er
an
swe
r tim
etim
e
–1.99 –1.25 –2.35 –2.21
-2.84
0.30
–2.42 –0.70 –1.26 –1.35 –0.21 –1.43 –0.41 –0.09 –0.30
fitness specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential test
300
250
200
150
100
50
09.29
100
6.11
34.11
15.366.1
42
57
263
380
221223223
58
172
1.91
Figure 13. The profile of the player K.M. with significantly high levels of fitness and intellectual dispositions
body height –0.47
body mass
1.40
1.45
1.34
3.57
1.49
2.38
1.70
1.47
one-arm reach –0.38
two-arm reach –0.46
jump with one arm up 0.64
jump with two arms up 0.50
jumping ability with one arm up
jumping ability with two arms updynamic force
speed in the “envelope” run
speed (10m run)
knowledge (sum of answers)
knowledge (answer time) –0.58
IQ
IQ answer time –1.49
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
128
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
disposition (speed–strength–jumping ability) and intel-
lectual disposition (specialist knowledge–intelligence).
Conclusions
1. From among the 84 studied volleyball players, the
largest number were distinguished by their high level of
intelligence (IQ, 19%), body mass (19%), and specialist
knowledge (17.9%). The lowest number of players fea-
tured a short answer time in the specialist knowledge
test (10.7%) and the ability to jump with one arm up
(11.9%). In the group of players distinguished by their
body length features (13.1% of the sample), higher le-
vels of intelligence were displayed by 27.3% of the sam-
ple, of fitness by 21%, and of specialist knowledge by
18.2% of the players. In the group of players distingu-
ished by at least two dispositions studied (45.3% of the
sample), a significantly longer two-arm reach was fea-
tured by 28.9% of the players, IQ by 25% of the players,
specialist knowledge by 23.7%, and fitness by 14.3% of
the players. The high percentage of players with higher
than average levels of two different dispositions consti-
tutes an important factor in seeking interdispositions,
i.e. internal interdispositional synergy.
2. As a model example of internal synergy forma-
tion, the arrangement of dispositions in one of the play-
ers was selected. The chosen player displayed these dis-
positions on a significantly high level. It might be as-
sumed that the fitness interdisposition is composed of
speed–strength–jumping ability dispositions. The intel-
lectual (semantic-cognitive) interdisposition consists of
specialist knowledge and intellectual potential. It should
be emphasized that the selected player presented a hi-
gher-than-average body height – 182 cm (z = –0.47).
3. In reference to the aim of the study, a multidisci-
plinary approach to the players’ dispositions was pre-
sented, with the implementation of knowledge from the
areas of psychology, human motor function and theory
of sports games. The author of the study assumed the
interdisciplinary approach, being convinced that the
players’ unique skills of solving the constantly changing
situations during a volleyball game were conditioned by
a given structure of ontogenetic dispositions, different
in each player. If a player features a very high level of
two different dispositions (z > +2), not only his disposi-
tions, but also interdispositions can be determined.
A player with a high level of skills in solving different
situations during a game who presents high levels of dis-
positions, e.g. accurate and quick decision-making or
a high level of speed and strength, is a player with an
interdisposition of rational and dynamic action, i.e. with
the qualitative component of his skills. This is an im-
portant factor in the effective achievement of the game’s
objectives. If future research reveals relationships be-
Figure 14. The profile of the volleyball playing interdisposition in the player K.M.
Fitness dispositions
strength14.1 m
3.57 (“Z”)
speed (10 m run)1.09 s
2.38 (“Z”)
speed (“envelope” run)14.4 s
1.49 (“Z”)
jumping ability with two arms up
59 cm1.45 (“Z”)
jumping ability with one arm up73 cm
1.40 (“Z”)
Intellectual interdisposition
Fitness interdisposition
Volleyball playing ontogenetic interdisposition in the player K.M.
Intellectual dispositions
specialist knowledge46.25%
1.70 (“Z”)
IQ120 (quotient)
1.47 (“Z”)
Somatic features
body mass81 kg
1.34 (“Z”)
body height182 cm
–0.47 (“Z”)
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
129
E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players
tween interdispositions and playing skills, it will be an
important tool for coaches in solving practical problems
in the long-term training of team games players.
References
1. Naglak Z., Teaching and learning ball games [in Polish]. Vol. 1.
AWF, Wrocław 2005.
2. Panfil R., Praxeology of sports games [in Polish]. AWF, Wro-
cław 2006.
3. Morawski J., Selected problems of methodology of sport re-
search [in Polish]. Biblioteka PTNKF, Warszawa 2000.
4. Panfil R., Facilitation of football players’ activities [in Polish].
AWF, Wrocław 1994.
5. Czajkowski Z., Psychology as training facilitation [in Polish].
COS, RCM-S KFiS, Warszawa 1996.
6. Duda H., Intellectualization of football instruction [in Polish].
AWF, Kraków 2003.
7. Superlak E., Coaches’ and players’ knowledge of effective ac-
tions in volleyball [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport,
2002, 46.
8. Krawczyński M., Collective tactical decisions in team games
[in Polish]. AWFiS, Gdańsk 1999.
9. Ulatowski T., Versatile physical skills. The foundations of
championship and the necessity of tests. In: Śledziewski D.,
Karwacki A. (ed.), Training of sport gifted youth [in Polish].
Vol. 12. PTNKF, Warszawa 2003, 88–114.
10. Szwarc A., The level of selected motor skills in Polish and Ger-
man top junior football players. In: Żak S., Spieszny M., Klocek
T. (ed.), Team games in physical education and sport [in Polish].
AWF, Kraków 2005, 116–119.
11. Raczek J., Mynarski W., Ljach W., Theoretical and empirical
foundations of development and diagnosis of coordination mo-
tor skills [in Polish]. AWF, Katowice 1998.
12. Szopa J., Wątroba J., Żak S., The basics of anthropomotorics [in
Polish]. PWN, Warszawa–Kraków 1996.
13. Wlazło E., Interpersonal attitudes in teenage football teams. In:
Wlazło E. (ed.), Psychology of a sports team [in Polish]. AWF,
Wrocław 2003, 71–87.
14. Chmura J., Physiological basics of player’s speed of action. In:
Czerwiński J., Sozański H. (ed.), Modern ideas of training in
team games [in Polish]. AWFiS, Gdańsk 2004, 39–69.
15. Bober T., Rutkowska-Kucharska A., Szpala A., Hard vs. soft
landing in depth jump. Acta of Bioengineering and Biomecha-
nics, 2002, 4, Suppl. 1, 595–596.
16. Mędraś M., Słowińska-Lisowska M., Overtraining syndrome.
In: Mędraś M. (ed.), Sport medicine [in Polish]. Agencja Wy-
dawnicza Medsportpress, Warszawa 2004, 111–115.
17. Łobocki M., Methods and techniques of pedagogical research
[in Polish]. OW Impuls, Kraków 2006.
18. Pilch T., Bauman T., The principles of pedagogical research.
Quantitative and qualitative strategies [in Polish]. WA Zak,
Warszawa 2001.
Paper received by the Editors: May 31, 2006.
Paper accepted for publication: October 10, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Edward Superlak
Katedra Zespołowych Gier Sportowych
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
al. Paderewskiego 35
51-612 Wrocław
e-mail: [email protected]
AWF_7_2_04Superlak03_2k_DRUK.indd 129 12/15/2006, 10:55:21 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
130
Krzysztof Karpowicz
Department of the Theory of Sport, Chair of the Theory and Methodology of Sport, University School of Physical Education,
Poznań, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The main objective of the study was to identify selected factors determining the effectiveness of the training process and to
describe the changes in relations between them in a yearly training cycle of young basketball players. Also, an attempt was made to
specify the degree of determination of the sports level by individual factors. Basic procedures. Empirical material consisted of the
results of tests carried out in a group of young basketball players aged 12.5–13.5 years (78 boys). The measurements were made three
times and included the following parameters: somatic build, general fitness and special fitness. The sports level was also described,
which was determined on the basis of two parameters: (a) the position of the given player’s team in the province league at the end of
the season; (b) the position of the player in his team based on the coach’s ranking. Main findings. During the analyses it was proved,
among other things, that not all factors taken into account displayed interdependency with the sports level of young basketball
players. It was noted that the sports level was determined to the largest extent by their weight and height structure and by the degree
of special fitness, which in turn depended on speed and strength abilities. The structure of interdependencies between the analysed
factors indicates some regularities. Body build parameters and indicators determine the level of motor skills, and these, in particular
speed and strength predispositions, determine special fitness. Conclusions. The knowledge relating to the conditions of sports level
in basketball points at multiple factors stemming from various areas of the human body structure and the external environment. In
the case of adults, the identification of these factors is not easy, and in reference to children and youths it is even more difficult.
These problems result from the conditions of the progressive stage of ontogenetic development. Thus, the studies of this type are
rarely undertaken.
Key words: young basketball players, sports level, determination
Introduction
Contemporary requirements of competitive sport
create the need of constant search and extension of the
field of information allowing the optimal understanding
of the phenomena which accompany the process of sports
training. Ulatowski [1] and Ważny [2], among others,
draw attention to the fact that for years the research has
been carried out according to a traditional pattern: as
a search for the link between independent variables
(morphological, biochemical, physiological indicators
etc.) and a dependent variable – sports performance.
According to many authors, sports performance is
an expression of an athlete’s accumulated abilities, de-
veloped through a long-term, conscious training pro-
cess.
In other words, sports performance constitutes a fi-
nal manifestation of the biological capabilities of an
athlete; therefore, it includes: inborn predisposition, ef-
fects of the natural and social environment, effect of the
training process.
For a correct control of the training process in team
games, the knowledge is necessary of the impact of in-
dividual factors on sports performance and establishing
their optimal level. For example, Wachowski and Strzel-
czyk [3] indicate that sports performance depends on
many factors, which may be divided into those which
are subject to training and those which are not.
According to Naglak [4], the factors which determine
the realisation of tasks in a team game are: mental capa-
bilities (ensuring rational decisions and choice of ac-
tion), special motor abilities (ensuring effective perfor-
mance of intentions), and coordination abilities (en-
suring strong, quick and persistent carrying out of
inten tions).
In Ulatowski’s opinion [5], among the factors which
determine the effectiveness of sports competition
are: physical conditions, general physical fitness,
technical fitness, tactical abilities, and psychological
features.
The discussion on the factors determining the effec-
tiveness of sports competition in basketball cannot be
INTERRELATION OF SELECTED FACTORS DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING IN YOUNG BASKETBALL PLAYERS
2006, vol. 7 (2), 130–146
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
131
K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
limited only to the technological area. The development
of an athlete’s abilities is a long-term process and must
go stage by stage, as the effectiveness of reaching the
objectives depends on their logical placement in a stric-
tly defined period [6].
This study relates to young male basketball players
who started the directed stage of the training process.
This is a particular developmental period, coinciding
with a high sensitivity of the body to external stimuli.
In the light of the above, the main aims of the study
have been formulated as follows:
1. To identify the factors determining the effectiveness
of the training process at the directed stage of sports
training.
2. To describe and analyse the changes in the structure
of the interrelation between the factors in a training
macrocycle.
3. To establish the degree of the sports level being de-
termined by individual factors.
The following research questions were posed:
1. What factors determine the effectiveness of the train-
ing process in young basketball players?
2. Are there any relations between the factors and what
is their nature?
3. How does their influence on the sports level change
in an annual training cycle?
Material and methods
The empirical material was collected in direct stu-
dies which covered young male basketball players aged
12.5–13.5 years from nine clubs of the Wielkopolska
province. The schedule of the studies provided for three
measurements determined by time structure. The first
measurement was planned at the beginning of the pre-
paratory period, the second one at the end of the first
starting period and the third one at the end of the second
starting period. The studied group included 78 subjects.
The measurements covered three groups of factors
which had been assumed to determine the effectiveness
of training in basketball: (a) somatic parameters, (b) ge-
neral fitness, (c) special fitness.
In order to establish the body build, the following
somatic features were measured with the use Martin’s
method [7]: (1) height, (2) weight, (3) the width of the
base of the distal arm bone, (4) the width of the base of
the distal thigh bone, (5) the thickness of the skinfold on
the arm, (6) the thickness of the skinfold under the lo-
wer angle of the scapula, (7) the thickness of the skin-
fold over the iliac crest, (8) the thickness of the skinfold
under the knee, (9) the largest circumference of the arm,
(10) the largest circumference of the leg.
The anthropometric measurements allowed for esta-
blishing the body build of the subjects according to
Sheldon’s typological system as modified by Heath and
Carter [8].
The level of motor abilities was established with the
following tests:
• starting speed – the speed of running at the distance
of 5 m (m/s);
• running speed – the speed of running at the distance
of 20.0 m (m/s);
• speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m (m/s);
• jumping ability – a reach jump (cm);
• agility – the time of run on the figure of eight (s);
• reaction time – the time of a simple reaction to an
optical stimulus (s);
• eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus (n);
• pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball (m);
• static strength – measurement of the power of flexor
muscles of fingers (kG);
• aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test (pts).
Special fitness was established with the use of the
following tests [9, 10]:
• a slalom with dribbling (s);
• a two-hand pass from the chest (m);
Table 1. Differences between the somatic parameters on
the first and third dates of measurements
Somatic
parameters
First date–third date
First
mean
Third
mean
Diffe-
renceT–Student’s
Height 168.75 173.05 4.30 26.27
Weight 55.39 59.42 4.03 16.20
BMI 19.281 19.718 0.436 3.65
Logarithm of
four skinfolds 3.48 3.34 –0.14 6.35
Endomorphy 2.91 2.49 –0.42 6.02
Mesomorphy 3.27 3.48 0.21 5.60
Ectomorphy 4.28 4.29 0.01 0.17
BMI – body mass index, statistically significant correlation
at the level of p ≤ 0.01
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132
K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball playersT
able
2. D
iffe
rence
s b
etw
een g
ener
al f
itnes
s para
met
ers
on t
he
thre
e d
ates
of
mea
sure
men
ts
Gen
eral
fit
nes
s
Fir
st d
ate–
Sec
ond d
ate
Sec
ond d
ate–T
hir
d d
ate
Fir
st d
ate–T
hir
d d
ate
First mean
Second
mean
Difference
T–Student’s
Second
mean
Third mean
Difference
T–Student’s
First mean
Third mean
Difference
T–Student’s
v 5
m (
m/s
)
4.4
615
4.5
402
0.0
787
3.0
9
4.5
402
4.6
261
0.0
859
3.0
4
4.4
615
4.6
261
0.1
646
5.7
7
v 2
0 m
(m
/s)
5.7
840
5.8
958
0.1
118
5.6
9
5.8
958
6.0
195
0.1
237
7.34
5.7
840
6.0
195
0.2
355
11.5
4
v 1
5 ×
20 m
(m
/s)
5.4
703
5.5
473
0.0
770
3.6
6
5.5
473
5.6
626
0.1
153
4.9
6
5.4
703
5.6
626
0.1
923
8.7
2
WD
(cm
)
41.8
43
.5
1.7
2.8
1
43.5
45
.5
2.0
4.4
9
41.8
45
.5
3.7
6.1
0
“8”
(s)
13
.747
13
.64
4
–0.1
03
1.37
13
.64
4*
13.4
64*
–
0.1
79*
2.5
7*
13
.747
13
.46
4
–0.2
83
3.4
9
Rea
ctio
n t
ime
1 (
ms)
243
.4
232.9
–10
.44.5
2
232.9
*
228.2
*
–4.7
*2.2
1*
243
.4
228.2
–15
.27.
13
Rea
ctio
n t
ime
2 (
ms)
232.9
224.1
–
8.8
4.3
2
224.1
224.8
–
0.7
0.4
1
232.9
224.8
–
8.1
3.8
0
Cro
ss a
pp. 1 (
n)
11
.9
20.9
9.
09.
67
20.9
27.
9
7.0
8.9
7
11.9
27.
9
16.1
15.3
5
Cro
ss a
pp. 2 (
n)
18
.5
26.4
7.
99.
25
26.4
32.0
5.6
7.70
18
.5
32.0
13
.413
.11
Med
icin
e bal
l (m
)
7.12
7.
24
0.1
21.
35
7.24
7.
89
0.6
58.3
8
7.12
7.
89
0.7
89.
90
Str
eng
th (
kG
)
33.9
09
40.4
90
6.5
8111
.40
40.4
90
42.6
74
2.1
85
3.3
9
33.9
09
42.6
74
8.7
65
12.6
3
Monto
ye
(pts
)
49.
4
50.2
0.8
1.19
50.2
52
.3
2.0
83.5
5
49.
4
52.3
2.9
4.5
1
stat
isti
call
y s
ign
ific
ant
corr
elat
ion a
t th
e le
vel
of
p ≤
0.0
1, *
sta
tist
ical
ly s
ign
ific
ant
corr
elat
ion a
t th
e le
vel
of
p ≤
0.0
5, v 5
m –
sta
rtin
g s
pee
d –
the
spee
d o
f ru
nn
ing a
t th
e
dis
tance
of
5 m
, v 2
0 m
– r
un
nin
g s
pee
d –
the
spee
d o
f ru
nn
ing a
t th
e d
ista
nce
of
20 m
, v 1
5 ×
20 m
– s
pee
d e
ndu
rance
– a
rep
eate
d r
un 1
5 ×
20 m
, W
D –
ju
mpin
g a
bil
ity –
a re
ach j
um
p, “8
” – a
gil
ity –
the
tim
e of
run o
n t
he
fig
ure
of
eig
ht,
Rea
ctio
n t
ime
1 –
the
tim
e of
sim
ple
rea
ctio
n t
o o
pti
cal
stim
ulu
s b
efore
work
, R
eact
ion t
ime
2 –
the
tim
e
of
sim
ple
rea
ctio
n t
o o
pti
cal
stim
ulu
s af
ter
work
, C
ross
app. 1 –
eye
and h
and c
oord
inat
ion –
a c
ross
appara
tus
bef
ore
work
, C
ross
app. 2 –
eye
and h
and c
oord
inat
ion –
a cr
oss
appara
tus
afte
r w
ork
, M
edic
ine
bal
l – p
ick-
up s
tren
gth
– a
th
row
of
a m
edic
ine
bal
l, S
tren
gth
– s
tati
c st
reng
th –
pow
er m
easu
rem
ent
in t
he
flex
or
mu
scle
s of
finger
s, M
onto
ye
– a
erobic
per
form
ance
– M
onto
ye’
s st
ep-t
est
Tab
le 3
. D
iffe
rence
s b
etw
een s
pec
ial
fitn
ess
para
met
ers
on t
he
thre
e d
ates
of
mea
sure
men
ts
Gen
eral
fit
nes
s
Fir
st d
ate–
Sec
ond d
ate
Sec
ond d
ate–T
hir
d d
ate
Fir
st d
ate–T
hir
d d
ate
First mean
Second
mean
Difference
T-Student’s
Second
mean
Third mean
Difference
T-Student’s
First mean
Third mean
Difference
T–Student’s
Dri
bbli
ng (
s)
7.55
9
7.488
–
0.0
711.
62
7.488
7.
214
–
0.2
756.6
7
7.55
9
7.21
4
–0.3
46
6.8
8
Pas
s (m
)
9.92
10
.65
0.7
36.0
4
10.6
5
11.1
7
0.5
25.6
9
9.92
11
.17
1.
25
9.71
Sli
de
step
(s)
19
.37
18
.52
–
0.8
55.8
9
18.5
2
17.6
24
–
0.8
98
9.48
19.3
7
17.6
24
–1.
750
11.2
8
Shots
(s)
11
5.9
2
112.0
8
–3.8
51.
75
112.0
8
104.9
49
–7.
128
4.1
0
115.9
2
104.9
49
–10
.974
4.5
4
stat
isti
call
y s
ign
ific
ant
corr
elat
ion a
t th
e le
vel
of
p ≤
0.0
1
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
• leg work in defence (s);
• shots at the basket – a “five circles” test (s).
The sports level of young basketball players was de-
termined on the basis of two parameters: (1) the position
of a given player’s team in the province league at the
end of the season, (2) the position of a player in his team
based on the coach’s ranking.
In cooperation with the Department of Statistics of
the University School of Physical Education in Poznań,
using Cantor numbers [11], the following formula was
devised to specify the indicator of sports level of each
player:
PS = ML*W1 + MZ*W2
where PS – sports level indicator, W1 – weight of the
position of the team in the league, W2 – weight of the
position of the player in the team, ML – position of the
team in the league, MZ – position of the player in the
team.
Results
In order to answer the research questions and meet
the objectives of the study, in each of the groups the ki-
netics of the changes taking place in the training macro-
cycle was described using the t-Student’s test, and its
significance was established. The relations between the
analysed factors were investigated with correlation
matrix. The strength of the influence of the factors in
question on the dependent variable, namely sports per-
formance, was established with the use of the linear re-
gression analysis with the choice of the best subset of
variables.
The detailed profile of the results is presented in
Tab. 1–14.
Discussion
This study relates to young basketball players who
entered the directed stage of the training process with
the analysed cycle. This is a special developmental pe-
riod which coincides with a high sensitivity of the body
to external stimuli. In basketball the directed stage co-
vers young people between 13 and 15 years of age, that
is during the pubertal spurt. This is the last period of the
body high flexibility in the ontogenesis of an athlete.
The stage should focus on mastering the basics of tech-
nique, and sensory and motor habits should be strong
enough for the dynamic increase in body length para-
meters not to significantly disrupt the motor coordina-
tion [12].
There are various conditions determining the sports
level in basketball. In this paper, it was assumed that the
sports level of young basketball players was determined
by three groups of parameters: somatic build, general
Table 4. Correlation coefficients for somatic parameters
Date Height
Weight1st 0.78**
Weight3rd 0.78**
BMI1st 0.37** 0.87**
BMI3rd 0.39** 0.88**
Logarithm
of four
skinfolds
1st 0.27* 0.70** 0.83** Logarithm
of four
skinfolds3rd 0.31** 0.72** 0.82**
Endomorphy1st 0.25* 0.70** 0.84** 0.99**
Endomorphy3rd 0.30** 0.72** 0.83** 0.99**
Mesomorphy1st –0.29* 0.20 0.54** 0.30** 0.35**
Mesomorphy3rd –0.27* 0.26* 0.60** 0.29* 0.30**
Ectomorphy1st 0.01 –0.61** –0.92** –0.77** –0.79** –0.72**
3rd –0.01 –0.62** –0.92** –0.76** –0.76** –0.78**
BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation
at the level of p ≤ 0.01
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
Table 5. Correlation coefficients for general fitness parameters
Datev 5 m
(m/s)
v 20 m
(m/s)
1st 0.51**v 20 m
(m/s)2nd 0.64**
3rd 0.73**
v 15 × 20
m
(m/s)
1st 0.45** 0.86**v 15 × 20 m
(m/s)2nd 0.56** 0.90**
3rd 0.64** 0.90**
WD
(cm)
1st 0.34** 0.66** 0.61**WD
(cm)2nd 0.46** 0.70** 0.71**
3rd 0.62** 0.76** 0.69**
“8”
(s)
1st – 0.48** –0.66** –0.75** –0.51**“8”
(s)2nd –0.45** –0.62** –0.71** –0.55**
3rd –0.48** –0.49** –0.53** –0.50**
Reaction
time 1
(ms)
1st 0.05 –0.12 –0.03 –0.06 –0.03 Reaction
time 1
(ms)
2nd –0.02 –0.04 –0.03 –0.18 0.02
3rd –0.03 –0.16 –0.11 –0.23* 0.00
Reaction
time 2
(ms)
1st –0.01 –0.17 –0.01 –0.11 0.02 0.67**Reaction time 2
(ms)2nd –0.06 0.02 0.05 –0.09 0.01 0.79**
3rd –0.04 –0.11 –0.07 –0.15 –0.02 0.67**
Cross
app. 1
(n)
1st 0.24* 0.06 0.12 0.16 –0.29* 0.13 0.03 Cross
app. 1
(n)
2nd 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.01 –0.03 –0.16 –0.16
3rd –0.04 0.02 0.10 0.00 –0.08 –0.01 –0.06
Cross
app. 2
(n)
1st 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.27* –0.26* 0.10 –0.02 0.80** Cross
app. 2
(n)
2nd 0.04 0.06 0.09 –0.01 0.04 –0.15 –0.15 0.91**
3rd 0.05 0.07 0.12 0.05 –0.18 –0.09 –0.10 0.92**
Medicine
ball
(m)
1st 0.11 0.25* 0.22* 0.31** –0.11 –0.17 0.05 –0.16 –0.01 Medi-
cine ball
(m)
2nd 0.12 0.36** 0.32** 0.24* –0.03 0.08 0.28* 0.10 0.13
3rd 0.42 0.40** 0.45** 0.36** –0.13 –0.11 0.01 0.09 0.11
Strength
(kG)
1st 0.07 0.44** 0.27* 0.33** –0.09 –0.19 –0.13 –0.13 –0.06 0.59**Strength
(kG)2nd 0.26* 0.50** 0.44** 0.31** –0.11 0.01 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.53**
3rd 0.50** 0.53** 0.48** 0.57** –0.19 –0.14 –0.09 0.01 0.04 0.65**
Montoye
(pts)
1st –0.07 –0.11 –0.03 –0.33** 0.00 0.03 0.03 –0.23* –0.15 –0.11 –0.17
2nd –0.05 –0.10 –0.06 –0.12 –0.03 –0.17 –0.08 –0.27* –0.29* –0.17 –0.09
3rd –0.05 –0.19 –0.12 –0.07 0.04 –0.08 0.10 –0.19 –0.27* 0.16 0.05
* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01,
v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of running at the
distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump, “8” –
agility – the time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work,
Reaction time 2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross
apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball – pick-up
strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of fingers, Montoye
– aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
fitness and special fitness. Individual parameters are
subject to progressive or regressive changes over time.
Their co-occurrence makes up a structure of conditions
which undergo modification. Also, their impact on the
sports level and the order of priority changes depending
on the place in the time structure of the sports training
process.
The somatic build of the subjects was considered in
seven aspects relating to quality and quantity values.
The measurements were taken twice, that is on the first
and the third date of measurements.
The height and weight structure of young basketball
players aged 12.5–13.5 years is characterised by values
greater than average; the mean height and weight puts
them at the top end of the centile grids. Certainly this is
not a result of basketball training, but an effect of selec-
ting tall players to this sport. The coefficients of varia-
tion of 5% show relative similarity of the studied group
in this respect. The analysis of variation coefficients of
body weight shows that intra-group variation was four
times higher than in the case of height.
The size of changes in the height in the analysed
cycle was 4.3 cm. Bearing in mind that it relates to a pe-
riod of six months, this value may be considered signifi-
cant. However, it should also be remembered that the
period discussed coincides with the beginning of puber-
tal spurt. The increase of body mass was significant,
but not proportional to height.
The thickness of skinfolds and the relative body fat
content negatively affect the sphere of motor abilities of
a person [13, 14]. After Osiński [15] and Szopa [16], it
was assumed that ontogenetic variation of body fat in
boys is small, and from the age of 11 there is a visible
stabilisation. One could thus state that the kinetics of
changes in this parameter in young basketball players
has a positive direction. The noted values of the mean of
the four skinfolds lower in a statistically significant way
in the analysed training cycle. It is worth noting that si-
gnificant progressive changes occurred in the case of
the BMI, informing about the body stockiness. It can be
assumed that the increase of the weight and height in-
dex does not result from the progressing body fat, but is
probably an effect of the increase in active mass. This
observation is confirmed, among others, by the studies
of Łaska-Mierzejewska [17], Sakowicz and Żak [18].
The young basketball players analysed were also
characterised by a very slender body build, but the rate
of change in this factor on subsequent dates of measure-
ment was low, although positive. Positive from the point
of view of post-training effects were the changes of the
meso- and endomorphic factor. The former increased in
a statistically significant way, and the latter decreased
in a statistically significant way. This confirms the ear-
lier observations that the training of young basketball
players resulted in the change of inactive mass into ac-
tive mass, that is the increase of muscles at the cost of
fat. One cannot assume that this is a direct relation. The
structure of this process is probably more complex.
Fitness preparation determines to a large extent the
effectiveness of teaching and mastering technical abili-
ties, exerts a specific influence on the effectiveness of
tactical activities, affects current mental disposition of
a player. The type and level of the players’ fitness pre-
paration are a total of the accumulated effect of deve-
lopment of individual motor abilities. This is not a sim-
ple total of values, but a unique functional model deter-
mined by the requirements of a start effort and
developmental regularities [19].
Establishing the level of general physical fitness of
young basketball players and comparing it with the re-
sults obtained by non-training people or athletes doing
other sports was not the object of this study. It seems
obvious that basketball players are characterised by
a higher physical fitness than individuals who do not
practise any sports. The level of motor preparation at
this stage of training is different in various sports and
determined, among other things, by the somatic build of
the athletes. However, the structure of physical fitness
should show the same tendencies which are the effect of
the regularities of ontogenesis [20].
Table 6. Correlation coefficients for special
fitness parameters
Date Dribbling (s)
Pass
(m)
1st –0.19Pass
(m)2nd –0.02
3rd –0.20
Slide step
(s)
1st 0.47** –0.22*Slide step
(s)2nd 0.39** –0.32**
3rd 0.61** –0.30**
Shots
(s)
1st 0.24* –0.18 0.10
2nd 0.15 –0.18 0.23*
3rd 0.35** –0.36** 0.36**
* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05,
** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
The kinetics of the changes in general fitness para-
meters of young basketball players indicates that all
analysed elements were subject to progressive, statisti-
cally significant changes in the whole training cycle.
The rates of the increases in the results between indivi-
dual dates of measurements were different.
Speed abilities of the players showed a steady statis-
tically significant progress on subsequent dates of
measurements. This is probably related, apart from
applied training loads, to the fact that boys at this age
are in the period sensitive for the development of speed
[21, 15, 22].
The results obtained by the subjects on subsequent
dates of measurements in the run on the figure of eight
are interesting. This test posed requirements in terms of
controlling the body and the ability to adjust motor be-
Table 7. Correlation coefficients between general fitness and somatic parameters
General fitness Date
Somatic parameters
Height Weight BMI
Logarithm
of four
skinfolds
Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy
v 5 m
(m/s)
1st 0.12 –0.11 –0.27* –0.27* –0.27* –0.17 0.34**
3rd 0.31** 0.22* 0.10 –0.18 –0.20 0.16 0.01
v 20 m
(m/s)
1st 0.39** 0.12 –0.14 –0.35** –0.36** –0.01 0.27*
3rd 0.47** 0.27* 0.04 –0.24* –0.26* 0.04 0.12
v 15 × 20 m
(m/s)
1st 0.25* –0.07 –0.31** –0.53** –0.52** –0.04 0.40**
3rd 0.44** 0.27* 0.06 –0.21 –0.22* 0.05 0.09
WD
(cm)
1st 0.28* 0.15 0.01 –0.19 –0.18 0.05 0.10
3rd 0.38** 0.24* 0.06 –0.21 –0.21 0.11 0.07
“8”
(s)
1st 0.00 0.19 0.29* 0.43** 0.41** –0.07 –0.27*
3rd 0.06 0.13 0.16 0.34** 0.34** –0.09 –0.14
Reaction time 1
(ms)
1st –0.18 –0.20 –0.18 –0.21 –0.20 –0.04 0.14
3rd –0.09 –0.11 –0.10 –0.04 –0.02 –0.06 0.10
Reaction time 2
(ms)
1st –0.07 –0.11 –0.11 –0.11 –0.12 –0.12 0.09
3rd –0.05 –0.04 –0.01 –0.06 –0.06 0.05 0.01
Cross app. 1
(n)
1st –0.02 –0.13 –0.19 –0.18 –0.18 –0.18 0.21
3rd 0.18 0.15 0.08 0.11 0.11 –0.17 0.00
Cross app. 2
(n)
1st 0.11 0.06 –0.02 –0.09 –0.09 –0.15 0.08
3rd 0.19 0.14 0.05 0.08 0.07 –0.22* 0.03
Medicine ball
(m)
1st 0.66** 0.72** 0.55** 0.37** 0.37** 0.08 –0.33**
3rd 0.63** 0.71** 0.58** 0.31** 0.29* 0.26* –0.39**
Strength
(kG)
1st 0.70** 0.72** 0.53** 0.29* 0.28* 0.16 –0.29*
3rd 0.68** 0.66** 0.46** 0.21 0.20 0.12 –0.23*
Montoye
(pts)
1st –0.22* –0.17 –0.08 –0.07 –0.07 0.13 –0.03
3rd –0.08 –0.01 0.04 –0.08 –0.07 0.20 –0.07
BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at
the level of p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of
running at the distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach
jump, “8” – agility – the time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus
before work, Reaction time 2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordi-
nation – a cross apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball
– pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of
fingers, Montoye – aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
haviour to a quickly changing situation. It turns out that
the results were steadily improving, but only between
the second and third measurements the changes were
statistically significant, at the level of p < 0.05. It could
be expected that basketball training should definitely
affect this property of motor abilities. However, it should
be borne in mind here that, as claimed by Osiński [15]
and Sozański and Śledziewski [21], the highest rate of
increases of this feature in boys is noted between the
age of 7 and 10. Later they still obtain good results, but
the progress is much smaller. This is confirmed by the
studies of Jóźwiak [23], who noted that agility (determi-
ned by the run on the figure of eight) in basketball play-
ers showed the largest variation in the training cycle.
Besides, as it may be assumed, high and slender body
build of young basketball players who undergo the pu-
bertal spurt would not favour a dynamic development of
the abilities to control the body in various situations.
The simple reaction time was subject to progressive
changes in the analysed cycle. The measurement of the
reaction time related to two variants: rest and post-ef-
fort reaction time. The kinetics of changes indicate that
the most significant changes occurred in both cases be-
tween the first and second dates of measurements. It is
also characteristic that on all dates of measurements the
players reacted more quickly after effort. This is related
to the properties of the nervous system, which works
best in so called “exultation phase” [24].
Eye and hand coordination and spatial orientation
are correlated psychomotor abilities [25, 26]. According
to Szopa et al. [14], both predispositions are characteri-
sed by strong genetic control, which is strengthened
with age. The studies of Sakowicz and Żak [18, 27]
among others, say that the effect of sports training on
the development of coordination abilities is little after
the age of 11. The development of coordination abilities
is mostly determined by the maturing of the nervous
system chiefly in the brain and cerebellum [28].
The results presented in this study differ in some re-
spects from the opinions presented above. Young ba-
sketball players turn out to be characterised by a con-
stant, statistically significant progression of eye and
hand coordination. Better results were obtained after
effort, as in the case of reaction time.
Muscular strength is related mainly to energetic (fit-
ness) abilities.
In this paper, strength abilities were considered in
two aspects: absolute static strength of flexors and
extensors of the arm, and pick-up strength. The results
noted refer to the general regularities, in particular in
the case of the strength in static conditions. However,
there are no significant increases of pick-up strength
between the first and second dates of measurements,
which is probably related to a large saturation of the test
results with the movement technique.
Aerobic performance is also included in the group of
energetic abilities [29]. Its physiological basis is effi-
ciency, which is a biological potential of the body.
The efficiency of young basketball players appears
to be subject to similar relations. In the analysed cycle,
Table 8. Correlation coefficients between special fitness and somatic parameters
Special fitness Date
Somatic parameters
Height Weights BMI
Logarithm
of four
skinfolds
Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy
Dribbling
(s)
1st 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.21 0.20 –0.05 –0.08
3rd 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.38** 0.37** –0.10 –0.16
Pass
(m)
1st 0.63** 0.57** 0.35** 0.20 0.19 0.02 –0.15
3rd 0.03 0.20 0.29* 0.21 0.22* 0.27* –0.29*
Slide step
(s)
1st –0.17 –0.08 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.12 –0.09
3rd –0.07 0.13 0.24* 0.33** 0.33** 0.10 –0.28*
Shots
(s)
1st 0.02 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.06 –0.15
3rd –0.19 –0.13 –0.05 –0.03 –0.04 0.03 –0.02
BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation
at the level of p ≤ 0.01
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
Table 9. Correlation coefficients between general and special fitness
General fitness DateSpecial fitness
Dribbling (s) Pass (m) Slide step (s) Shots (s)
v 5 m
(m/s)
1st –0.15 0.03 –0.01 –0.17
2nd –0.30** 0.38** –0.42** –0.14
3rd –0.47** 0.48** –0.54** –0.25*
v 20 m
(m/s)
1st –0.25 0.36** –0.17 –0.21
2nd –0.36** 0.58** –0.55** –0.08
3rd –0.38** 0.52** –0.40** –0.29*
v 15 × 20 m
(m/s)
1st –0.29* 0.32** –0.13 –0.24*
2nd –0.44** 0.48** –0.52** –0.13
3rd –0.42** 0.50** –0.40** –0.29*
WD
(cm)
1st –0.33** 0.41** –0.16 –0.34**
2nd –0.35** 0.37** –0.54** –0.17
3rd –0.45** 0.50** –0.49** –0.30**
“8”
(s)
1st 0.43** –0.19 0.23* 0.25*
2nd 0.55** –0.25* 0.40** 0.08
3rd 0.58** –0.14 0.42** 0.25*
Reaction time 1
(ms)
1st 0.09 –0.17 0.10 0.16
2nd 0.01 –0.04 0.14 0.25*
3rd 0.20 –0.22* 0.21 0.07
Reaction time 2
(ms)
1st 0.16 –0.13 0.07 0.13
2nd 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.19
3rd 0.14 –0.13 0.17 0.06
Cross app. 1
(n)
1st –0.27* 0.07 –0.12 –0.12
2nd –0.11 0.13 –0.04 –0.24*
3rd –0.07 0.07 0.07 0.04
Cross app. 2
(n)
1st –0.26* 0.17 –0.11 –0.21
2nd –0.07 0.11 0.00 –0.16
3rd –0.08 0.02 –0.01 0.06
Medicine ball
(m)
1st –0.03 0.58** –0.04 –0.05
2nd 0.12 0.67** –0.17 –0.13
3rd –0.16 0.70** –0.09 –0.35**
Strength
(kG)
1st –0.06 0.62** –0.16 0.11
2nd 0.00 0.70** –0.19 –0.11
3rd –0.13 0.78** –0.18 –0.20
Montoye
(pts)
1st 0.26* –0.16 0.25* 0.01
2nd –0.10 –0.12 –0.05 0.02
3rd –0.19 0.14 –0.04 0.05
* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m
– starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of running at the distance
of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump, “8” – agility – the
time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work, Reaction time
2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus
before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball – pick-up strength –
a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of fingers, Montoye – aerobic
performance – Montoye’s step-test
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a statistically significant increase of this property of the
body was noted. However, the rate of these changes was
varied. Higher increases were noted between the second
and third dates of measurements. Probably it was a po-
sitive effect of the accumulation of applied training lo-
ads and adaptation to changes in the body as a result of
the pubertal spurt.
Technical preparation is a process directed to lear-
ning and mastering sports abilities thanks to which
a player shows his biological potential in the complex
conditions of sports competition. It depends mainly on
the level of motor abilities and motor talents.
In the discussion on technical preparation it should
be remembered that the manifestation of these abilities
is related to the level of motor abilities. It is difficult to
state to what extent it is possible to separate in tests the
advancement of movement technique from motor predi-
spositions of a player [30]. Thus, when using various
tests specifying technical preparation, one should bear
in mind that in fact special fitness is being studied. On
the other hand, such elements as dribbling, catches and
passes, shots at the basket or moving in defence are cal-
led technique by basketball methodologists.
All analysed elements show a statistically significant
progression in the training cycle. The lack of significant
changes between the first and second dates of measure-
ments in the case of dribbling in slalom and shots from
five positions should be explained. The rea son for this
should probably be seen in the coordination and techni-
cal complexity of the tests. It seems that out of the analy-
sed parameters dribbling and shots are more difficult
tasks even with the hypothetical assumption of an identi-
cal effect of motor abilities. Later significant changes
(between the second and third dates of measurements)
were probably the effect of basketball training within the
framework of which these skills are mastered.
The dynamics of the increases in the analysed para-
meters of special fitness, as could be expected, was de-
termined by their initial level, which, in turn, depends
on motor abilities, among others.
Correlation coefficients between height, weight and
body indexes and components of the studied players in-
dicate in many cases obvious relations resulting from
the process of body growth. Only in the case of ecto-
morphic factor and body height no relations were noted.
Generally, it may be stated that the body build parame-
ters of young basketball players which were analysed
are related to a very different extent. This fact is confir-
med by the studies of Osiński [15], among others.
Table 10. Correlation coefficients between the analysed
parameters and sports level
Analysed
parameter
Sports level
First date Second date Third date
v 5 m (m/s) 0.23* 0.24* 0.39**
v 20 m (m/s) 0.47** 0.47** 0.40**
v 15 × 20 m (m/s) 0.46** 0.45** 0.45**
WD (cm) 0.43** 0.46** 0.51**
“8” (s) –0.40** –0.33** –0.12
Reaction time 1
(ms) –0.26* –0.25* –0.43**
Reaction time 2
(ms) –0.17 –0.11 –0.34**
Cross app. 1 (n) 0.00 0.19 0.03
Cross app. 2 (n) 0.10 0.13 0.08
Medicine ball (m) 0.34** 0.31** 0.34**
Strength (kG) 0.24* 0.21 0.36**
Montoye (pts) 0.00 0.05 0.06
Dribbling (s) –0.14 –0.20 –0.42**
Pass (m) 0.41** 0.39** –0.09
Slide step (s) –0.24* –0.52** –0.51**
Shots (s) –0.47** –0.39** –0.26*
Height 0.36** 0.38**
Weight 0.16 0.19
BMI –0.05 –0.02
Logarithm of four
skinfolds –0.10 –0.10
Endomorphy –0.12 –0.11
Mesomorphy –0.16 –0.16
Ectomorphy 0.17 0.14
* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05,
** statistically significant correlation at the level of
p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at
the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of
running at the distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed
endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping
ability – a reach jump, “8” – agility – the time of run on the
figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple
reaction to optical stimulus before work, Reaction time 2
– the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work,
Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross
apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand
coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball
– pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength –
static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles
of fingers, Montoye – aerobic performance – Montoye’s
step-test, BMI – body mass index
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
The analysis of correlation coefficients between gene-
ral fitness parameters of young basketball players indica-
tes that the largest clusters of significant relations can be
found in groups of the motor abilities of speed and
strength character. No significant relations between para-
meters characterising coordination abilities were noted.
These did not correlate with other parameters, either.
The analysed tests examining special fitness refer-
red to the basic abilities of basketball technique. Accor-
ding to Ulatowski [9], dribbling, moving in defence, the
pass and shot at the basket are elementary skills which
characterise special fitness of a player, in particular in
youth sport.
The analysis of correlation coefficients between the
individual parameters of special fitness indicates that
the ability to move in defence is characterised by the
largest number of significant relations. It co-occurs po-
sitively with all other variables, and the strongest rela-
tions were noted on the third date of measurement. The
relations between shot effectiveness and dribbling in
slalom, two-handed pass from the chest and moving in
defence should be noted. It turns out that these relations
were gradually strengthened on subsequent dates of
measurements, to achieve the highest values at the end
of the analysed cycle. Thus, it can be concluded that the
training process affected the development of these abili-
ties differently, depending on their place in the time
structure of the training process.
The results of the research indicate that the relations
between the parameters of somatic build of young ba-
sketball players and their motor abilities refer to the ru-
les demonstrated earlier. The height and weight unam-
biguously co-occurred with strength abilities. Similar
relations were shown by Osiński [15]. Also, results in
line with other studies were noted in the case of the rela-
tion between height and weight with speed parameters.
It was found that the increases in weight and height
were accompanied by better results in speed tests. It
should be noted that the phenomenon was intensified on
subsequent dates of measurements. The level of body
fat of the players co-occurs inversely proportionally
with speed parameters and directly proportionally with
strength parameters. However, these relations are weak-
ened during the whole training cycle. According to
Osiński [13], the thickness of the body fat layer negati-
vely affects the level of motor abilities, in particular
body efficiency and speed abilities. In this study, stati-
stically significant relations of this type were found
only in the case of speed abilities and pick-up strength
on the first date of measurements. At the end of the ana-
lysed cycle they were significantly weakened. The co-
-occurrence of body fat with the level of efficiency was
totally insignificant on both dates of measurements.
It is also interesting that there is no co-occurrence of
such abilities as aerobic performance, reaction time and
eye and hand coordination with other somatic parame-
ters. Osiński [13] claims that the increase in basic soma-
tic parameters favours mainly the development of abso-
lute muscular strength, but also does not create favoura-
ble conditions for the manifestation of physiological
efficiency and relative strength and freedom in control-
ling the body.
Table 11. Results of multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x) somatic parameters
First date Third date
R2 of all features 26.49% 33.64%
Tree most important features Weight(x2) BMI(x
3) Ecto(x
7) Weight(x
2) BMI(x
3) Ecto(x
7)
Regression equationy = 61.857 + 0.506(x
2) – 3.527(x
3)
– 3.606(x7)
y = 93.861 + 0.694(x2) – 5.282(x
3)
– 5.711(x7)
R2 23.34% 30.62%
Two most important features Weight(x2) BMI(x
3) Weight(x
2) BMI(x
3)
Regression equation y = 9.906 + 0.179(x2) – 0.692(x
3) y = 9.944 + 0.191(x
2) – 0.752(x
3)
R2 17.34% 18.69%
The most important feature Weight(x2) Weight(x
2)
Regression equation y = 4.550 + 0.034(x2) y = 4.058 + 0.040(x
2)
R2 2.56% 3.57%
R – coefficient of determination, BMI – body mass index, Ecto – ectomorphy
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
Generally it may be stated that the analysed correla-
tion coefficients are subject to positive changes in time
and confirm the regularity that the values of somatic
parameters are accompanied by the most favourable va-
lues of functional features. However, it should be borne
in mind that the course of relations between the level of
a specific morphological parameter and any motor pro-
perty, leading to a differentiation of populations and in-
dividuals, may be very complex.
The obtained results of the study allow for the as-
sumption that in young basketball players subjected to
systematic training loads, the relations between somatic
build and motor abilities are the same or refer to gene-
rally accepted developmental regularities of the popula-
tion of non-training people. However, they are characte-
rised by a higher level of motor abilities, which is an ef-
fect of training stimulation.
The relations of special fitness with somatic build
were different on subsequent dates of measurements. At
the beginning of the analysed cycle, significant relations
were noted only between height and weight and BMI
and the two-handed pass from the chest. It may be assu-
med that this relation was based on the fact that in taller
players the ball left the hands at a higher level, which
had a better result. The weakening of these relations (to
a statistically insignificant level) on the third date of
measurements resulted from the fact that training sti-
mulation significantly affected the movement technique
of a player. However, other relations appeared referring
to the level of body fat of the players, which was negati-
vely co-occurring with dribbling on the slalom and mo-
ving in defence. This is an obvious relation, resulting
from the negative influence of fat tissue on the level of
speed abilities, required in dribbling in slalom and mo-
ving in defence. However, it is puzzling that the above
relations were noted only on the third date of measure-
ments, whereas in the case of motor parameters it was
found that body fat co-occurred negatively and statisti-
cally significantly with the level of speed abilities only
on the first date of measurements.
The relations of general fitness parameters and tech-
nical skills of a player inform us to a large extent to
what degree they are saturated with them.
The results of the studies indicate that the largest
number of significant relations of special fitness was
noted in the case of speed abilities. These relations
strengthened on subsequent dates of measurements.
This suggests that to a large extent mastering technical
skills, such as dribbling in slalom, two-handed pass
from the chest or moving in defence, are determined by
the level of speed abilities. To a smaller extent they co-
-occur with the shot effectiveness of the players, however
Table 12. Results of the multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x)
general fitness parameters
First date Second date Third date
R2 of all features 36.14% 36.63% 50.42%
Three most
important features
“8”(x12
) Med. ball.(x17
)
Reac. 1(x13
)
20 m (x9) Med. ball(x
17)
Reac. 1(x13
)
15 × 20 m(x10
) WD(x11
)
Reac. 1(x13
)
Regression equationy = 23.818 – 1.071(x
12)
+ 0.480(x17
) – 0.025(x13
)
y = –7.239 + 3.110(x9)
+ 0.302(x17
) – 0.029(x13
)
y = 1.008 + 1.860(x10
)
+ 0.103(x11
) – 0.043(x13
)
R2 29.53% 30.58% 39.38%
Two most important
features“8”(x
12) Med. ball(x
17) 20 m(x
9) Reac. 1(x
13) WD(x
11) Reac. 1(x
13)
Regression equation y = 16.812 – 1.041(x12
) + 0.555(x17
) y = –8.739 + 3.654(x9) – 0.027(x
13) y = 8.513 + 0.163(x
11) – 0.041(x
13)
R2 24.52% 27.50% 36.66%
The most important
feature“8”(x
12) 20 m(x
9) WD(x
11)
Regression equation y = 22.034 – 1.134(x12
) y = –15.519 + 3.726(x9) y = –2.251 + 0.191(x
11)
R2 15.77% 22.28% 25.97%
R – coefficient of determination, Med. ball – pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Reac. 1 – the time of simple
reaction to optical stimulus before work, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
the correlation coefficients have a tendency to increase.
The relation between the level of strength abilities and
the skills of a two-handed pass of a ball from the chest
seems to be obvious, which is confirmed by highly si-
gnificant values of correlation coefficients. In the rema-
ining cases no significant relations of special fitness and
the level of strength were found, except the shot test on
the third date of measurements. However, it seems that
it was more of an accidental relation than one resulting
from specific rules.
The relations of coordination abilities and special
fitness require separate discussion.
It is generally believed that coordination abilities have
great significance in the process of sports training, in par-
ticular in learning sports and technical abilities. They de-
termine the degree and quality of acquiring motor abili-
ties, mastering and stability of motor skills and their ap-
propriate and effective use in changing conditions [31].
Many authors who touched upon this problem in re-
ference to basketball mention mainly coordination abili-
ties as those which, during a match, and with a similar
level of other factors, determine the success of a team
[32–35].
The results of these studies do not fully confirm the
above rule. In the analysed training cycle, the relations
of such coordination parameters as reaction time, eye
and hand coordination and technical preparation are not
as obvious as in the studies of other authors. No signifi-
cant relations were noted which could suggest some re-
gularities. Single significant correlations at the level of
p < 0.05 are rather accidental. On this basis one cannot
decide on the lack of effect of coordination abilities on
special fitness.
The multi-layered structure of the sports level condi-
tions leads to the search for and the description of the
variables which to a largest extent affect this value, espe-
cially that there are few studies of this type. In this study
it was assumed that the most significant conditions of
sports performance in the sport of children and youths
were somatic build, general fitness and special fitness.
In sports where the performance is defined in me-
asurable terms, where the success or failure is determi-
ned by one athlete, it is relatively easy to assess objecti-
vely its values and his or her effort. It is more difficult to
do it in team games, where one of the significant factors
is cooperation, and the final score depends on a total of
individual activities of individual players [36].
Correlation coefficients between the studied para-
meters and the sports level of young basketball players
indicate that the largest number of relations occurred in
the case of speed abilities, as well as endurance and speed
abilities and strength abilities. No co-occurrence of
Table 13. Results of the multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x)
special fitness parameters
First date Second date Third date
R2 of all features 46.43% 39.26% 39.08%
Three most
important featuresPasses(x
21) Slide(x
22) Shots(x
23) Passes(x
21) Slide (x
22) Shots(x
23) Dribbl.(x
20), Passes(x
21) Slide(x
22)
Regression equationy = 16.401 + 0.421(x
21)
– 0.501(x22
) – 0.038(x23
)
y = 19.159 + 0.363(x21
)
– 0.664(x22
) – 0.038(x23
)
y = 18.112 + 1.060(x20
)
+ 0.547(x21
) – 0.575(x22
)
R2 45.61% 39.26% 38.98%
Two most important
featuresSlide(x
22) Passes(x
23) Slide(x
22) Passes(x
23) Passes(x
21) Slide(x
22)
Regression equationy = 22.507 – 0.580(x
22)
– 0.042(x23
)
y = 25.437 – 0.771(x22
)
– 0.042(x23
)
y = 13.656 + 0.555(x21
)
– 0.761(x22
)-
R2 40.10% 35.33% 37.28%
The most important
featureSlide(x
22) Slide(x
22) Slide(x
22)
Regression equation y = 19.971 – 0.698(x22
) y = 23.484 – 0.920(x22
) y = 23.198 – 0.950(x22
)
R2 27.83% 26.99% 25.84%
R – coefficient of determination
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
sports level with the indicator of body efficiency was
noted, either. Similar conclusions were reached by Jóź-
wiak [37]. This situation is probably a consequence of
the developmental regularities of the body, which at the
age of 12–14 years are characterised by an increased rate
of the increase of speed and strength abilities [14, 15].
Out of the analysed coordination abilities, only reac-
tion time showed relations with the dependent variable.
Only on the third date of measurement did both rest and
post-effort reaction times show significant relations
with the sports level. This is confirmed to some extent
by observations of Kubaszczyk [38], who noted that the
relations between reaction time and special fitness,
which translated to a high degree into sports perfor-
mance, are strengthened over time.
Out of somatic build parameters, only height shows
a constant significant relation with the sports level on
subsequent dates of measurements. This seems obvious,
as basketball, apart from many other conditions, is
a game for tall individuals. Height is also one of the se-
lection criteria in this sport.
Correlation coefficients inform about the signifi-
cance of co-occurrence between features and cannot in-
dependently describe the degree to which individual
factors determine the sports level. That is why the multi-
ple regression analysis was used in order to find factors
which determine the sports level to a highest degree.
The regression analysis carried out in the group of
somatic parameters allowed us to identify a subset of
variables which to a largest extent determined the sports
level. At the beginning and at the end of the analysed
training cycle, these were the same variables: weight,
BMI, and the ectomorphic factor. However, the coeffi-
cient of determination of these parameters increased,
which suggests that analysed somatic parameters de-
scribe the sports level more and more.
Table 14. Results of multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x) all analysed parameters
First date Third date
R2 of all features 63.84% 73.22%
Five most important featuresWeight(x
2) BMI(x
3) Med. ball(x
17)
Slide(x22
) Shots(x23
)
Weight(x2) BMI(x
3) Ecto(x
7)
Reac. 1(x13
) Dribbl.(x20
)
Regression equation
y = 17.305 + 0.088(x2) – 0.379(x
3)
+ 0.501(x17
) – 0.497(x22
)
– 0.041(x23
)
y = 97.868 + 0.573(x2) – 4.134(x
3)
– 4.309(x7) – 0.035(x
13)
– 2.435(x20
)
R2 55.79% 56.03%
Four most important featuresBMI(x
3) Med. ball(x
17) Slide(x
22)
Shots(x23
)
Weight(x2) BMI(x
3) Reac. 1(x
13)
Dribbl.(x20
)
Regression equationy = 15.533 – 0.127(x
3) + 0.768(x
17)
– 0.519(x22
) – 0.040(x23
)
y = 36.440 + 0.192(x2) – 0.717(x
3)
– 0.041(x13
) – 2.475(x20
)
R2 53.08% 49.55%
Three most important featuresMed. ball(x
17) Slide(x
22)
Shots(x23
)Weight(x
2) BMI(x
3) Dribbl.(x
20)
Regression equationy = 18.047 + 0.513(x
17)
– 0.543(x22
) – 0.041(x23
)
y = 29.816 + 0.201(x2) – 0.705(x
3)
– 2.969(x20
)
R2 47.56% 39.10%
Two most important features Slide(x22
) Shots(x23
) Weight(x2) Dribbl.(x
20)
Regression equationy = 22.507 – 0.580(x
22)
– 0.042(x23
)y = 25.175 + 0.061(x
2) – 3.097(x
20)
R2 40.10% 25.85%
The most important feature Slide(x22
) Dribbl.(x20
)
Regression equation y = 19.971 – 0.698(x22
) y = 26.132 – 2.728(x20
)
R2 27.83% 18.02%
R – coefficient of determination, BMI – body mass index, Med. ball – pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball,
Ecto – ectomorphy, Reac. 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work, Dribbl. – dribbling
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
Determination coefficients of general fitness para-
meters on subsequent dates of measurements also show
constant increase, which means that the sports level is
more and more influenced by these variables. However,
the structure of this subset of factors, which best describe
the sports level, changes. The most diagnostic tests
on the first date of measurements were: the run on the
figure of eight, the throw of a medicine ball from be-
hind the head, and the rest reaction time. In this subset,
the test of run on the figure of eight gave the most infor-
mation about the sports level at the level of determina-
tion of 15.77%. The best subset of variables on the se-
cond date of measurements were: the 20m run, the
throw of a medicine ball from behind the head and the
rest reaction time. This time the sports level was deter-
mined to a highest extent by the 20m run test (22.28%).
On the third date of measurements, the subset of the
best variables included: the repeated run, 15 × 20 m, the
reach jump and the rest reaction time. In this subset the
most diagnostic parameter for sports level turned out to
be the reach jump (25.97%).
The multiple regression analysis carried out in the
group of special fitness parameters indicates that the
same variables (the two-handed pass from the chest,
moving in defence) determined the sports level on the
first and second dates of measurements.
In the subset of the most significant variables on the
third date of measurements, the test of shots from five
positions was replaced by dribbling in slalom. Neverthe-
less, on all dates of measurements it was found that the
ability to move in defence was most diagnostic for the
sports level. Constant lowering of the degree to which
the sports level was determined by the parameters of this
group should be noted. Owing to the constant increase
in the determination of the sports level by somatic fac-
tors and general fitness, it may be assumed that this re-
sults mainly from the rate of increases in individual pro-
perties on the basis of ontogenesis regularities.
The changes in the values of determination coeffi-
cients in individual groups of parameters discussed
above show their varying effect on the sports level on
subsequent dates of measurements. However, only the
introduction of all parameters into the regression equ-
ation allowed for stating to what extent they determined
the sports level and which were the most significant.
Coefficients of determination indicate that determi-
nation of the sports level by the parameters accepted for
analysis increased from 63.84% on the first date of me-
asurements to 73.22% on the third date of measure-
ments. It means that the impact of other, non-examined
factors decreased. In the subset of the best variables on
the first date of measurements there were: weight, BMI,
the throw of a medicine ball from behind the head, mo-
ving in defence and shots at the basket from five posi-
tions. Further elimination of the least significant varia-
bles proved that the ability to move in defence and shot
effectiveness determined the sports level in 40.10%.
The subset of the most significant variables on the third
date of measurements included: weight, BMI, the ecto-
morphic factor, the rest reaction time and dribbling in
slalom. It should be noted that the value of determina-
tion coefficients on the subsequent stage of elimination
was lowering very quickly. The most significant para-
meters for the sports level on this date of measurements
were weight and the ability to dribble in slalom, whose
determination coefficient was 28.85%.
It could be assumed that the sports level of young
male basketball players at the beginning of the analysed
cycle was determined mainly by technical abilities. Ho-
wever, on the third date of measurements, there was
a dispersion of influence which resulted in an increase
of the general value of determination coefficient.
Sports development takes place under the influence
of training understood as an organised process of deli-
berate mastering of body function and adaptation to the
requirements resulting from the champion model, which
is an imaginary system whose task is to imitate selec-
ted, most important features. Sports training of children
and youths in this system approach is an isolated phase
of a long-term process, resulting from the rules of biolo-
gical development and the principle of a gradual deve-
lopment of the champion level. It should create functio-
nal and methodical bases for the achievement of maxi-
mum performance at the age of the greatest natural
capabilities of the body. Irrespective of such a long-term
and systematic approach, still an opinion is frequently
formulated on the low effectiveness of children and
youths training as a function of strategic aims and pro-
grammes of training directed to early specialisation
(intensive training). This kind of training results in low
performance in the youngest age categories and the de-
celeration of sports development even before the achie-
vement of biological maturity. Training should always
be structured adequately not only to sports aims (per-
formance), but also to individual capabilities of a body
at a given stage of development. Hence the idea of “pro-
gressive training, optimising the way to full develop-
ment at the mature age” occurs [39].
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K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players
Progressive reaching of sports championship is rela-
ted to meeting stage objectives, whose formulation,
carrying out and verification should be based on the le-
vel of advancement of sports development and on the
rules resulting from the biological differentiation of the
body. The knowledge of the relations and dependencies
between the factors which determine the effectiveness
of sports training, presented in this paper, should be the
reason for constructing and carrying out training pro-
grammes for individual stages, with the overall objective
of sports championship at an adult age.
Conclusions
1. The knowledge relating to the conditions of sports
level in basketball indicates multiple factors stemming
from various areas of the human body structure and the
external environment. In the case of adults, identifying
these factors is not easy, and in reference to children
and youths it is even more difficult. The problems result
from the conditions of the progressive stage of ontoge-
netic development. Thus, the studies of this type are ra-
rely undertaken. The results of this discussion indicate
that not all factors accepted for analysis determine the
sports level of young basketball players aged 12.5–13.5
years who are at the beginning of the directed stage of
the training process. This relates to the level of body ef-
ficiency and eye and hand coordination.
2. The relations between the analysed factors are
subject to change over time. They result from the pro-
gressive transformation of the body, related to the onto-
genetic development and the adaptation to training sti-
muli. It was found that speed and strength abilities of
young basketball players were characterised by the lar-
gest number of relations with other factors. Also, lack
of relations was noted between coordination abilities
and other analysed factors or relations smaller than
expected.
3. The structure of interrelations between the analy-
sed factors indicates some regularities. Body build pa-
rameters and indicators determine the level of motor
abilities, and these, in particular speed and strength pre-
disposition, determine special fitness. In the duration of
the whole training cycle it was found that the general
structure of interrelations described above deepened,
and the significance of relations was maintained on the
same or higher level.
4. In the group of somatic parameters, height and
weight have the greatest impact on the sports level of
young basketball players. Out of fitness factors, sports
level is determined by speed and strength abilities of the
players. Moving in defence and shot effectiveness, in
turn, prove to be the most important of special fitness
parameters. It was found that out of all analysed factors
the sports level of young basketball players was to the
largest extent determined by the weight and height
structure and the level of special fitness, which, in turn,
are determined by speed and strength abilities of young
basketball players.
5. Identifying and establishing the relations between
the factors which determine the effectiveness of the
train ing process, and the degree to which the sports le-
vel is determined by these factors may be the basis for
training optimisation at individual stages in the system
of progressive striving for championship.
References
1. Ulatowski T., Practice of sport [in Polish]. PTNKF, Warszawa
1996.
2. Ważny Z., Directions of mastering methods of training control
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Paper received by the Editors: January 16, 2006.
Paper accepted for publication: October 3, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Krzysztof Karpowicz
Zakład Teorii Sportu, Katedra Teorii i Metodyki Sportu
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Królowej Jadwigi 27/39
61-871 Poznań, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
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2006, vol. 7 (2), 147–152
Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak 1*, Grażyna Lutosławska1, Andrzej Kosmol2, Szymon Zuziak3
1 Department of Biochemistry, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland2 Department of Theory of Sport, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland3 Department of Biochemistry (intern), University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of training experience on arm muscle anaerobic performance in
wrestlers. Basic procedures. The subjects of the study were 13 senior wrestlers, members of the Polish national team, and 19 junior
wrestlers. All the participants performed a modified upper-body Wingate test, which consisted of five 30s stages of maximal arm
cranking against a resistance equal to 3.5% of the athlete’s total body mass. The peak and mean power of each effort was recorded
during the test. For lactate measurements, blood was taken from the earlobe 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 30 min after cessation of the
exercise. Main findings. It was shown that during each 30s stage senior wrestlers displayed a significantly higher relative (W/kg) peak
and mean power output than junior wrestlers. The peak power declined from the first to the fourth stage in seniors and to the third
stage in juniors. At the same time the decline in mean power output was similar (from the first to the fourth stage) in both groups of
wrestlers. The peak lactate concentration (Lamax) was significantly higher in senior wrestlers than in junior wrestlers (17.4 and 14.1 mmol/l,
respectively). However, the study results indicated that lactate clearance was faster in seniors (0.37 mmol · l–1 · min–1) than in juniors
(0.28 mmol · l–1 · min–1). Conclusions. It can be concluded that the wrestler’s training enhances arm muscle anaerobic performance,
and there are indications that it also contributes to an increase in aerobic capacity.
Key words: wrestlers, training experience, anaerobic performance
Introduction
Wrestling is a sport in which opponents of different
weight classes compete in two styles: Greco-Roman
and freestyle. The duration of a wrestling match varies,
and the match can be stopped before the designa ted
time, e.g. when a fall is awarded to one of the oppo-
nents, or can be decided overtime [1]. It is claimed that
during a wrestling match arm and leg muscles utilize
both anaerobic and aerobic energetic systems [2].
The anaerobic and aerobic ATP resynthesis is known
to be activated already at the onset of exercise [3]. The
aerobic and anaerobic muscle performance de pends on
a number of factors, such as training experien ce, avail-
ability of substrates (in the pre- or post-prandial state),
and exer cise duration and intensity. A very special type
of exer cise is intermittent exercise of high intensity [4].
Such exercises are typical of a number of professional
sports, including wrestling, and they represent impor-
tant com ponents of sport training.
A characteristic feature of intermittent exercise is
a decline in peak and mean power output in successive
stages of the exercise, due to decreasing phosphocreati ne
stores in the muscles, especially in fast-twitch fibres,
and increasing blood lactate accumulation [5]. During
intense intermittent exercise, aerobic metabolism also
plays a very important role. It determines phosphocre-
atine restoration and lactate oxidation in the muscle at
rest between successive stages of the exercise [4].
Elite wrestlers have been characterized by high
maximal power output of arm and leg muscles [6]. Bor-
kowski et al. [7] in their study on Polish elite wrestlers,
using a 30s Wingate test, recorded peak power output of
12.0 W/kg for leg muscles, and 9.8 W/kg for arm mu-
scles in Greco-Roman wrestlers; and 11.8 W/kg for leg
muscles and 9.8 W/kg for arm muscles in freestyle
wrestlers. Similar results (11.3 W/kg for leg muscles and
9.7 W/kg for arm muscles) were obtained by Lutosław-
ska et al. [8] in their study of 33 wrestlers of both styles.
A considerable contribution of anaerobic metabolism to
supplying ATP in the active muscle during a wrestling
match was confirmed by high post-exercise blood lac-
tate accumulation. Kraemer et al. [9] in their study of
THE EFFECT OF TRAINING EXPERIENCE ON ARM MUSCLE ANAEROBIC PERFORMANCE IN WRESTLERS
* Corresponding author.
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E. Hübner-Woźniak et al., Training and anaerobic performance in wrestlers
American wrestlers noted that lactate con centration
amounted to about 20 mmol/l after a 5min match.
Lactate produced in a muscle is transported across
the muscle cell membrane into the blood, both by sim-
ple diffusion and by carrier-mediated transport. The ef-
flux rate of lactate together with H+ depends on their
gradient across sarcolemma, on the active muscle mass
and on the intensity of muscle work [10]. It was con-
firmed that the main part of the lactate/H+ flux across
muscle cell membrane was mediated on membrane-
-bound transporter proteins – MCT [11]. MCT1 proteins
exist mainly in slow-twitch fibres (ST) and are re-
sponsible for uptake from blood, whereas MCT4 pro-
teins were found in fast-twitch fibres and determined
the rate of lactate release from muscle [12]. It was
shown that the lactate transport capacity could be af-
fected by training intensity [13]. Evertsen et al. [12]
demonstrated that intense training increased MCT1 and
MCT4 content in muscle cell membrane in cross-coun-
try skiers.
A wrestling match is an intermittent physical exer-
cise of variable, or even maximal intensity, thus physi-
cal exer cise tests used for assessing wrestlers’ anaerobic
perfor mance should be as close as possible to the condi-
tions of a real match. Particularly recommended are up-
per-body tests making use of intermittent exercises, e.g.
8 × 15 s stages with 20s [14] or 30s rest breaks [15].
Callan et al. [16] have recently suggested a test consist-
ing of five-stage performance of 30s arm cranking with
30s breaks. They noted that a load amounting to 3.5%
of the athlete’s total body mass was high enough to pro-
duce the peak power output, and yet low enough to per-
mit the completion of the upper-body test. The authors
applied this in their study on American senior freestyle
wrestlers; there have been no data, however, confirming
its use in junior wrestles. The aim of the present work
was to examine changes of the peak and mean power
output in the upper-body muscles of senior and junior
wrestlers, utilizing intermittent exercises of high intensity
follo wing the guidelines established by Callan et al. [16].
Material and methods
The subjects of the study were senior wrestlers (n = 13)
of the Polish national team and junior wrestlers (n = 19),
representing both wrestling styles and all weight cate-
gories. The subjects’ physical characteristics are pre-
sented in Tab. 1. All sub jects were informed about the
course of the test and gave their informed consent to
participate in the rese arch. The study was approved by
the Ethics Committee of the University School of Physi-
cal Educa tion. The tests were carried out under labora-
tory conditions, at the beginning of the athletes’ compe-
tition period, between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m. The wrestlers
performed the exercise two hours after the last meal
(200 kcal). The day before the test was a non-training
day.
Body mass and height measurements were recorded,
and the BMI (body mass index, kg/m2) calculated. The
content of body fat was measu red with the NIR method
using the Futrex 6100/XL device (Futrex Inc., USA)
[17] and expressed in kg or % of the total body mass.
The subjects from both groups performed a modified
upper-body Wingate test, which consisted of five 30s
stages of maximal arm cranking against the resistance
of 3.5% of individual body mass, with 30s rest periods
between the stages [16]. The test was preceded by
a 5min warm-up, at a resistance of 1% of body mass,
performed on the electrically braked, computer-assisted
Angio ergo meter (Lode BV, Groningen, Ne therlands).
Peak and mean power output of each effort was record-
ed using the Operator Manual Wingate Software, ver-
sion 1.08.
For lactate (La) measurements, blood was drawn
from the earlobe 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 30 min post-test.
Individual maxi mal blood lactate concentration (Lamax)
was assessed considering the highest individual lactate
concentration during a 30min rest. Lactate concentra-
tion in whole blood was determined with the use of en-
zymatic-co lorometric Dr Lange assay sets (Germany).
Data were reported as mean valu es and standard de-
viations (SD). The normality of di stribution was as-
sessed with the Shapiro–Wilk’s test. Statistical analysis
was performed with non-parametric tests: Friedman’s
ANOVA, Wilcoxon’s matched pairs rank test and
Mann-Whitney’s U-test. The level of stati stical signifi-
cance was set at p < 0.05; all statistical cal culations
were made with STATISTICA 6.0 (StatSoft, USA).
Results
The results in Tab. 1 show that the senior wre stlers
were, on the average, 10 years older than the junior
ones. Body mass, body fat content (in kg and %) and the
BMI (body mass index) were significantly higher in
senior wrestlers than in juniors.
Peak power output (W/kg) in wrestlers from both
groups was highest during the first stage of the exercise
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E. Hübner-Woźniak et al., Training and anaerobic performance in wrestlers
and declined gradually during subsequent sta ges (Tab.
2). In senior wrestlers, the decline was observed until
the fourth stage, whereas peak power outputs in the
fourth and fifth stages of the exerci se were alike. In junior
wrestlers, the peak power declined until the third stage;
in the third, fourth and fifth stages, the differences were
non-si gnificant. Peak power output attained by senior
wrestlers in each subsequent stage was significantly
hi gher than in junior wrestlers.
Mean power output (W/kg) in senior and junior
wrestlers was highest in the first stage of the exerci se
and declined gradually until the fourth stage; in the
fourth and fifth stages, the differences were statistically
non-significant (Tab. 3). In each stage, the seniors at-
tained significantly higher mean power output than the
juniors.
Blood lactate con centration at every time point (3–30
min) was significantly higher in the senior wre stlers
than in juniors (Tab. 4). In both groups lactate concentra-
tion after the 5 min rest was significantly hi gher than
after the 3min rest post-exercise; the differences in
blood lactate concentrations between the 5th and 13th
minutes of recovery were non-significant.
Mean maximal blood lactate concentration (Lamax)
was significantly higher in the group of seniors as com-
pared with junior wre stlers (Tab. 5). The decrease in
blood lactate concentra tion was similar in both groups
of wrestlers when expressed in percentages of maximal
concentration (%Lamax). However, when expressed in
mmol/l (Lamax – La30min) and per minute of rest (mmol ·
l–1 · min–1), it was significantly higher in seniors than in
junior wrestlers.
Table 1. Physical characteristics of senior and junior
wrestlers (means ± SD)
Senior wrestlers
(n = 13)
Junior wrestlers
(n = 19)
Age (years) 28.1 ± 4.9 18.1 ± 1.2a
Body height (cm) 175.7 ± 10.5 173.8 ± 5.6
Body weight (kg) 85.4 ± 17.2 69.4 ± 10.4b
BMI (kg/m2) 27.3 ± 2.6 22.9 ± 2.9a
Body fat (%) 17.9 ± 4.3 10.5 ± 3.7a
Body fat (kg) 15.9 ± 6.9 7.6 ± 3.7a
Training experience
(years) 14.1 ± 5.2 5.2 ± 1.8a
a, b significantly lower than senior wrestlers (a p < 0.001, b p < 0.02)
Table 2. Peak power output (W/kg) in successive stages
of the test in the studied groups of wrestlers (± SD)
StageSenior wrestlers
(n = 13)
Junior wrestlers
(n = 19)
1 7.1 ± 0.3 5.9 ± 0.7c
2 4.9 ± 0.4a 4.2 ± 0.6a, c
3 4.3 ± 0.4a, b 3.6 ± 0.5a, b, c
4 4.0 ± 0.6a, b 3.4 ± 0.5a, c
5 4.0 ± 0.7a 3.5 ± 0.6a, c
a significantly lower than in stage 1 (p < 0.001), b signifi-
cantly lower than in the previous stage (p < 0.04), c significantly lower than in the group of senior wrestlers
(p < 0.006)
Table 3. Power output (W/kg) in successive stages
of the test in the studied groups of wrestlers (means ± SD)
StageSenior wrestlers
(n = 13)
Junior wrestlers
(n = 19)
1 5.6 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.4c
2 3.8 ± 0.3a 3.3 ± 0.5a, c
3 3.2 ± 0.4a, b 2.9 ± 0.4a, b, c
4 2.9 ± 0.3a, b 2.6 ± 0.4a, b, c
5 2.9 ± 0.3a 2.5 ± 0.3a, c
a significantly lower than in stage 1 in the groups of seniors
and juniors (p < 0.002), b significantly lower than in the
previous stage (p < 0.02), c significantly lower than in the
group of seniors (p < 0.04)
Table 4. Blood lactate concentration (mmol/l)
following intermittent exercise in the studied groups
of wrestlers (± SD)
Rest time
(min)
Seniors
(n = 13)
Juniors
(n = 19)
3 14.3 ± 1.9 9.5 ± 1.4c
5 15.9 ± 1.9a 12.3 ± 1.9a, c
7 16.6 ± 1.8a 13.2 ± 2.0a, c
9 16.9 ± 2.1a 13.7 ± 1.9a, c
11 16.8 ± 2.2a 13.8 ± 2.2a, c
13 16.3 ± 2.4a 13.2 ± 1.9a, c
30 9.9 ± 2.0a 8.6 ± 2.0b, c
a, b significantly different than blood lactate concentration
3 min following exercise (a p < 0.001, b p < 0.03), c signifi-
cantly lower than in the group of seniors (p < 0.004)
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E. Hübner-Woźniak et al., Training and anaerobic performance in wrestlers
tional team. It can be assumed that capacity to maintain
a high peak power output by senior wrestlers is due to
long-term training. McCartney et al. [5] noted that rest
periods up to 30 s between successive stages of the test
were suffi cient to restore muscle phosphocreatine up to
70%. Therefore, the initial phosphocreatine concentra-
tion in the muscle before each successive stage is con-
secutively decreased. They also observed that the peak
power output in a 4 × 30 s test (4min breaks) declined
until the third stage of the exercise, thus even such long
rest breaks failed to sustain a similar peak power output
in successive stages. Balsom et al. [19] showed that
a cause of decline in muscle power output during short
intermittent exercise of high intensity was insuffi cient
resynthesis of phosphocreatine and ATP in muscle cells.
On the other hand, Haseler et al. [20] observed that sus-
taining peak power output du ring an intermittent exer-
cise of maximal intensity was dependent on aerobic
performance and showed that muscle phosphocreatine
recovery was faster in subjects with higher VO2max.
Moreover, Balsom et al. [21] noted that under the condi-
tions of reduced oxygen availability (hypoxia) the re-
covery of phosphocreatine in the muscle was impaired
post-exercise. It should not be ruled out that sustaining
a high power output throughout a greater number of ex-
ercise stages in senior ath letes compared with the junior
ones was caused by differences in aerobic performance
between the two groups of wrestlers.
The present study showed that senior wrestlers at-
tained significantly higher mean power outputs in each
stage than the juniors, and their levels declined until the
fourth stage of the exercise test in both groups of ath-
letes. Simultaneously, the mean peak power achieved by
Polish senior wrestlers in the first stage of exercise was
significantly higher than that achie ved by the U.S. wres-
tlers (5.6 and 5.2 W/kg, respective ly). During the subse-
quent stages, however, the values of mean power output
were alike [16].
It has been widely accepted that mean power output
during intermittent exercise of high intensity de pends
on the production of lactic acid in the working muscle
[22], and, in consequence, on the accumulation of hy-
drogen ions and lowered intracellular pH [23]. Gratas-
Delamarche et al. [24] noted a significant corre lation
between blood lactate concentration and mean power
output during a 30s Wingate test. It was also shown that
the factor improving the capacity to perform short, in-
tense exercises was buffer capacity of muscle, which
increased the ability to produce a higher mean power
Table 5. Lactate clearance in the studied groups
of wrestlers (± SD)
Seniors
(n = 13)
Juniors
(n = 19)
Lamax 17.4 ± 2.0 14.1 ± 2.1a
Lamax – La30min
(mmol/l)* 7.5 ± 1.6 5.5 ± 1.3a
Lamax – La30min /min
(mmol · l-1 · min-1)** 0.37 ± 0.08 0.28 ± 0.08a
Decline
in La concentration
(%Lamax)***
43.2 ± 8.7 39.1 ± 8.6
La – lactate concentration, a significantly lower than in the
group of seniors (p < 0.004), * difference between the
highest lactate concentration and lactate concentration
after 30min rest, ** decline in lactate concentration per
minute of rest, *** difference between maximal lactate
concentration and lactate concentration after 30 min
of rest
Discussion
The obtained data show that during each stage of the
test, the senior wrestlers achieved better results than the
juniors. It can be concluded, with reference to data obta-
ined by Callan et al. [16] in an identical study, that in
each stage of the test senior wrestlers attained a hi gher
relative peak power output than the senior wre stlers of
the U.S. national team. It was noted that the maximal
power output depended on the concentration of phos-
phocreatine (PC) in the muscle and on the rate of its
degradation in ATP resynthesis catalyzed by creatine
kinase (CK) [3]. Rodas et al. [18] observed that a two-
-week in termittent training of high intensity significantly
incre ased PC concentration and CK activity in the mus-
cle, as well as peak power output during a 30s Wingate
test. These data suggest that increased peak po wer out-
put in each stage attained by senior wrestlers, as op-
posed to junior wrestlers, might have been brought by
higher phosphocreatine stores in the muscle due to ad-
aptation to long-term training.
The present study also revealed that the peak power
output was declining until the third stage in the group of
junior wrestlers, and until the fourth stage in the group
of senior wrestlers. The decrease in the relative peak
power (W/kg) until the fourth stage was also observed
by Callan et al. [16] in a 5 × 30 s upper-body exercise
test (30s breaks) performed by wrestlers of the U.S. na-
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E. Hübner-Woźniak et al., Training and anaerobic performance in wrestlers
output [25]. Sharp et al. [26] noted that the musc le buff-
er capacity in subjects undergoing eight-week sprint
training improved by about 38%, whereas endu rance
training had no effect. The results of the present study
show that the maximal blood lacta te concentration was
significantly higher in senior wre stlers than in juniors
(17.4 and 14.1 mmol/l, respective ly). Simultaneously,
the seniors achieved a higher mean power output during
the test, which could be an indication of higher muscle
tolerance to acidosis.
As mentioned before, aerobic metabolism also plays
a significant role in sustaining the mean po wer output
during intermittent exercise of high intensi ty. As Bal-
som et al. [21] observed, it induced faster recovery be-
tween particular stages of the exercise. Also, during in-
termittent exercise, the decrease in po wer output was
linked to the rate of ATP production during anaerobic
metabolism and intensified the participation of aerobic
metabolism [27]. Hamilton et al. [28] noted a hi gher de-
cline in power output during a 10 × 6 s intermit tent test
(30s breaks) in subjects with lower VO2max.
The higher lactate clearance in senior wrestlers (0.37
mmol · l–1 · min–1) than in juniors (0.28 mmol · l–1 ·
min–1) can be indicative of a better aerobic capacity of
the wrestlers of the Polish national team. It was demon-
strated that endurance training increased the number of
mitochondria in muscle cells and the activity of mito-
chondrial enzymes, and, in consequence, accelerated
the oxidation of energy substrates [29]. Thomas et al.
[30] showed that faster clearance of lactate and delayed
fatigue resulted from an increased muscle oxidative ca-
pacity, whereas Phillips et al. [31] noted that a 10-day
training had no effect on lactate production but incre-
ased its clearance.
In conclusion, a long-term wrestling training in-
creases the anaerobic per formance of upper body mus-
cles, as evidenced by a higher relative peak and mean
power outputs attained in each stage of the exercise test,
as well as by longer sustenance of maxi mal power in
senior athletes than in the juniors. More over, the meas-
urements of blood lactate concentration suggest that
athletes with longer training experience di splay higher
tolerance to muscle acidosis. The changes in the relative
peak power output in successive stages of the exercise
test, and the rate of lactate cle arance within 30 min
post-exercise in senior and junior athletes indicate that
long-term training also contributes to an increase in
aerobic capacity.
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science grants DS 66 and DS 77.
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Paper received by the Editors: June 2, 2005.
Paper accepted for publication: June 20, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak
Zakład Biochemii
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Marymoncka 34
01-968 Warszawa 45, Poland, skr. 55
e-mail: [email protected]
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2006, vol. 7 (2), 153–161
Elżbieta Kaluga1*, Elżbieta Rostkowska2
1 Department of Biology and Environmental Protection, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland2 Department of Swimming and Life Saving, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The aim of the study was to identify the relations between sports activity and threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes
practicing selected sports: team games, water sports, swimming, martial arts, track and field and soccer. Basic procedures. The study
was conducted between 2000 and 2002. 673 subjects took part in the study, including 346 men and 327 women. The age of the
subjects ranged from 19 to 23. Threshold tactile sensitivity was measured with the use of Touch-TestTM Sensory Evaluator (Semmes-
Weinstein Monofilaments) on the tip of the index finger of the dominant hand. Identifying the tactile threshold involved using an
aesthesiometer filament of the smallest pressure force that the subject was able to feel. The collected data was processed separately
for males and females. The following nonparametric tests were used in the statistical analysis: the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-
Whitney U test. Main findings. In general, athletes representing selected sports showed lower tactile sensitivity than subjects
practicing no competitive sports. A detailed comparative analysis of various sports yielded differences between groups of subjects in
terms of variability in the athletes’ tactile sensitivity. In the groups of athletes, as well as in the control groups, women displayed
a higher level of tactile sensitivity than men in the threshold pressure test. Conclusions. Physical activity, specific to individual sports,
is a reason for a variability of threshold tactile sensitivity. Among the studied athletes, swimmers displayed the highest tactile
sensitivity, and the lowest tactile sensitivity was observed in athletes practicing water sports, regardless of sex.
Key words: touch, sensory thresholds, sport, physical activity, perception
Introduction
Long-term sports training is conducive to an athlete’s
full adjustment to the requirements of his or her sport of
choice. The resulting functional and structural changes
in the athlete’s body constitute the physiological basis
for training. Apart from the athlete’s motor function,
kinesthetic sensations accompanying the body move-
ments, e.g. visual, aural, tactual sensations specific to
individual physical exercises, also become adapted.
A high level of kinesthetic sensations and perceptions
conditions the development of co-ordination motor abi-
lities necessary for each type of motor activity. To a great
extent, these abilities determine the effectiveness of the
athletes’ actions and patterns of motor behavior [1].
The skin is the largest sensory area of the body. The
structural basis for its tactile function is determined by
the activity of tactual receptors. The skin surface tactile
sense is complemented with deep sensibility (bathy-
esthesia). The surface and deep senses in terms of their
structure and function cannot, however, be clearly dis-
criminated. Almost all tactile sensations result from the
cooperation between the receptors of superficial and
deep sensibility. Deep sensibility and its significance
for sports activity have been subject to numerous stu-
dies [2–4]. Unfortunately, studies on athletes’ superfi-
cial sensibility cannot be found in professional literature.
It seems, therefore, necessary to attempt an analysis of
the relations between athletes’ superficial sensibility
and the type of sport practiced. Researchers studying
skin receptors distinguish various aspects of tactile sen-
sitivity; however, the number of studies on its functio-
ning, variability and adaptability is still not sufficient.
The aim of this study was to identify relations between
sports activity and threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes
in selected sports. The research hypothesis was that phy-
sical activity specific to a given sport is a cause of varia-
bility of the threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes.
Material and methods
The study was conducted between 2000 and 2002.
673 subjects participated in the study, including 346
men and 327 women, aged 19–23. The subjects were
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN TACTILE SENSITIVITY IN MEN AND WOMEN PRACTICING SELECTED SPORTS
* Corresponding author.
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
students of the University School of Physical Education
in Poznań who practiced selected sports: team games,
water sports, swimming, martial arts, track and field
(running) and soccer. The control groups consisted of
students who did not practice competitive sports (Tab. 1).
The dependent variable in the study was the thres-
hold tactile sensitivity (TTS) measured on the tip of the
index finger of the subject’s dominant hand (1.04% of
subjects were left-handed).
The measurements were performed with the use of
Touch-TestTM Sensory Evaluator (Semmes-Weinstein
Monofilaments), being a set of 20 nylon filaments with
plastic grips. The filaments were of equal length and
different width; each filament featured a different value
of the least-bending pressure force (in grams and
grams/mm2). Owing to the differences in pressure force
of particular filaments and in order to normalize the di-
stribution of the dependent variable, the aesthesiometer’s
designer, Sidney Weinstein, found the logarithm for the
numerical value of pressure force as Log10 F(mg)
= Sem-
mes-Weinstein Monofilament (SWM). The obtained
numerical values from 1.65 to 6.65 were marked on the
plastic grips of the filaments [5]. For the purpose of the
present study these numerical values were accepted as
measurement units (SWMs) for statistical analysis.
The TTS was the aesthesiometer filament of the
least pressure force causing the least strain of the skin
by stimulating the subject’s tactual mechanoreceptors
and producing the sense of touch.
While measuring the TTS, the subject remained
sitting with his or her arms on the knees. Each subject
was instructed about the method of measurement and
undertook a pre-test to experience a supraliminal stimu-
lus (with a thick, easily perceptible filament) and subli-
minal stimulus (with a thin, imperceptible filament).
The subject was then asked to close his or her eyes and
exposed to the pressure of other aesthesiometer fila-
ments until the threshold filament was found. The test
was repeated to confirm the TTS value. The results
were recorded in a table along with the subject’s age and
practiced sport. All measurements were always taken
by the same person in the morning and in the afternoon.
The collected data was then processed for statistical
analysis with an Excel spreadsheet and STATISTICA
software. To assess the conformity of mean values di-
stribution of the dependent variable with the model di-
stribution, the Kolomogorov-Smirnov test was used.
The hypothesis about the conformity of distributions of
the dependent variable with the normal distribution was
rejected as the obtained distributions differed signifi-
cantly from the model distribution (Fig. 1). In the stati-
stical analysis two nonparametric tests were used: the
Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-Whitney U test. The
relations between the subjects’ age and the TTS were
evaluated using Spearman’s rank correlation coeffi-
cient.
Results
The sense of touch and subjects’ age
Having taken into consideration the results of other
studies indicating relations between the TTS and age
Table 1. Study groups and number of subjects
Group Number of subjects
men women
1. Team games players (basketball,
volleyball, team handball) 48 56
2. Water sports athletes (kayaking,
rowing)47 30
3. Swimmers 25 32
4. Martial arts competitors (judo,
taekwondo, karate)35 31
5. Track and field athletes (runners) 30 36
6. Soccer players 41 n.a.
7. Control group 120 142
Total 346 327
n.a. – not applicable
Figure 1. Distribution of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
mean values on the tip of the index finger – men practicing
competitive sports (n = 226)
Expected value
1.5
Num
be
r of s
ub
ject
s
[SWM]
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Variable P2 SWM (Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament); distribution: normal
d Kolmogorov-Smirnov test = 0.2855960; p < 0.01
Chi-square: 628.2177; df = 11; p = 0.000000 (df correct)
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
[5–7], and a rather short age range of subjects of both
sexes (max. 5 years), age was excluded as a discrimina-
ting factor for the experimental groups. Tab. 2 shows
that the majority of subjects – 237 men (68%) and 239
women (73%) – were aged 20–21 at the time of the study.
With regard to the specific conditions of particular
sports practiced by the athletes under study, possible
relations between the subjects’ age and aesthesiometric
measurement results were sought. No statistically signi-
ficant correlations between the parameters under study
were observed in the men’s and women’s groups. For
example, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
between age and the TTS on the tip of the index finger
in the water sports male athletes amounted to R = –0.10.
The sense of touch and subjects’ sex
The statistical analyses were made separately for
men and women (Fig. 2, 3). Tab. 3 presents the results
obtained by the male and female subjects. The male
subjects displayed higher TTS than the female subjects.
In the groups of athletes and control groups sex was
a significant discriminating factor for TTS values. Fe-
male subjects displayed lower TTS than men in the
threshold pressure test.
Table 2. The subjects’ age range
Age range
(years)Accurate age range
Number of subjects
men women
19 18.50–19.49 49 51
20 19.50–20.49 141 135
21 20.50–21.49 96 104
22 21.50–22.49 43 28
23 22.50–23.49 17 9
Total 346 327
Figure 2. Comparison of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
values on the tip of the index finger in male and female
athletes practicing competitive sports (n = 427)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
men women
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
�
�
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
Figure 3. Comparison of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
values on the tip of the index finger in male and female
athletes practicing no competitive sports (n = 262)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
men women
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
�
�
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
Table 3. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
variability on the tip of the index finger in men and women
practicing and not practicing competitive sports
Groups of subjects comparedMann-Whitney U test
results (Z)
Male athletes/female athletes Z = –3.73*
Men/women (control group) Z = –3.56*
* p = 0.01
The sense of touch and the type of competitive sport
In order to assess the effect of sport activity on tactile
sensitivity, the TTS values on the tip of the index finger
in the athletes and control groups (both sexes) were
compared. Higher TTS was observed as a result of
practicing competitive sports. The athletes displayed
Table 4. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
variability on the tip of the index finger in subjects
practicing and not practicing competitive sports:
comparison of sex groups
Groups of subjects comparedMann-Whitney U test
results (Z)
Male athletes/male subjects
(control group) Z = –2.83*
Female athletes/female subjects
(control group)Z = –2.85*
* p = 0.01
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
lower tactile sensitivity than the non-athletes. The diffe-
rences observed were statistically significant (Tab. 4).
Fig. 4 and 5 present diagrams for the groups of men and
women, respectively.
In the male groups, the highest TTS was displayed
by water sports athletes followed by team games play-
ers, soccer players, track and field athletes, martial arts
competitors and swimmers (Fig. 6). The subjects from
the control group displayed lower tactile sensitivity than
the martial arts competitors and swimmers.
The differences between the groups with regard to
the TTS variability are the following (Tab. 5):
• water sports athletes displayed the lowest statistically
significant values of tactile sensitivity of all groups of
athletes under study; only in comparison with the
team sports players, the difference was statistically
insignificant;
• team sports players displayed lower statistically si-
gnificant tactile sensitivity than soccer players, mar-
tial arts competitors and swimmers; in comparison
with the track and field athletes, the difference was
statistically insignificant; team sports players
showed higher tactile sensitivity than water sports
athletes (statistically insignificant);
• soccer players featured higher statistically signifi-
cant tactile sensitivity than the water sports athletes
and team games players, and lower tactile sensitivity
than track and field athletes, martial arts competi-
tors and swimmers (statistically insignificant);
• track and field athletes displayed higher tactile sen-
sitivity than water sports athletes (statistically signi-
ficant), team games players, and soccer players (sta-
tistically insignificant), and lower tactile sensitivity
than martial arts competitors and swimmers (stati-
stically insignificant);
• martial arts competitors featured higher tactile sensi-
tivity than water sports athletes, team games players
(statistically significant), soccer players and track
and field athletes (statistically insignificant), and lo-
wer tactile sensitivity than swimmers (statistically
insignificant);
• swimmers displayed higher tactile sensitivity than
water sports athletes, team games players (statisti-
cally significant), soccer players, track and field ath-
letes, and martial arts competitors (statistically insi-
gnificant);
• the control group featured higher tactile sensitivity
than water sports athletes, team games players (stati-
stically significant), soccer players, and track and
field athletes (statistically insignificant), and lower
tactile sensitivity than martial arts competitors and
swimmers (statistically insignificant).
Figure 4. Comparison of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
values on the tip of the index finger in male athletes
practicing and not practicing competitive sports (n = 346)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
athletes control group
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
�
�
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
Figure 5. Comparison of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)
values on the tip of the index finger in female athletes
practicing and not practicing competitive sports (n = 327)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
athletes control group
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
��
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
The effect of the type of sport on the sense of touch
The effect of the type of sport on the TTS was asses-
sed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The obtained test re-
sults (H = 37.58 in men; H = 25.69 in women) allowed
us to reject the null hypothesis, suggesting no TTS dif-
ferences between the subject groups. The analysis re-
vealed statistically significant differences (p = 0.01) be-
tween athletes practicing selected sports, which led to
a more detailed comparative study between the groups,
with the use of Mann-Whitney U test.
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
In the groups of female subjects, the highest TTS,
i.e. the lowest tactile sensitivity, was displayed by water
sports athletes, followed by track and field athletes,
team games players, martial arts competitors and swim-
mers (Fig. 7). The control group featured lower tactile
sensitivity than the group of swimmers.
The differences between groups in terms of their
threshold tactile sensitivity are as follows (Tab. 6):
• water sports athletes featured the lowest statistically
significant tactile sensitivity out of all groups of fe-
male athletes under study;
• track and field athletes displayed higher tactile sen-
sitivity than water sports athletes (statistically signi-
ficant), and lower tactile sensitivity than team games
players, martial arts competitors (statistically insi-
gnificant) and swimmers (statistically significant);
• team games players featured lower tactile sensitivity
than water sports athletes (statistically significant),
and lower tactile sensitivity than martial arts compe-
titors (statistically insignificant) and swimmers (sta-
tistically significant);
• martial arts competitors displayed higher tactile sen-
sitivity than water sports athletes (statistically signi-
ficant), track and field athletes, and team players
(statistically insignificant), and lower tactile sensivity
than swimmers (statistically insignificant);
• female swimmers featured higher tactile sensitivity
than water sports athletes, track and field athletes,
team games players (statistically significant) and
martial arts competitors (statistically insignificant);
• subjects from the control group displayed higher tac-
tile sensitivity than water sports athletes, track and
field athletes, team games players (statistically signi-
ficant) and martial arts competitors (statistically in-
significant), and lower tactile sensitivity than swim-
mers.
Table 5. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip
of the index finger between groups: men (n = 346)
Study groupTrack and field
athletes
Team games
players
Martial arts
competitors
Water sports
athletesSwimmers Soccer players
Team games
players Z = –1.02
Martial arts
competitors Z = 0.7 Z = 1.78*
Water sports
athletes Z = –2.51** Z = –1.6 Z = –3.22**
Swimmers Z = 1.36 Z = 1.89* Z = 1.06 Z = 2.28**
Soccer players Z = 0.58 Z = 1.76* Z = –0.16 Z = 3.15** Z = –1.22
Control group Z = –1.2 Z = –2.72** Z = –0.32 Z = –4.53** Z = 1.09 Z = –0.49
Z – Mann-Whitney U test result, * p = 0.05, ** p = 0.01
Table 6. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip
of the index finger between groups: women (n = 327)
Study groupTrack and field
athletes
Team games
players
Martial arts
competitors
Water sports
athletesSwimmers
Team games players Z = –0.2
Martial arts competitors Z = 0.58 Z = 0.82
Water sports athletes Z = –1.71* Z = –1.7* Z = –1.97*
Swimmers Z = 2.18* Z = 2.58** Z = 1.54 Z = 2.94**
Control group Z = –2.2* Z = –2.91** Z = –1.31 Z = –2.99** Z = 0.72
Z – Mann-Whitney U test result, * p = 0.05, ** p = 0.01
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
Figure 7. TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip of the index finger in female athletes practicing selected sports
as compared with the control group (n = 327)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
control grouptrack and field
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
�
�
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
team gamesmartial arts
water sportsswimming
Figure 6. TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip of the index finger in male athletes practicing selected sports
as compared with the control group (n = 346)
tact
ile th
resh
old
(S
WM
)
SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
control grouptrack and field
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
�
�
± standard deviation
± standard error
mean
team gamesmartial arts
water sportsswimming
soccer
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
Discussion
Since the study was merely an attempt to examine
relatively new issues, not all of its results can be compa-
red with those from other studies. Some results were
interpreted with reference to the general variability con-
ditions of tactile sensitivity.
Since the sense of touch is most significant in manu-
al location, handling and identification of objects, the
variability of tactile sensitivity as a function of age has
been an interesting research subject [8, 9]. Population
studies show that tactile sensitivity in subjects of both
sexes is weaker with age, beginning with pubescence
[10]. This is linked to several biological properties of
the skin, such as thickness of the epidermis or the quan-
tity of collagen and elastin, which can change with age.
Changes in morphology, quantity, density and loca-
tion of tactual receptors are also likely to appear [11].
The present study fails to confirm the effect of age on
tactile sensitivity, which is understandable taking into
account the subjects’ short age range.
Weinstein [12] studied different aspects of tactile
sensitivity as a function of body part, sex and laterality.
In the 1950s he designed the Semmes-Weinstein aesthe-
siometer, to examine war veterans and distinguish be-
tween those with damage to the peripheral nervous
system and those with damage to the central nervous
system. Weinstein’s calibrated nylon filaments replaced
the earlier Von Frey’s bristles (in the late 19th century
Von Frey developed a sensory measurement method
using calibrated human hairs and animal bristles). Since
the 1950s Weinstein’s aesthesiometer has been used by
a number of clinicians and researchers. It allowed for
a distinction of the various aspects of the sense of touch.
Weinstein examined 24 men and 24 women by measu-
ring their tactile threshold and assessing two-point di-
scrimination. In the tactile threshold examination he
noticed that the face was the most sensitive part of the
body in men and women, followed by the trunk, fingers
and upper extremities. The least sensitive were the lo-
wer extremities. In his evaluation of two-point sensory
discrimination, Weinstein noted the greatest density of
tactual receptors in men and women in the fingers, face
and feet. The more distal the body part is, the higher its
sensitivity. Weinstein also observed that women di-
splayed higher tactile sensitivity on individual body
parts than men, but only during examination of thre-
shold pressure. More recent population studies [10] also
show that sex significantly differentiates the sense of
touch. The results of threshold examination revealed
that women were indeed more sensitive than men. In all
groups of subjects in the present study, sex is a discri-
minating factor for TTS mean values. The female sub-
jects have all displayed generally higher tactile sensiti-
vity than men. Although male and female athletes fe-
ature higher TTS than the subjects from the control
groups, the intersexual differences between the measu-
ring points are similar in both the athletes’ and control
groups.
The TTS changes in the competitive athletes under
study were compared with the results obtained by the
subjects from control groups. It was observed that phy-
sical activity, specific to individual sports, affected the
athletes’ sense of touch. In some athletes sports training
can enhance the tactile neural basis, in others tactile
sensitivity may decrease.
Sports training is a specific, long-term process
aimed at developing the athlete’s physical skills neces-
sary for the sport being practiced. Already during the
first stage of sports training, guided exercises specific
to the athlete’s chosen sport are strongly emphasized
[13]. According to Czabański [14], specially selected
motor exercises can equip the athlete’s motor function
with kinesthetic sensations. While performing move-
ments, owing to the activation of skin and myo-arthral
receptors, potentials generated in tactile neurons provide
information about movement accuracy, range and force.
The mechanoreceptors affect motor orders for the hand
and finger muscles [15]. The hand’s tactile sensitivity is
the highest in the fingertips which feature high density
of tactual receptors. The fingertips are the most expo-
sed to the environmental impact and remain the prefer-
red spot for tactile examination [16–18]. In the present
study, the TTS was measured on the tip of the index
finger as a spot particularly stimulated during sports
activity.
The stimulus in team games (basketball, volleyball,
team handball) is the fingers’ contact with the ball. Du-
ring hitting or passing the ball the fingertips are most
susceptible to frictions, pressures and strokes. In kay-
aking or rowing, the stimulus is the contact with an oar.
For example, during rowing both rower’s hands are pla-
ced on the oar, and movements are performed with wrists
and fingers. Swimming requires physical activity in the
water environment, which is conducive to the body’s
adaptation to the physical features of this environment.
A swimmer receives stimuli from the water environ-
ment via his or her tactual receptors, which affects the
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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes
propulsive movements and leads to an improvement of
the tactile analyzer. In martial arts, the stimulus is the
contact with the opponent’s body. Mastering sensory
skills in constantly changing situations is crucial to all
martial arts competitors. Soccer players and runners re-
present sports in which training and competitions gene-
rally lack factors explicitly affecting their tactile sensiti-
vity. However, these are athletes whose high level of
physical activity, due to intensive efficiency training
and development of motor traits, is very likely to affect
their general level of tactile sensitivity. Also the atmo-
spheric conditions which soccer players and runners are
exposed to during training and competitions can affect
their sense of touch.
The significance of the sense of touch in various
sports cannot be refuted. The tactual receptors, rece-
iving stimuli from contacts with the ground, outfit or
a sports apparatus, provide the athlete’s body with in-
formation about its immediate surroundings. While
handling an object, the pressure force between the fin-
gertips and the thumb is automatically balanced out to
prevent the object from breaking or slipping out. This
precise force control requires information from the tac-
tile units about the intensity of friction between the skin
and the object. It can be concluded that systematic tra-
ining enhances the tactile analyzer since it leads to cor-
rect identification of stimuli, i.e. athletes develop higher
tactile sensitivity to the outside stimuli and display
much greater abilities to discriminate their movements
in various conditions.
However, the results of the present study show that
in groups of male athletes only, swimmers and martial
arts competitors featured statistically insignificantly
higher tactile sensitivity than the control group. All
other athletes displayed lower tactile sensitivity, while
statistically significant differences were only noted be-
tween water sports athletes, team games players and
subjects from the control group.
The female subjects produced similar results. The
female swimmers and martial arts competitors showed
statistically insignificantly higher tactile sensitivity than
subjects from the control group. The other athletes fea-
tured lower tactile sensitivity, but statistically signifi-
cant differences were only observed between the water
sports athletes, track and field athletes, team games
players and the control group.
Tactile sensitivity is a genetically conditioned trait.
However, it can be greatly modified by different envi-
ronmental factors, among which are varied physical ac-
tivities characteristic of different sports. The outermost
layer of the epidermis, called stratum corneum, is com-
posed of dead, exfoliated cells. The number of layers of
these cells, determining the thickness of the cuticle, va-
ries (100 to 200 in thick skin; 2 to 5 in thin skin) and
depends on mechanical pressure forces and frictions the
skin is exposed to. Thus the type of sports activity can
modify the thickness of the epidermis. On the basis of
the results of the present study it can be concluded that
changes in the epidermis thickness can be a cause of
variability in threshold tactile sensitivity observed in
athletes practicing different sports. Moreover, Osiński
[19] puts emphasis on intentional actions in sports tra-
ining aimed at relieving the body of numerous unple-
asant sensations, primarily caused by mechanical fac-
tors such as feelings of touching, pressing, stroking,
scratching or tapping. Highly significant in effective
training are frequent showers, rubbing the body with
wet and dry towels and various massages.
Conclusions
1. Physical activity in various sports is a cause of
variability in athletes’ threshold tactile sensitivity.
2. The highest tactile sensitivity in the groups of
subjects under study, regardless of sex, was displayed
by swimmers, and the lowest by water sports athletes.
3. Athletes whose fingertips are constantly exposed
to mechanical pressures and frictions feature lower tac-
tile sensitivity than the subjects from the control group.
4. Swimmers show a tendency towards higher tactile
sensitivity than the subjects from the control group.
References
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podstawy kształtowania i diagnozowania koordynacyjnych
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Springfield 1968, 195–222.
13. Czajkowski Z., Pierwszy etap szkolenia sportowego [in Polish]
(The first stage of sports training). ZSKF, Katowice 1995.
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niki sportowej [in Polish] (Selected issues in learning and te-
aching sports technique). AWF, Wrocław 1991.
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Paper received by the Editors: December 22, 2005.
Paper accepted for publication: August 2, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Elżbieta Kaluga
Zakład Biologii i Ochrony Przyrody
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Królowej Jadwigi 27/39
61-871 Poznań, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
AWF_7_2_07Kaluga03_2k_DRUK.indd 161 12/15/2006, 11:15:28 AM
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Marek Bolanowski1, 2*, Wojciech Pluskiewicz3, Anna Skrzek1, Piotr Adamczyk4,
Janusz Bolanowski1
1 Department of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland2 Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Isotope Therapy, Medical University, Wrocław, Poland3 Metabolic Bone Diseases Unit, Department of Internal Diseases, Diabetology and Nephrology, Medical University of Silesia,
Katowice, Poland4 Department and Clinic of Pediatrics, Pediatric Nephrology and Endocrinology, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The aim of the study was to assess the skeletal status in women exercising a Tai Chi programme. Basic procedures. A group
of 115 women at the mean age of 55.94 ± 10.23 years was compared with a control group of 1030 women with regard to the
quantitative ultrasound (QUS) measurements at hand phalanges. Main findings. Amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS) had
greater values in the whole group of exercising subjects than in controls (2012.7 ± 77.3 vs 1981.4 ± 81.8 m/s, p = 0.00009). The
Ad-SoS in premenopausal women did not differ from that in controls. The Ad-SoS in postmenopausal women differed from that in
controls (1946.0 ± 60.8 vs. 1975.0 ± 59.4 m/s). There was a correlation between Ad-SoS and exercise duration in the whole group
and in postmenopausal women (r = 0.24, p = 0.01 and r = 0.29, p = 0.01, respectively). The intensity of exercises did not influence
Ad-SoS values. Age affected Ad-SoS significantly less in exercising women than in controls (r = –0.64 and –0.74, respectively).
A stepwise multiple regression analysis of Ad-SoS regressed on age, duration of postmenopause, duration and intensity of exercises,
and body size showed that age had negative influence and duration of Tai Chi exercises remained a protective factor; regression
equation: Ad-SoS (m/s) = 2183 m/s – 0.43 × age (y) + 0.32 × duration of exercises (y) (r = 0.52, SEE = 51.5, p < 0.00001). Conclusions. Due to its beneficial effect on skeletal status, Tai Chi exercises may be recommended in the prevention of osteoporosis in the post-
menopause rather than earlier.
Key words: osteoporosis, phalanges, quantitative ultrasound, Tai Chi exercises, women
Introduction
Physical activity in the elderly is a very important
factor influencing the general efficiency and it can pre-
vent fractures by its antifalling properties. Exercises
have a positive impact on both muscle strength and the
maintenance of postural balance [1]. The advantageous
effect of physical exercises on bone mineral density
(BMD) has been proven [2, 3]. The Tai Chi exercise is
a low-weight-bearing exercise and the major regular
physical exercise practiced by elderly Chinese-origin
populations. There are some suggestions on the positive
effect of Tai Chi exercise on BMD in postmenopausal
women and osteoporotic fracture prevention [4, 5].
Osteoporosis is a major health problem in postmeno-
pausal women, associated with increased fracture risk
related to decreased bone density. The susceptibility to
falls is an independent fracture risk factor in the elderly
[6]. The osteoporosis risk can be indirectly estimated,
on the one hand, with clinical data, and on the other
with BMD measurements and bone quality assessment
making use of bone turnover markers or quantitative
ultrasound (QUS) at different skeletal sites [7–9].
Ultrasound measurement of skeletal properties gives
additional information on bone strength and resistance
to fractures. The technique is noninvasive, relatively
cheap and easily available by utilizing portable devices.
The phalangeal QUS measurement was introduced about
a decade ago and it has been validated in various clini-
cal studies. By measuring the amplitude-dependent
speed-of-sound, it may provide useful information not
only on bone mass but also on bone tissue architecture
and elasticity. There are reports on good correlation be-
tween ultrasound parameters and age, osteoporosis and
fracture risk [10, 11]. Several studies revealed changes
BONE PROPERTIES ASSESSED BY QUANTITATIVE ULTRASOUND AT THE HAND PHALANGES IN WOMEN EXERCISING TAI CHI
* Corresponding author.
2006, vol. 7 (2), 162–167
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M. Bolanowski et al., Bones assessed by QUS in Tai Chi
in phalangeal ultrasound properties due to menopause,
aging and certain bone disorders [11–14].
The aim of the study was to assess whether there are
any changes in ultrasound properties of bone measured at
hand phalanges in the Polish Tai Chi female gymnasts.
Material and methods
Subjects
A group of 115 females exercising a Tai Chi pro-
gramme, aged 27–75 years was studied. All of them
were involved in the programme of regularly exercising
women on the base of Tai Chi clubs in Wrocław (Lower
Silesia, Poland). Among the exercising females, 74 were
postmenopausal (mean age 61.7 ± 6.6 years), the other
41 were premenopausal (mean age 44.6 ± 6.8 years).
The data of the subjects are shown in Tab. 1. The total
number of 15 fractures in the past were reported by 14 sub-
jects. All the fractures were results of a minimal trauma
(e.g. a fall from standing height or less). The fractures
occurred in the following skeletal sites: forearm (10),
clavicle (3), hip (1), spine (1) and were confirmed by ra-
diographs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) at any
time was reported by 44 women; out of them, 18 sub-
jects reported the duration of HRT longer than 5 years,
and the mean time of HRT was 1.8 ± 3.1 years. Five sub-
jects reported previous short-time antiresorptive treat-
ment (up to 6 months).
The control group (1030 non-exercising women) was
matched for age, body mass, height and time postmeno-
pause. 744 women were after menopause. All the
women were recruited from those undergoing bone mea-
sure ment for screening purposes in the Outpatient Medi-
cal Care Unit. All the subjects (exercising women and
cont rols) were interviewed by a physician applying
a special questionnaire in order to collect data on impor-
tant risk factors for osteoporosis. Subjects with factors
of potential influence on bone metabolism (prolonged
diseases of thyroid gland, liver or kidney, gastrointestinal
surgery, therapy with corticosteroids, anti convulsants,
thyroid hormone etc. or being treated with drugs other
than HRT for osteoporosis) were not included (either
among the exercising subjects or among controls). The
controls did not report any regular advanced physical
activity. Neither fractures nor HRT were reported by
them. The study protocol was approved by the Local
Ethics Committee.
Methods
Anthropometric measurements
In all subjects, body weight, height and body mass
index (BMI, kg/m2) were established. Body height was
measured in the standing position with a measuring
tape, weight – with commercial electronic scales; then,
BMI was calculated with the commonly accepted for-
mula.
Exercise scores
The exercise duration and intensity scores in the Tai
Chi exercising subjects were calculated as follows. Dura-
tion of exercise score: onset: 0 (19 subjects); < 6 months:
1 (23 subjects); 6–12 months: 2 (21 subjects); 12–24
months: 3 (18 subjects); more than 24 months: 4 (34
subjects). Intensity of exercise score: occasionally: 0 (13
subjects); once weekly: 1 (44 subjects); twice a week:
2 (32 subjects); three times a week: 3 (9 subjects); four
and more times a week: 4 (17 subjects).
QUS measurement
The skeletal status was assessed by QUS measure-
ments at proximal phalanges with the use of the DBM
Sonic 1200 device (IGEA, Carpi, Italy). The unit con-
sists of two probes mounted on an electronic caliper,
one emitter and one receiver. The latter records the ultra-
sound energy after it has crossed the phalanx. The am-
plitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS, m/s) was
determined in the distal metaphyses of the proximal
phalanges in the second through fifth fingers of the do-
Table 1. Clinical characteristics of the subjects exercising
with Tai Chi and the controls
VariableTai Chi
(n = 115)
Controls
(n = 1030)p-value
Age (years) 55.94 ± 10.23 55.92 ± 10.28 n.s.
Body mass (kg) 65.10 ± 9.9 65.12 ± 8.2 n.s.
Height (cm) 161.5 ± 5.9 160.6 ± 5.6 n.s.
BMI (kg/m2) 24.99 ± 3.7 25.27 ± 3.3 n.s.
YSM (y) 11.41 ± 7.02
(n = 74)
11.38 ± 7.25
(n = 744)n.s.
Duration of
exercise score 2.22 ± 1.5 –
Intensity of
exercise score 1.87 ± 1.1 –
BMI – body mass index, YSM – years since menopause,
n.s. – not significant
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M. Bolanowski et al., Bones assessed by QUS in Tai Chi
minant hand. The SoS in bone tissue was calculated
considering the first signal with an amplitude at least
2 mV at the receiving probe; thus, the measured SoS is
amplitude-dependent. Acoustic coupling was achieved
with standard ultrasound gel. All measurements (in
subjects and controls) were carried out by one experien-
ced operator. The precision of QUS measurements,
expressed variation coefficient (CV%) was 0.64%.
CV% was established on the basis of 75 bone scans with
repositioning of the device caliper (five measurements
in each subject).
Statistics
All statistical analyses were carried out with Statisti-
ca for Windows 5.5 (2000). The mean values and SD
between the groups studied were compared on the basis
of Student’s t-test. The correlations between variables ana-
lyzed were calculated according to Pearson’s or Spear-
man’s tests when appropriate. Chi-square test was used
in order to compare the “scores” of exercises duration,
and coefficients of correlation between exercising wo-
men and controls were compared using Fisher test. The
differences were statistically significant at the value of
p < 0.05.
Results
Among the exercising females, 44 were HRT users
in the past. In order to verify whether the differences in
Ad-SoS values were not attributed to the influence of
Table 2. QUS measurements at hand phalanges in Tai Chi exercising women and in the control group regarding
their age and menopausal status
Age (years)Exercising women Control group
p-valuen Ad-SOS (m/s) n Ad-SOS (m/s)
< 41 6 2083.8 ± 32.5 53 2089.9 ± 52.8 n.s.
41–50 28 2084.6 ± 47.6 218 2068.1 ± 53.2 n.s.
51–60 46 2002.8 ± 75.3 393 1977.6 ± 58.5 0.008
61–70 27 1959.0 ± 47.7 304 1922.1 ± 53.3 0.0006
> 70 8 1946.1 ± 30.5 62 1897.6 ± 49.5 0.009
Premenopausal 41 2081.0 ± 56.5 286 2074.0 ± 56.2 n.s.
Postmenopausal 74 1975.0 ± 59.4 744 1946.0 ± 60.8 0.00009
Total 115 2012.7 ± 77.3 1030 1981.4 ± 81.8 0.00009
QUS – quantitative ultrasound, Ad-SoS – amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound, n.s. – not significant
Table 3. Correlations (Pearson or Spearman, accordingly) between Ad-SOS and other variables studied in the entire group of
subjects exercising Tai Chi (n = 115; except for YSM: n = 74) and in controls (n = 1030; except for YSM: n = 744)
Variable
Exercising women Control group Difference between
correlation
coefficientsCorrelation
coefficientp-value
Correlation
coefficientp-value
Age –0.64 0.0001 –0.74 < 0.0001 p = 0.03
Body mass –0.23 0.013 –0.23 0.0001 n.s.
Height +0.22 0.017 +0.17 0.0001 n.s.
BMI –0.35 0.0001 –0.31 0.0001 n.s.
YSM –0.38 0.001 –0.49 < 0.0001 n.s.
Exercise duration +0.24 0.01
Exercise intensity –0.06 n.s. (0.52)
Ad-SoS – amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound, YSM – years since menopause, BMI – body mass index, n.s. – not significant
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M. Bolanowski et al., Bones assessed by QUS in Tai Chi
this therapy, a comparison between HRT users and
HRT non-users was also performed. Mean Ad-SoS va-
lues did not differ significantly (data not shown). There-
fore, further analyses were conducted in all exercising
females.
Ad-SoS at hand phalanges had greater values in the
whole group of exercising subjects than in controls
(2012.7 ± 77.3 vs 1981.4 ± 81.8 m/s, p = 0.00009) (Tab.
2). In subjects younger than 40 years, in those aged 41–
–50 years, and in all premenopausal ones, Ad-SoS did
not differ in comparison with controls, but, in postme-
nopausal subjects, Ad-SoS differed versus the value of
Ad-SoS in controls (1946.0 ± 60.8 vs 1975.0 ± 59.4 m/s).
The differences in Ad-SoS values between the exerci-
sing subjects and controls had a tendency to increase
with age; in the subgroup aged 51–60 years the diffe-
rence was 25.2 m/s; in the subgroup aged 61–70 years it
equalled 36.9 m/s; and, in the oldest females, aged over
70 years, it turned out to be 48.5 m/s. Therefore, the Tai
Chi programme, in regard to skeletal status, seems to be
efficient in the postmenopause rather than earlier. Corre-
lation analysis of age, years since menopause (YSM),
body size and duration and intensity of exercises is shown
in Tab. 3. A statistically significant correlation was shown
between Ad-SoS and exercise duration (r = 0.24,
p = 0.01) (Fig. 1) in all exercising females; in postmeno-
pausal women, the same analysis gave r = 0.29, p = 0.01;
and, in premenopausal women, the duration of exercises
did not affect Ad-SoS values. The intensity of exercises
had no influence. The duration of the exercises expres-
sed in the “score” did not differ with regard to age of the
exercising women. As shown by Fisher test, age affec-
ted exercising Ad-SoS significantly less in exercising
women than in controls (r = –0.64 and –0.74, respective-
ly). A stepwise multiple regression analysis performed
in postmenopausal exercising women (n = 74) of Ad-
-SoS regressed on age, duration of postmenopause, du-
ration and intensity of exercises and body size showed
that age had negative influence and duration of Tai Chi
exercises remained a protective factor; regression equa-
tion: Ad-SoS (m/s) = 2183 m/s – 0.43 × age (y) + 0.32 ×
duration of exercises (y) (r = 0.52, SEE = 51.5,
p < 0.00001).
Discussion
Osteoporosis followed by fractures is a major health
problem of the aging population and the evaluation of
possible procedures to prevent them is of great impor-
tance. Physical activity is one of them, since it leads to
better postural stability and lesser susceptibility for fal-
ling [1]. Moreover, there are some suggestions that phy-
sical activity performed on a regular basis in the elderly
could influence bone strength and density [2, 3]. This
might be due to some beneficial impact on bone turno-
ver by skeletal muscle activity [15, 16].
Tai Chi is a popular low-weight-bearing exercise re-
gularly practiced by the elderly Chinese population.
Fig. 1. Correlation between QUS results and exercise duration in the group of exercising women
2250
2200
2150
2100
2050
2000
1950
1900
1850
18000 1 2 3 4
Ad
-So
S (
m/s
)
r = +0.24; p = 0.01
Exercise duration score (explanation in the text)
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M. Bolanowski et al., Bones assessed by QUS in Tai Chi
There are limited data on the influence of these exerci-
ses on BMD; they were carried out on Chinese popula-
tions [4, 5]. Tai Chi exercises are known to exert a bene-
ficial influence on cardiovascular risk factors [17]. To
our knowledge, the current study is the first one evalu-
ating QUS at hand phalanges in the Caucasian (Europe-
an) population.
QUS at hand phalanges allows indirect assessment
of bone properties using bone and soft tissue ultrasound
transmission, expressed in Ad-SoS values. There are
numerous reports on the decrease of Ad-SoS in subjects
with bone deterioration, as in the menopause, immobili-
zation, disease and hormonal dysfunctions [11–13, 18].
We have shown higher values of Ad-SoS, reflecting
ultrasound transmission in hand phalanges, in the entire
group and in the subgroups older than 50 years of our
Tai Chi exercising subjects as compared with controls.
The control group (1030 non-exercising women) was
matched for age, body mass and number of years since
menopause, which allowed us to perform reliable com-
parisons.
This could suggest a positive effect of the above-
-mentioned exercises on bone status and a potential anti-
fracture impact. One of the most important clinical fin-
dings of the study is the efficacy of Tai Chi exercises to
improve skeletal status only in postmenopausal females.
Moreover, improvement expressed as differences be-
tween exercising women and controls increased with
age, so Tai Chi should be recommended rather in older
postmenopausal females.
To our knowledge, the current study is the first one
describing the influence of Tai Chi exercises on ultra-
sound velocity at hand phalanges, especially regarding
premenopausal subjects. Moreover, there are no data in
the literature on the skeletal advantages of Tai Chi exer-
cises in premenopausal women. Current results inclined
us to start prospective observations with repeated me-
asurements in the future. On the other hand, our previo-
us study on young female handball players did not show
any deviation from the normal range in these sports-
women [19].
The values of Ad-SoS in our subjects correlated po-
sitively with the exercise duration, but not with exercise
intensity in the entire group. The mean value of exercise
duration score in our subjects was 2.22, reflecting about
1 year and three months of Tai Chi exercises, although
the most numerous group of exercising women was the
group with score 4 (longer than 24 months). This is
a strong evidence for a greater impact of the duration
than intensity of exercises on the bone status (strength).
Very recent study showed a significant, 2.6- to 3.6-fold
retardation of bone loss in both trabecular and cortical
compartments of the distal tibia assessed by pQCT in
postmenopausal women exercising Tai Chi [4]. Another
study, carried out using DXA and pQCT techniques,
showed significantly higher BMD (10.1–14.8%) in the
lumbar spine, proximal femur and ultradistal tibia in
postmenopausal Tai Chi gymnasts than in controls [5].
Positive correlations between Ad-SoS and body he-
ight in our group could be explained by the postural in-
fluences on bone mass; taller subjects have larger bone
mass. Negative correlations between Ad-SoS and age
and the year of the menopause reflects the natural age-
-dependent bone deterioration and the influence of the
menopause. This was shown in the previous studies
carried out in various populations [10–14]. The subjects
with greater BMI represented lower values of Ad-SoS.
Similar observations according to body mass and BMI
were noted by others [14, 20]. An important observation
given by the current study on age-related Ad-SoS chan-
ges concerns a significantly weaker negative influence
of age in exercising women than in controls.
The previous osteoporotic fractures in our group
were not numerous, and they were not related to the le-
vel of physical activity. The results of Ad-SoS values
were not attributed to the influence of previous HRT.
The study has several limitations: it represents
a case-control and not a longitudinal design; the anthropo-
metric parameters (body mass, BMI) could be lowered
by regular exercising followed with body mass reduc-
tion, but this hypothesis could not be proven, since body
mass changes during the exercises were not analyzed;
and the skeletal status was assessed in one measurement
site only. Despite these limitations, the study results are
promising and further longitudinal observations are in
progress.
In conclusion, owing to their beneficial effect on
skeletal status, Tai Chi exercises may be recommended
in the prevention of osteoporosis in the postmenopause
rather than earlier.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Ms. Ewa Derda and the authorities
of the local branch of Tai Chi Society in Wrocław for their
help in arranging and performing the study.
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Paper received by the Editors: May 22, 2006.
Paper accepted for publication: October 10, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Marek Bolanowski
Wydział Fizjoterapii
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
al. I.J. Paderewskiego 35
51-612 Wrocław, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
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Krzysztof Buśko1, 2, *, Radosław Rychlik3
1 Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Sport, Warszawa, Poland2 Department of the Theory of Sport, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland3 Astanga Yoga Studio, Warszawa, Poland
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The aim of the study was to examine the changes of the maximal muscle torque in females during a six-month Power Yoga
(Astanga Vinyasa) training. It was assumed that Power Yoga training caused changes of the maximal muscle torque in females during
six months, but the topography of all muscle groups did not follow these changes. Basic procedures. Twelve untrained female
subjects took part in the study. They practiced Power Yoga twice a week for six months. Muscle torque measurements in static
conditions were performed on two dates: before the commencement of Power Yoga training and after its completion. Ten muscle
groups were studied: flexors and extensors of the trunk, as well as flexors and extensors of the shoulder, elbow, hip and knee. Main findings. The differences between muscle torque values for flexors and extensors of the shoulder, elbow and hip, as well as flexors of
the knee on the right side of the body were statistically significant between the 1st and 2nd measurement. On the left side of the body,
only the muscle torque of the elbow extensors increased significantly. For flexors and extensors of the trunk, the changes were not
significant. No changes of the flexors–extensors ratio for the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee joints and trunk were observed during the six
months of training, with the exception of left shoulder muscles and right knee muscles. Conclusions. Power Yoga training caused
changes of the maximal muscle torque in females after six months, but the changes in the muscle topography were also significant.
Key words: muscle torque, muscle topography, flexors–extensors ratio, Power Yoga (Astanga Vinyasa)
Introduction
The Hatha Yoga system descends from the philoso-
phical tradition of ancient India, which treats yoga exer-
cises as a preparation for higher meditation practices.
There are three types of yoga exercises: asana – static
body positions, vinyasa – dynamic sequences of asanas,
and pranayama – respiratory exercises [1]. Depending
on the training intensity and inclusion of individual
exercises in a training session, different Hatha Yoga
styles can be distinguished: Iyengara, Sivananda, Vi-
niyoga, Pranayama and Astanga Vinyasa (commonly
known as Power Yoga). Power Yoga is one of the most
dynamic yoga varieties. It was popularized by an Ame-
rican instructor, Beryl Bendere Birch. Power Yoga
features smooth and quick changes of body positions
(vinyasa), combined with deep breaths (ujjayi) and
various concentration techniques. The intensity of exer-
cises is adjusted to the practitioners’ individual needs
and skills.
Hatha Yoga training affects the four main systems of
human body: musculoskeletal, cardiopulmonary, nervous
and endocrine [2]. Practicing different yoga systems
enhances muscle and joint flexibility, improves muscle
strength (static force, in particular) [2], and affects the
lean body mass [3] and body composition [3, 4]. Yoga
training was also observed to significantly increase
muscle aerobic power [5–7] and to significantly decre-
ase muscle anaerobic power [5].
The aim of the study was to observe the changes of
the maximal muscle torque during a six-month Power
Yoga training. The initial hypothesis was that a six-
-month Power Yoga training cycle caused a significant
increase in the maximal muscle torque, whereas the to-
pography of muscle torques remained unchanged.
Material and methods
The study was granted the approval of the Research
Ethics Committee of the Institute of Sport in Warsaw.
The group of subjects consisted of 24 untrained women;
12 of them resigned during the experiment. Only the
results of the subjects who had obtained all measure-
CHANGES OF THE MAXIMAL MUSCLE TORQUE IN WOMEN TRAINING POWER YOGA (ASTANGA VINYASA)
* Corresponding author.
2006, vol. 7 (2), 168–177
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
Figure 1. An example set of exercises for the classical training series
The First Series (Yoga Chikitsa)Standing positions
Sitting positions
return to samasthiti
vinyasa
chakrasana
Finishing sequence
5×5 breaths
3×5 breaths 10–15 breaths
10 breaths each25 breaths
25 breaths 10 breaths 10–25 breaths 10–25 breaths
Rest in savasana for
10–15 minutes
Bridges as indicated by the instructor
Basic finishing sequence
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
Figure 2. Example exercise sequences in the Suryanamaskara positions (Sun Salutation)
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
ments (n = 12) were taken into account. The subjects’
profile included the following characteristics: age (24.8 ±
± 6.1 years), body height (168.4 ± 6.2 cm), body mass
(60.1 ± 7.1 kg before the training, 59.4 ± 6.4 kg after the
training), and BMI (21.242 ± 2.683 before the training,
21.013 ± 2.661 after the training). The body mass did
not change significantly between the 1st and 2nd measu-
rement periods.
The yoga training sessions were conducted by a Po-
wer Yoga instructor, twice a week for six months. Each
subject performed the traditional sequence of exercises
at their own pace, following their own respiratory rate.
During the six months the subjects mastered about one
half of the First Series exercises, i.e. Mysore classes
(Fig. 1). The subjects’ mean attendance amounted to
30 ± 7 out of 50 completed classes (60%).
A typical Astanga Yoga session during the six-
-month training cycle included the following elements:
1. Sun Salutation – two dynamic cycles of strengthe-
ning and extension exercises, during which an exer-
ciser moves from one pose to another, following
their own respiratory rate. During each cycle there is
a break in one of the poses to take five deep breaths.
Each cycle (A and B) is repeated five times. The Sun
Salutation pose is aimed to warm up the body and
prepare it to perform the subsequent exercises (Fig.
2). Duration: 12 minutes.
2. Standing Poses – series of stretching exercises which
strengthen, first of all, leg muscles. The exerciser
remains in each static pose for the duration of five
breaths. The transitions between the poses are made
through dynamic but short moves and jumps. Each
asana together with its vinyasa (entry into and exit
from the pose) begins and ends in the position of at-
tention (Samasthiti). The exercise intensity and the
body warming up increase gradually throughout this
entire stage. Duration: 15 minutes.
3. Seated Poses – series of various static poses promo-
ting, first of all, muscle flexibility, assumed in a sit-
ting position (Dandasana). An exerciser remains in
each pose for the duration of five deep breaths. In
order to maintain the warming up of the body, cycli-
cal Sun Salutation elements are used as vinyasa be-
tween the asanas. In the cycle of the Seated Poses,
the exercises are performed at a high and stable le-
vel. Duration: about 30 minutes.
4. Finishing Poses – cycles of static poses maintained
for a longer time (from 10 to 25 breaths) aimed to
calm down the body and gently conclude the exerci-
ses. The cycle starts with a deep forward bend
(Paścimottanasana), followed by a shoulderstand
(Sarvangasana), headstand (Shirshasana), and a se-
ries of Lotus Poses with crossed legs. Duration: about
15 minutes.
5. Scale Pose (Tolasana) – the last of the finishing po-
ses. An exerciser lifts the hips and legs in the Lotus
Pose away from the floor and remains suspended on
the palms on the floor for the longest time possible
(25 deep breaths, or 100 breaths in advanced practi-
tioners). During this pose, the pulse and pulmonary
ventilation increase rapidly. It is the last intensive
exercise before the final relaxation. The whole body
is flexed and then easily and quickly relaxed in the
next stage. Duration: up to 1 minute.
6. Corpse Pose (Śavasana), i.e. lying and relaxing on
one’s back – used as final relaxation. Duration: from
5 to 10 minutes.
The classic Astanga Yoga training session described
above was the final objective of the six-month training
cycle. For the first three months, the exercises were mo-
dified according to the following pattern:
1. Soft warm-up exercises. In a classic yoga training
session, the warm-up consists of Sun Salutation and
Standing Poses, which require some muscle flexibi-
lity and strength. For the beginners, a softer warm-
-up might be more suitable, such as simple static and
dynamic exercises aimed at warming up the wrists
and arms, spinal elongation, preparation of the body
for forward bends and stretching of leg muscles.
2. Standing Poses – like during a classic session. Ini-
tially, many exercises were preceded with easier
preparatory exercises.
3. Modified finishing sequence – a few calming exerci-
ses. At the beginning of the training, headstands and
shoulderstands were not exercised.
4. Lying on one’s back as final relaxation.
After the first three months, the subjects were able
to perform most exercises from the classic First Series
of Astanga Yoga, with the exception of a few most diffi-
cult exercises from the Seated Poses, requiring great
muscle flexibility.
During the second three months, the exercises were
customized for each subject. The subjects performed
exercises following their own respiratory rate, while the
instructor provided them with manual corrections, gu-
idance and help in completing more difficult exercises.
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
After that, each subject learned and performed exer-
cises individually: the individual sets were different.
This type of yoga training, called Mysore, is the basic
form of Astanga Yoga practiced in India and in traditio-
nal yoga schools worldwide.
The measurements of maximal muscle torques were
taken in ten muscle groups on the sagittal plane: flexors
and extensors of the trunk, shoulder, elbow, hip and
knee, using stations for measurement of muscle torque
in static conditions [8, 9].
The torque measurement of elbow flexors and exten-
sors was performed in the sitting position, with the arm
lying on a rest. The angle in the shoulder joint equalled
90 degrees. The forearm was situated perpendicularly
to the shoulder; the trunk was stabilized.
The measurement of the torque of shoulder flexors
and extensors was taken in the sitting position. The an-
gle in the shoulder joint during extension equalled 70
degrees, and during flexion 50 degrees. The trunk was
leaning against the station and became stabilized with
the chest pressed against the backrest by the assistant.
The torques of knee and trunk flexors and extensors
were measured in the sitting position. The angle in hip
and knee joints equalled 90 degrees. A subject was stabi-
lized at the level of anterior iliac spines and the distal
parts of the thigh. The arms rested on the chest.
The torque of hip extensors was measured in the
prone position, and the torque of hip flexors – in the su-
pine position. The angle in the hip joint equalled 90 de-
grees. The subject’s trunk was stabilized.
The maximal extension of the extremity in the el-
bow, knee and hip joint was accepted as 0 degrees. For
the shoulder joint, the situation of the arm along the
trunk was accepted as 0 degrees. The trunk in the prone
position was accepted as 0 degrees. The rotation axis of
the examined joint corresponded to the rotation axis of
the torquemeter. The measurements were taken on both
upper and lower extremities, separately on the right and
left extremity, always in the flexion-extension sequence.
Before the measurements, the subjects got acquainted
with the measurement equipment and protocols and
performed warm-up exercises involving the measured
muscle groups. Each subject was to produce the maxi-
mal power output.
The total error in the measurement of the maximal
muscle torque did not exceed 4% [9]. The maximal error
Table 1. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the maximal muscle torque (N·m) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and knee flexors
(F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the leg (TMTL),
of the trunk (TMTT) and of ten muscle groups (TOTAL) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle
JointRight extremity
R (%)Left extremity
R (%)1 2 1 2
ElbowF 35.7 ± 5.6 36.9 ± 5.0 4.0 35.1 ± 6.2 35.4 ± 6.4 1.1
E 22.6 ± 3.6 25.6 ± 5.3a 13.5 23.3 ± 3.7 26.7 ± 4.7a 14.7
ShoulderF 30.9 ± 5.8 40.1 ± 7.6a 31.0 30.4 ± 7.3 33.7 ± 6.5 14.5
E 39.2 ± 7.3 46.1 ± 7.1a 19.6 39.6 ± 4.8 41.8 ± 7.7 5.6
KneeF 79.4 ± 15.9 86.4 ± 14.5a 10.1 77.6 ± 17.5 80.9 ± 15.7 6.5
E 174.2 ± 36.7 173.3 ± 31.2 0.5 177.9 ± 37.6 181.6 ± 34.8 3.2
HipF 68.4 ± 11.8 71.0 ± 11.8a 4.2 68.9 ± 11.7 68.3 ± 12.3 –0.9
E 289.6 ± 47.1 309.2 ± 45.1a 7.3 299.8 ± 47.4 297.8 ± 44.1 0.0
TrunkF 95.8 ± 28.5 99.8 ± 19.6 7.7
E 312.2 ± 56.5 329.9 ± 50.9 7.1
TMTA 128.3 ± 17.6 148.8 ± 20.5a 16.2 128.3 ± 17.1 137.6 ± 21.9a 7.1
TMTL 611.6 ± 94.2 639.8 ± 91.9a 4.9 624.2 ± 96.7 628.6 ± 89.2 1.1
TMTT 408.0 ± 72.7 429.7 ± 62.4 6.4
TOTAL 1900.4 ± 270.3 1984.4 ± 256.9a 4.7
1 – measurement before the commencement of the training, 2 – measurement after the completion of the training, a – the mean
values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05, R – percentage change between the two measurement
periods
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
of repeatability, expressed by the coefficient of variabili-
ty, was 4.2%; for particular muscle groups it amounted
to 1.8% for knee extensors, 2.1% for hip extensors, 4.9%
for hip flexors and 6.3% for shoulder extensors [8].
The flexors–extensors ratios were calculated from the
measured maximal muscle torque values for elbow, sho-
ulder, hip, knee and trunk flexors and extensors [9, 10].
The maximal muscle torque values of particular mu-
scle groups were also represented as constituents of the
total muscle torque, i.e. muscle topography.
In the statistical analysis, ANOVA variance analysis
was used. The statistical significance between the mean
values was estimated with Scheffe’s post-hoc test. The
correlation between the muscle torques and body mass
was calculated using Pearson’s coefficient or correla-
tion. The level of statistical significance was set at p <
0.05. All statistical calculations were performed with
STATISTICA (v. 5.5, StatSoft) software.
Results
Tab. 1 and 2 show the obtained maximal muscle
torque values (Mm) and relative muscle torque values in
subjects under study. A significant increase in the maxi-
mal muscle torque was observed between the two me-
asurement periods in right elbow, shoulder and hip
extensors and in knee flexors. As for the left side of the
body, only the muscle torque of left elbow extensors in-
creased significantly. The total value of the maximal
torque of both arms and the right leg, as well as the total
value of the torque of the ten examined muscle groups
increased significantly between the 1st and 2nd measure-
ment periods.
Tab. 3 presents mean constituent contributions of
particular muscle groups to the total torque value. A si-
gnificant change of the topography of muscle torques
was observed in the group of left elbow extensors and
right shoulder flexors and extensors. The contribution
of the total torque value of the right arm muscles incre-
ased significantly, whereas the total torque value of the
left leg decreased, in the total torque value of all ten
examined muscle groups.
The calculated flexors–extensors ratios for the elbow,
shoulder, hip and trunk muscles were not changed in the
six-month training cycle, with the exception of the right
knee and the left shoulder muscles (Tab. 4).
Table 2. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the maximal relative muscle torque (N·m·kg-1) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and
knee flexors (F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the
leg (TMTL), of the trunk (TMTT) and of ten muscle groups (TOTAL) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle
JointRight extremity
R (%)Left extremity
R (%)1 2 1 2
ElbowF 0.60 ± 0.09 0.63 ± 0.09a 5.1 0.59 ± 0.10 0.60 ± 0.09 2.3
E 0.38 ± 0.06 0.43 ± 0.09a 14.7 0.39 ± 0.07 0.45 ± 0.08a 15.9
ShoulderF 0.52 ± 0.11 0.68 ± 0.14a 32.6 0.51 ± 0.12 0.57 ± 0.12 15.9
E 0.66 ± 0.15 0.79 ± 0.16a 21.1 0.67 ± 0.11 0.71 ± 0.14 6.7
KneeF 1.33 ± 0.28 1.46 ± 0.23a 11.3 1.30 ± 0.32 1.37 ± 0.28 7.8
E 2.90 ± 0.50 2.92 ± 0.40 1.5 2.97 ± 0.54 3.06 ± 0.50 4.3
HipF 1.14 ± 0.18 1.20 ± 0.17a 5.3 1.15 ± 0.17 1.15 ± 0.19 0.1
E 4.87 ± 0.89 5.25 ± 0.83a 8.5 5.04 ± 0.86 5.04 ± 0.76 1.1
TrunkF 1.60 ± 0.42 1.68 ± 0.28 8.8
E 5.21 ± 0.81 5.55 ± 0.60 8.2
TMTA 2.16 ± 0.35 2.53 ± 0.41a 17.6 2.15 ± 0.32 2.33 ± 0.38a 8.3
TMTL 10.25 ± 1.54 10.82 ± 1.44a 6.1 10.46 ± 1.59 10.63 ± 1.42 2.2
TMTT 6.80 ± 0.96 7.24 ± 0.73 7.5
TOTAL 31.82 ± 4.29 33.55 ± 3.89a 5.8
1 – measurement before the commencement of the training, 2 – measurement after the completion of the training, a – the mean
values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05, R – percentage change between the two measurement
periods
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
No correlation was observed between the body mass
and muscle torque in static conditions in the six-month
training cycle, with the exception of the right knee
extensors (r = 0.58) and trunk extensors (r = 0.69).
Discussion
In the diagnosis of the training condition of athletes’
motor function, changes in the maximal muscle torque
can be indicative of the effects of applied training loads.
Most frequently, the maximal muscle torque values of the
arm, leg and trunk flexors and extensors are used in sta-
tic and dynamic conditions [9, 11–14]. The muscle torques
can also be presented as contributions to the total muscle
torque value, i.e. muscle topography [9, 12, 13, 15].
The obtained results failed to definitely confirm the
assumed hypothesis that a six-month Power Yoga tra-
ining cycle would increase the maximal muscle torque
in all ten examined muscle groups, and that the topogra-
phy of the muscles would remain unchanged. The me-
asurements revealed a significant increase in the maxi-
mal muscle torque in the muscles of the right extremi-
ties, and in their total torque values between the
commencement of training (1) and after its completion
Table 3. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of topography of the muscle torque (%) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and knee flexors
(F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the leg (TMTL)
and of the trunk (TMTT) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle
JointRight extremity Left extremity
1 2 1 2
ElbowF 1.88 ± 0.21 1.87 ± 0.18 1.85 ± 0.28 1.78 ± 0.21
E 1.20 ± 0.20 1.29 ± 0.18 1.24 ± 0.19 1.35 ± 0.21a
ShoulderF 1.64 ± 0.30 2.02 ± 0.28a 1.60 ± 0.33 1.70 ± 0.23
E 2.08 ± 0.37 2.34 ± 0.29a 2.10 ± 0.27 2.11 ± 0.27
KneeF 3.60 ± 0.43 3.57 ± 0.30 3.62 ± 0.38 3.43 ± 0.36
E 15.23 ± 1.13 15.57 ± 1.06 15.79 ± 1.24 15.02 ± 1.25
HipF 4.18 ± 0.68 4.35 ± 0.50 4.10 ± 0.79 4.07 ± 0.61
E 9.13 ± 1.01 8.71 ± 0.84 9.32 ± 1.02 9.13 ± 1.07
TrunkF 4.99 ± 1.08 5.02 ± 0.71
E 16.44 ± 1.84 16.68 ± 01.97
TMTA 6.80 ± 0.84 7.51 ± 0.58a 6.80 ± 0.74 6.93 ± 0.66
TMTL 32.14 ± 01.21 32.20 ± 1.31 32.83 ± 01.39 31.66 ± 1.37a
TMTT 21.43 ± 01.61 21.70 ± 2.00
1 – measurement before the commencement of the training, 2 – measurement after the completion of the training, a – the mean
values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05
Table 4. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the flexors–extensors ratio (FER) after a six-month Power Yoga training cycle
RatioRight extremity Left extremity
1 2 1 2
Elbow FER 1.596 ± 0.245 1.471 ± 0.219 1.524 ± 0.287 1.348 ± 0.286
Shoulder FER 0.797 ± 0.106 0.874 ± 0.140 0.774 ± 0.186 0.808 ± 0.083a
Hip FER 0.238 ± 0.039 0.230 ± 0.026 0.232 ± 0.038 0.229 ± 0.028
Knee FER 0.465 ± 0.099 0.506 ± 0.094a 0.446 ± 0.104 0.457 ± 0.114
Trunk FER 0.311 ± 0.100 0.305 ± 0.061
1 – measurement before the commencement of the training, 2 – measurement after the completion of the training, a – the mean
values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
(2). As for the left side of the body, a significant increase
in the relative maximal muscle torque was noted in the
elbow extensors. In all other groups of flexors and
extensors of the left extremities, the maximal muscle
torque remained unchanged. Also the increase in the
maximal muscle torque of trunk extensors and flexors
(8.2% and 8.8%, respectively) was not statistically si-
gnificant. The observed percentage changes after the
first measurement were higher than those reported by
Trzaskoma [9] in a study of competitive athletes after
a two-year training cycle. Trzaskoma et al. [16], in their
study of female judokas after a six-month training cycle,
observed changes from 4.3% to 0.8%. So far, there has
been no research on the maximal muscle torque during
practicing different yoga systems. The available studies
report on significant changes in grip strength: 4.1–6.5%
after a ten-day training [17], 21.0% after a twelve-week
training [18], and 15.4% after an eight-week training
[19]. The changes for particular muscle groups noted in
this study ranged from 5.1% to 32.6%. The topography
of the maximal muscle torques, however, remained un-
changed, with the exception of the right shoulder flexors
and extensors and the left elbow extensors. An intere-
sting fact is that in the case of the left extremities, al-
most two-time lower, non-significant changes were ob-
served, with the exception of the left elbow extensors.
We are not able to provide any rational explanation of
this observation. Individual asanas appear to be “sym-
metric” exercises, thus the changes in the muscle torque
should be similar on both sides of the body.
The obtained muscle torque values for the arm mu-
scles and the topography of the muscle torques indicate
a beneficial influence of Power Yoga training on the
development of these muscle groups. It is an important
observation in view of the current tendencies in sports
to “neglect” the development of these muscle groups,
and of a decline in the muscle torque of the arm in, e.g.
male basketball players [20] and female judokas [9].
A number of studies focus on calculating the so-cal-
led flexors–extensors ratio on the basis of the maximal
muscle torque measurements in static conditions [9, 10,
15, 21, 22]. In Bober and Hay [15], the flexors–extensors
ratios in untrained subjects amounted to 0.46 in the
knee joint and 0.47 in the hip joint. In Jaszczuk et al.
[22], the ratio in athletes representing nine sports disci-
plines ranged from 0.39 to 0.57 in the knee joint and
from 0.18 to 0.25 in the hip joint; however, the ratio of
the knee joint changed within a narrow scope from 0.49
to 0.54 for athletes representing six sports. In the study
of female judokas by Trzaskoma [9], the flexors–exten-
sors ratios for the elbow, shoulder, knee, and hip joints
and for the trunk amounted to 1.375 ± 0.262, 0.855 ±
± 0.137, 0.501 ± 0.109, 0.200 ± 0.034 and 0.327 ± 0.060,
respectively. In the study of Trzaskoma and Trzaskoma
[23], the flexors-extensors ratios in the hip and knee
joints, in seventy athletes representing different sports
disciplines, equaled 0.20 and 0.43, respectively. The fle-
xors-extensors ratios for the knee and hip joints calcula-
ted in the present work correspond to the results of
Buśko [12], Jaszczuk et al. [22] and Trzaskoma [9], ob-
tained in their studies of untrained and trained subjects.
Contrary to the values of the flexors–extensors ratio
obtained by Shealy et al. [24] in their study of human
torque velocity adaptations to sprint following an eight-
-week sprint training, no significant changes of this ra-
tio were observed in the present study for any examined
joints, except for the right knee and the left shoulder
joint, after a six-month training cycle.
The correlation between muscle force and body
mass has been discussed in several studies [21, 25]. Le
Chevalier et al. [25] showed that the mass of the thigh
quadriceps muscle was significantly correlated with the
isokinetic torque measured in the knee joint (r = 0.78),
but they found no significant correlation between the
body mass and the isometric muscle torque (r = 0.33).
Dworak et al. [21] observed a significant correlation be-
tween the body mass and muscle torque of the hip and
knee flexors and extensors.
Different results were obtained by Pietraszewski et
al. [26], who did not observe any significant correlation
between the body mass, the lean body mass and the to-
tal muscle torque of flexors and total muscle torque of
extensors in both knee joints. Also Trzaskoma [9] found
no relationship between the body mass and muscle
torque in women in a three-year training cycle. In a study
of junior and senior female basketball players, a statisti-
cally significant correlation between the body mass and
muscle torque was only found for the total torque of ele-
ven muscle groups [12]. In individual muscle groups the
correlation was not significant. Similarly, Janiak et al.
[27] found no correlation between the body mass and
muscle torque of the right and left knee and hip exten-
sors, with the exception of the left knee extensors in
untrained subjects. In trained subjects, this correlation
was significant in all muscle groups under examination.
No significant correlation was found in the present
study between the body mass and muscle torque in par-
ticular muscle groups in a six-month training cycle,
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females
except for the torque values of the right knee extensors
and the trunk extensors. These results correspond to the
earlier results obtained by Buśko [12], Janiak et al. [27],
and Pietraszewski et al. [26].
Conclusions
1. During the six-month training cycle, an increase
was observed in the maximal muscle torque in indivi-
dual muscle groups in the right arm and the right leg.
2. A significant increase in the maximal muscle
torque on the left side of the body was only noted in the
elbow extensors.
3. A significant increase in the total value of the ma-
ximal muscle torque for the right leg muscles, both arms
and all the ten examined muscle groups was observed
after the six-month Power Yoga training cycle.
4. The percent contributions of the maximal muscle
torque values for the left elbow extensors and right
shoulder flexors and extensors, the total torque of the
right arm muscles and left arm muscles, and the total
torque values of both legs and both arms, to the total
torque value of all the ten examined muscle groups were
significantly changed.
5. The flexors–extensors ratios remained unchanged
after the six-month Power Yoga training cycle, with the
exception of the left shoulder and the right knee musc-
les.
6. A significant correlation between the body mass
and maximal muscle torque was only found in the case
of the right knee extensors and the trunk extensors. In
all other cases, the muscle torque values were not signi-
ficantly correlated with the body mass during the six-
month Power Yoga training cycle.
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Paper received by the Editors: July 19, 2005.
Paper accepted for publication: August 2, 2006.
Address for correspondence
Krzysztof Buśko
Zakład Biomechaniki
Instytut Sportu
ul. Trylogii 2/16
01-982 Warszawa, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
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178
PRAKSEOLOGIA GIER SPORTOWYCH (PRAXEOLOGY OF SPORTS GAMES)
Ryszard Panfil is one of the most
tireless theorists and researchers of
sports games in Europe. His most re-
cent book, Prakseologia gier sporto-
wych, undoubtedly turns out a time-
less publication. On the one hand,
Panfil’s book constitutes a compre-
hensive summary of his life’s scholar-
ly achievements, as well as a conscien-
tious survey of the Polish literature on
the subject matter (in particular, of
works that have grown out of Tadeusz
Kotarbiński’s praxeological tradition).
On the other hand, it is an extremely
solid and original synthesis of the the-
ory of play, and therefore a compre-
hensive and readable academic text-
book on this complex subject. This
monograph will be definitely very useful in academic
and coaching practice. Panfil’s book is indisputably both
a scholarly and practical publication.
The main advantage of the book is its shift from the
hitherto amateur and popular treatment of the subject
matter to the methodologically well-founded grounds,
formed on the basis of the renowned Lvov–Warsaw me-
thodological tradition, featuring terminological preci-
sion, logical correctness in theory construction and cla-
rity of argumentation. This approach is not only about
maintaining good reporting and order, which itself is
not an easy task, but also about making proper synthe-
ses and overviews of data and using a proper scientific
language. If Kotarbiński’s praxeology was once consi-
dered a unique and pioneering, philosophically groun-
ded theory of effective action (in the material world as
the only existing reality), Ryszard Panfil’s monograph
turns out the first so comprehensive study on the pra-
xelogical principles of sports play in the Polish and
European literature of the subject.
Panfil’s conception is not merely an application of
Kotarbiński’s ideas included in his monumental Traktat
o dobrej robocie (Treaty on effective
work). Such partial applications have
been made in Poland several times
before, with different results. For
Panfil, praxeology is in fact the most
important out of his three sources of
inspiration. The two other sources
are the general theory of play, with
its considerations of strategies, struc-
tures, processes, effects and synergy
of play, and the ontology of collective
beings, which is quite a novelty in
the studies on the theory of sport. All
the three: praxeology, theory of play
and ontology of collective beings
have been great achievements of the
Polish science and philosophy within
a larger context of modern European
thought (positivism, analytical philosophy, phenomeno-
logy and structuralism). Panfil’s study, therefore, remains
an important component of the mainstream contempo-
rary knowledge.
The third, ontological dimension appears in Panfil
usually indirectly, in his descriptions of sports teams in
competition (fight), although the author also mentions it
directly, in reference to respective philosophical and
phenomenological literature, in a realist, post-Ingarden
version. Thus, Panfil’s work definitely extends the
bounds of classical praxeology, often marked with ana-
chronistic nominalism, that rejects collective beings
and treats the team as a metaphor (it is like writing about
Ronaldinho’s, Eto’o’s and Deco’s victory without credi-
ting it to the Barcelona team, as the team is supposedly
only an imagined aggregate of individual subjects). The
author’s explicit standpoint, therefore, deserves utmost
consideration. It is also close to my existential and
structural concept of social systems, including sports
teams.
In this way, Prakseologia gier sportowych plays an
important role in a two-fold verification. First of all, it is
BOOK REVIEWS
2006, vol. 7 (2), 178–181
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Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games)
capable of verifying the legitimacy of general praxeolo-
gical principles in a specific case. If the general as-
sumptions of the theory of effective action are correct,
they should also apply in the field of sport, which can be
compared to a “productive play” in the context of purpose-
ful human actions. The other verification is based on an
entirely opposite assumption. An analysis of concrete
sports actions is the starting point, whereas the theoreti-
cal considerations should be useful in the verification or
modification of the general theory, i.e. praxeology. Ry-
szard Panfil gives credit to both sides of this historical,
methodological argument. The traditional deduction
method can also be effectively used, as it confirms sport
to constitute an exemplification of the universal truths
about life. The induction method also turns out effective,
as the truth about man and being can be learnt from the
exotic knowledge of sport.
To put it simply: the knowledge of effective action in
sport affirms the truth about effective action in general.
With this view in mind, it is certain that the book by the
outstanding Wrocław scholar will be of interest not only
to sports experts, but also to philosophers, sociologists,
psychologists, as well as theorists of management and
organization in general, and general praxeologists in
particular. In all the circumsport areas, the advantages
and possible limitations of praxeology become excep-
tionally noticeable. Sport, in turn, seems to be a rewar-
ding exemplification field, not less than business, mili-
tary, organizations or political institutions. Prakseolo-
gia gier sportowych is a strong argument supporting the
legitimacy of general principles of praxeology as
a science, and it should be classified as one of the most
significant philosophical achievements of the recent
years. Sport, and sports games in particular, have been
known for a long time as a cognitively interesting area
for model implementation of system theories, theory of
play, pragmatics and axiology (ethics and aesthetics in
particular).
The extensive subject matter of Prakseologia gier
sportowych has been divided into five chapters. The
first, introductory chapter is concerned with different
aspects of games, considering their various functions:
pragmatic, ludic, educational, social, health-related,
economic, etc. With extensive references to literature
(from Roger Caillois’ classic texts to works by modern
scholars of sports games, e.g. Naglak, Dziąsko and the
author himself), Panfil makes important distinctions
between the “real” competition (as a radical way of con-
trolling aggression and relieving interpersonal tensions)
and play as a regulated method of attaining conclusive
outcome in a competition between rival subjects (with-
out the need of total annihilation of the adversary).
Sports play is autotelic, i.e. aimed at holding an advan-
tage of one subject over others without the necessity of
appeal to other objectives and values, e.g. economic,
political or social benefits.
According to Panfil, a special place in the typology
of sport games is held by team ball games. A large part
of the first chapter is devoted to their definition, typology
and classification. Panfil is not interested in ball games
as sports games in general, and not all ball games are of
concern to him: for instance, tennis, table tennis, polo,
gymnastic exercises with a ball or water polo are barely
mentioned. Panfil concentrates on the most popular
team ball games using a “big ball” and “hard ground”,
e.g. football, team handball, basketball and volleyball.
Panfil’s references and analogies to other sports are oc-
casional, constituting the background rather than the
foreground for his considerations. By no means should
this be regarded as a form of criticism, but as the defini-
tion of the scope of the study, especially of the set of
examples. Panfil’s book should not be regarded as a ma-
nual for specific types of ball games.
The second chapter, “Synergy in team sports games”,
is extremely interesting. The author discusses the gene-
ral theory of synergism as a form of enhancement
achieved by proper cooperation between subjects. Re-
ferring to the works by Tadeusz Pszczołowski (one of
Kotarbiński’s students and collaborators) and by a Kra-
ków physicist Jerzy Hubert (who postulated creating
synergist studies as a separate branch of science), Ry-
szard Panfil analyses, in a competent and meticulous
manner, different types of synergy in organization the-
ory, psychology, physiology, medicine and physics, to
finally focus on a careful consideration of synergy in
sport. Sports synergies either are psycho-organic, pre-
sent at the level of the individual, or display a multitude
of complex forms, at the level of sport teams. The latter
are given particular attention in the second part of the
chapter.
The third chapter, discussing sports play as a “situ-
ational system of interrelated actions”, is pivotal in the
book structure. Here, the author skilfully combines the
classic theory of multi-subject action, derived from Leś-
niewski’s and Kotarbiński’s set theory, with the concept
of real collective subjects formed by way of interrela-
tions, feedbacks, material foundations and the system of
mutual senses, i.e. my own ontology, derived from Ro-
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Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games)
man Ingarden’s phenomenology. Panfil’s detailed analy-
sis of a team structure is accompanied by a description
of situational variables and of concrete task solutions in
a sports play. The sports team appears in Panfil’s view
not only as a durable, synergic structure, composed of
particular units, but also as a dynamic system, alterna-
ting in time and depending on challenges and its own
variable capabilities (strengthening and weakening di-
spositions in attack and defence).
The fourth chapter is devoted to the criteria of action
in a sports play. By offering a broad definition of “ac-
tion”, including physical and mental factors, Ryszard
Panfil reflects on the most significant types of play eva-
luation, from ethical and aesthetic to health-related, fit-
ness-oriented and innovative. Particularly noticeable is
Panfil’s application of “stylistic” evaluation criteria (sur-
prise factor, intuitiveness, rationality of choice, diversi-
ty) next to the praxeological mainstream indices (econo-
mic, outcome-oriented). It turns out that a logically and
artistically spectacular sports game can be effective, i.e.
can lead to gaining strategic advantage and, in consequ-
ence, to victory.
The fifth chapter is called “Praxeological models of
sports play.” In the reconstructive and training dimen-
sion, this chapter constitutes a logical conclusion to the
author’s considerations by “moving from theory to prac-
tice.” Panfil distinguishes purely “cognitive” models
(reflecting or projecting ideal models) from “practical”
(those performing control functions) and “promotional”
ones. His distinction is based on empirical research car-
ried out earlier by himself and other Polish scholars.
The models are certainly directly related to practical
kinds of actions on a sports field, including, for instance,
various types of dribbling in football. The chapter abo-
unds in diagrams, tables and registers.
The main criterion of praxeological evaluation of
sports teams is efficiency. This concept frequently ap-
pears in the monograph and constitutes the central fra-
me of reference for the meaning and qualities of partici-
pation in a sports action. Such a point of view is also
explicitly expressed by the author in the conclusion. It is
a well-known fact that a victorious and attractive game
can only be played by a well-coordinated team of effi-
cient individuals. This conclusion, however, has a much
deeper sense, pointing to a new synergic enhancement
of a “teamed-up man”, i.e. a man “teamed up” in structure
and purpose, who contributes with his individuality to
the entire team and each team member at the same time.
This apparently obvious phenomenon requires, howe-
ver, firm theoretical foundations, and Panfil’s book cer-
tainly provides them.
The enclosed bibliographical references reflect the
author’s extensive range of interest. The monograph in
its content and form is a work in sports sciences (or in
the broader realm of physical culture sciences), and it
will definitely find ardent readers among sports activists,
coaches, instructors and athletes. However, sports jour-
nalists and scholars of allied sciences should also be
strongly encouraged to read it. At the same time, howe-
ver, Professor Panfil’s work in its methodology and
contents reaches far beyond the traditional scope of
sports literature and concepts. It ambitiously aims at the
domain of pure praxeology (understood as a philosophi-
cal theory), but also looks into the spheres of organiza-
tion and management theory, sociology, psychology, or
economics. It can serve as a useful guide to sports pra-
xis (training practice), but also be read for pleasure, for
purely cognitive purposes, in order to understand the
principles of action in sports teams as special task
structures.
In my praise of Panfil’s work, I should, however,
also point out to a few shortcomings and deficiencies.
Some may complain about a somewhat limited corpus
of examples. The inclusion of more cases of real teams
would definitely enliven the narration of the book. The
author prefers diagrams and models, which often makes
the reading wearisome. Some readers may be dissatis-
fied with incomplete definitions of terminological, pri-
marily ontological, issues. Some may miss reflections
on selected axiological aspects, e.g. the ludic dimension
of a sports play, where winning is not as important as
playing the game itself. The question of risk in a sports
play is also treated rather marginally, whereas for some
the risk factor remains the essence and real taste of
a sports play.
The above shortcomings, however, by no means un-
dermine the tremendous value of Ryszard Panfil’s book.
They rather suggest some study areas that may require
other than praxeological research tools. The author’s
main contribution is his ability to provoke new que-
stions and set new theoretical tasks. Perhaps it is neces-
sary to get to know the world of a real game in its multi-
ple varieties, cultures, times, strategies, with multiple
types of participants featuring different characters and
abilities. It is not out of the question that future “model”
research should be intensified in order to bring theory
closer to practice. Some hypotheses have been suffi-
ciently confirmed, others need further solid examina-
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games)
tion. It is all true but one should also realize that such
reflections are evoked only after, and thanks to, careful
reading of the 180 pages of Panfil’s Prakseologia gier
sportowych.
Ryszard Panfil’s book is one of the most outstanding
publications of the recent years. It should stimulate
a wide-ranging debate and enter the reality of sport,
both popular and professional. This well-written and
well-constructed monograph can definitely contribute
to the development of modern studies into sports team
games and raise general interest into the theory of team
sports, comparable to the level of emotions evoked at
sports fields worldwide. One more comment should be
added in conclusion. The monograph’s unquestionable
value lies in its discrete wisdom. Sport, like the entire
human life, can be regarded in terms of a game. It should
be considered beneficial that there are books that teach
us to understand, control and constantly refine the
game.
Kraków, April 29, 2006
Prof. Dr. Józef LipiecThe Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland
COMPETITION OF RESEARCH PAPERS
onPHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING
for Prof. Bogdan Czabański’s Award
Submission requirements:
• Only papers published in the year prior to the date of competition may be submitted
• Papers (offprints) must be sent before the end of March of each year to the Organizers’ address:
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
Katedra Dydaktyki Wychowania Fizycznego
ul. Witelona 25, 51-617 Wrocław, Poland
tel. 0 (prefix) 71 347-31-69, fax 348-25-27
www.awf.wroc.pl/czabanski
e-mail: [email protected]
• Independent academics must not partake in the competition
• Former award winners must not partake in the com-petition
• A research paper can be a team work effort, but the team of authors must not include an independent academic
Evaluation criteria:
• Submitted papers must be research papers • All papers must be on the subject of physical educa-
tion teaching
Jury:
Three independent academics, Professors of the Univer-sity School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Poland:
• Prorector for Research• Head of Chair of Physical Education Didactics • Head of Chair of Swimming
The jury convenes annually on April 24. The jury’s final decision will be made available to all participants. Only one paper is awarded with the prize (diploma of merit and 1.000 PLN). The award is presented each year during the inaugura-tion ceremony of the academic year at the University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Poland.
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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RESOLUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE “AGING AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: APPLICATION TO FITNESS, SPORT AND HEALTH”, RYDZYNA, POLAND, September 15–17, 2006
The participants of the International Scientific Con-
ference organized under the auspices of the Internatio-
nal Association of Sport Kinetics and with the support
of the Committee of Rehabilitation, Physical Culture
and Social Integration of the Polish Academy of Scien-
ces adopt this resolution with a deep conviction about
the growing medical, economic, and social challenges
associated with the aging of the population in Poland
and throughout the world.
It is estimated that until 2025, the total number of
people over 60 years of age will reach 1.2 billion, whe-
reas in 2000 it equalled 605 million. Today, in many
developed and developing countries, there are more pe-
ople aged 60-years and older than children below 15
years of age. The Polish society is also growing older
rapidly. According to the forecasts of demographers, by
the year 2020 there will be approximately 2 million ad-
ditional retired persons (women over 60 years, men over
65 years of age). By 2030, every fourth Polish citizen
will be a pensioner.
An increasing number of older people will almost
inevitably lead to a rise in expenses associated with
social security and health care. Many countries through-
out Western Europe are already experiencing the
economic and social challenges of the aging popula-
tion. It is clear that there is a need to focus our attention
on the preservation of health and independence in old
age. The promotion of regular physical activity will
play an important role in the development of a healthy
aging strategy.
People want not only to live longer, but also to main-
tain independence and high quality of life as long as
possible. Many scientific studies have demonstrated the
influence that physical activity exerts upon the preven-
tion of chronic diseases and preservation of functional
independence. There is now strong evidence that regu-
lar physical activity can help to increase life expectancy.
Physical activity has been shown to be associated with a
reduction in the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases,
obesity, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, depres-
sion, falls and various injuries. Physical activity also
improves muscular strength and endurance, which is
especially important for older persons, who face limita-
tions in their ability to perform the activities of daily li-
ving due to declines in fitness. In addition, physical ac-
tivity has an impact on a number of variables related to
the overall quality of life, including cognitive and emo-
tional function, life satisfaction and feelings of well-being,
sexual function, social function, recreation and econo-
mic status. Promoting physical activity among seniors
may also help to give more meaning to life in old age.
It is estimated that if our society were physically ac-
tive at or above the recommended level (30 minutes of
moderate activity on most days of the week), the num-
ber of premature deaths could be lowered by at least
25%. Sedentary living among older adults is thought to
be as dangerous as hypertension, smoking, obesity or
elevated cholesterol concentration. Importantly, rese-
arch suggests that physical activity is also cost-effec-
tive, with savings in health and social care considerably
exceeding the expenses incurred providing activity pro-
grammes.
Increasing the physical activity of older persons is
likely to bring significant societal benefits. Older people
have much to contribute to the society. Physically active
lifestyles help them to maintain their independence and
to optimise the degree of their capability to participate
in work and social events. Promoting healthy and active
lifestyles will enable the society to benefit more from
the wealth of experience and wisdom possessed by the
seniors.
Conclusions and recommendations
1. The aging of the society mandates a continuing
commitment to scientific research related to aging and
older people. There is a particular need for increased
research on topics regarding the role of physical activity
in promoting health and well-being in old age.
CONFERENCES
2006, vol. 7 (2), 182–183
AWF_7_2_12Resolution_03_2k_DRUK.indd 182 12/15/2006, 11:46:41 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
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International Scientific Conference: Resolution
2. There is a need for more research referring to the
specific type, intensity and volume of physical activity
necessary to ensure health, functional independence,
and quality of life in old age.
3. Government officials and local authorities should
be educated about the key role that physical activity
plays in maintaining health and independence of older
adults.
4. Local communities have a responsibility to assist ol-
der people to be physically active. In addition to providing
access to physical activity programmes, it is also impor-
tant to ensure that older people have many opportunities
to build physical activity into their everyday lives.
5. Universities and colleges should put a greater em-
phasis on educating students about the significance of
physical activity in older people’s lives. Particular atten-
tion should be paid to preparing future generations of
researchers and health professionals to help meet the
needs of older persons.
6. Physical educators, health professionals, and other
specialists with expertise in healthy aging will need to
cooperate to develop a cohesive national strategy of ac-
tive aging promotion.
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
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Redakcja półrocznika Human Movement przyjmuje do
publikacji oryginalne prace empiryczne oraz przeglądowe
dotyczące ruchu człowieka z różnych dziedzin nauki (m.in.
medycyny sportu, fizjologii wysiłku fizycznego, biome-
chaniki, antropomotoryki, socjologii, psychologii, pedago-
giki) w zakresie wychowania fizycznego, zdrowotnego, re-
kreacji i turystyki, rehabilitacji, fizjoterapii. Przyjmowane
są również listy do Redakcji, sprawozdania z konferencji
naukowych i recenzje książek. Prace mogą być napisane
w języku polskim lub angielskim. Teksty polskie po uzy-
skaniu pozytywnej recenzji są tłumaczone na język angiel-
ski przez Redakcję. Autorzy nie otrzymują honorarium.
Warunkiem rozpoczęcia prac redakcyjnych nad artyku-
łem jest dostarczenie do Redakcji trzech kopii maszynopisu
(wydruku komputerowego) przygotowanego zgodnie z ni-
niejszym regulaminem oraz dyskietki (3 1/2” w formacie
IBM) lub dysku CD-ROM zawierających komplet materia-
łów. Na etykiecie dyskietki (CD-ROM-u) należy podać ty-
tuł pracy oraz numery wersji użytych edytorów i progra-
mów graficznych. Praca może być wysłana pocztą elektro-
niczną (por. Poczta elektroniczna).
List przewodni i oświadczenie
Do maszynopisu (wydruku komputerowego) autor po-
winien dołączyć list przewodni oraz oświadczenie, że treść
artykułu nie była i nie będzie publikowana w tej formie
w innych wydawnictwach bez zgody Redakcji czasopisma
Human Movement oraz że zgadza się na ogłoszenie jej
w tym półroczniku. W przypadku prac zespołowych
oświadczenie może złożyć w imieniu wszystkich współau-
torów autor główny.
Ocena pracy (recenzja)
Praca jest recenzowana przez dwie osoby. Autor może
podać nazwiska potencjalnych recenzentów, lecz Redakcja
zastrzega sobie prawo decyzji o ich doborze. Recenzenci
nie znają nazwiska autora ani autor nie zna nazwisk recen-
zentów, dlatego do artykułu należy dołączyć tzw. ślepą
stronę, tzn. tylko z tytułem pracy. W zależności od sugestii
osób oceniających Redakcja podejmuje decyzję o dalszym
losie pracy. Decyzja Redakcji jest ostateczna.
Maszynopis (wydruk komputerowy)
Tekst prac empirycznych wraz ze streszczeniem, rycina-
mi i tabelami nie powinien przekraczać 20 stron, a prac prze-
glądowych – 30 stron znormalizowanych formatu A4 (ok.
1800 znaków na stronie, złożonych 12-punktowym pismem
Times New Roman z zachowaniem 1,5 interlinii). Redakcja
przyjmuje teksty przygotowane wyłącznie w edytorze tekstu
Microsoft Word. Strony powinny być ponumerowane.
The Human Movement journal, issued semi-annually,
accepts for publication original papers and review papers in
various aspects of human movement (e.g., sociology, psycho-
logy, pedagogy, exercise physiology, biomechanics, motor
control, sport medicine) in a broad sense of the term: physi-
cal education, recreation, physiotherapy, health and fitness,
and sport science. Authors are not paid for their articles.
Letters to the Editor, reports from scientific meetings and
book reviews are also welcome. Articles written in Polish
and English will be accepted. After acceptance, articles in
Polish will be translated into English by the Editorial Office.
Three copies of the manuscript and figures should be
sent to the Editorial Office. If you send the printed version
by e-mail, a floppy disk should be submitted containing the
whole text of the paper. The label of the disk should include
the name of the first author, paper title, as well as the ver-
sion numbers of the word processor and graphics programs
used. IBM 3 1/2’’ disks and CD-ROMs are acceptable. It is
advisable to use Microsoft Word. Electronic manuscripts
are preferred.
Cover letter
Authors must submit a cover letter with the manuscript.
Each submission packet should include a statement signed
by the first author that the work has not been published pre-
viously or submitted elsewhere for review. It should also
contain Author’s acceptance of Publisher’s terms. The pa-
per should be accompanied with the correspondence ad-
dress of the Author, the telephone number, fax number and
e-mail address.
Review process
Received manuscripts are first examined by the editors
of Human Movement. Incomplete packages or manuscripts
not prepared in the required style will be sent back to au-
thors without scientific review. Authors are encouraged to
suggest the names of possible reviewers, but Human Move-
ment reserves the right of final selection. Manuscripts will
be sent anonymously to two reviewers. As soon as possible
after the review process is concluded, you will be notified
by e-mail of the acceptance or rejection of your contribu-
tion for publication, our decision is ultimate.
Preparation of the manuscript
Experimental papers should be divided into the follo-
wing parts: title page, blind title page, abstract with key
words, introduction, materials and methods, results, discus-
sion, conclusions, acknowledgements, references. In papers
of a different type, sections and their titles should refer to
the described issues.
REGULAMIN PUBLIKOWANIA PRAC
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS
2006, vol. 7 (2)
AWF_7_2_13_regulamin_03_DRUK.indd 184 12/15/2006, 11:51:36 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
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Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors
STRONA TYTUŁOWA
Na stronie tytułowej należy podać:
1. Tytuł pracy w języku polskim i angielskim. 2. Skró-
cony tytuł artykułu w języku angielskim (nie dłuższy niż
40 znaków), który będzie umieszczony w żywej paginie. 3.
Nazwiska autorów z afiliacją. 4. Imię i nazwisko autora
(autorów) wraz z adresem do korespondencji, numerem te-
lefonu, faksu i koniecznie e-mailem.
Kontakt z autorem będzie utrzymywany wyłącznie za
pomocą poczty elektronicznej.
STRESZCZENIE
Przed tekstem głównym należy umieścić streszczenie
w języku angielskim, zawierające około 250 wyrazów i 3–6
słów kluczowych (ze słownika i w stylu MeSH). Powinno
się ono składać z następujących części: Purpose, Basic pro-
cedures, Main findings, Conclusions.
TEKST GŁÓWNY
Tekst główny pracy empirycznej powinien zawierać
następujące części: wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki, dys-
kusja (omówienie wyników), wnioski, podziękowania (je-
żeli potrzebne), przypisy (jeżeli występują), piśmiennictwo
(zawarte tylko w bazach danych, np. SPORTDiscus, Med-
line). W pracach innego typu należy zachować logiczną
ciągłość tekstu, a tytuły poszczególnych jego części po-
winny odzwierciedlać omawiane w nich zagadnienia.
Wstęp. Należy wprowadzić czytelnika w tematykę arty-
kułu, opisać cel pracy oraz podać hipotezy oparte na prze-
glądzie literatury.
Materiał i metody. Należy dokładnie przedstawić mate-
riał badawczy (w przypadku osób biorących udział w eks-
perymencie podać ich liczebność, wiek, płeć oraz inne cha-
rakterystyczne cechy), omówić warunki, czas i metody
prowadzenia badań oraz opisać wykorzystaną do nich apa-
raturę (z podaniem nazwy wytwórni i jej adresu). Sposób
wykonywania pomiarów musi być przedstawiony na tyle
dokładnie, aby inne osoby mogły je powtórzyć. Jeżeli me-
toda jest zastosowana pierwszy raz, należy ją opisać szcze-
gólnie precyzyjnie, potwierdzając jej trafność i rzetelność
(powtarzalność). Modyfikując uznane już metody, trzeba
omówić, na czym polegają zmiany oraz uzasadnić koniecz-
ność ich wprowadzenia. Gdy w eksperymencie biorą udział
ludzie, konieczne jest uzyskanie zgody komisji etycznej na
wykorzystanie w nim zaproponowanych przez autora me-
tod (do maszynopisu należy dołączyć kopię odpowiedniego
dokumentu). Metody statystyczne powinny być tak opisa-
ne, aby można było bez problemu stwierdzić, czy są one
poprawne. Autor pracy przeglądowej powinien również po-
dać metody poszukiwania materiałów, metody selekcji itp.
Wyniki. Przedstawienie wyników powinno być logiczne
i spójne oraz powiązane z danymi zamieszczonymi w tabe-
lach i na rycinach.
Dyskusja (omówienie wyników). Autor powinien od-
nieść uzyskane wyniki do danych z literatury (innych niż
omówione we wstępie), podkreślając nowe i znaczące
aspekty swojej pracy.
Papers should be submitted in three printed copies or
sent via e-mail. An experimental paper, together with the
figures, tables and abstract, should not exceed 20 pages (30
pages for a review paper). A normal page is considered to
be an A4 sheet, of 30 lines and 60 characters per line, with
12-point Times New Roman font, one and half-spaced text,
with margins of 25 mm at the sides and at the top and bot-
tom. Type or print on only one side of the paper. Use one
and half spacing throughout, including the title page, abs-
tract, text, acknowledgments, references, tables, and le-
gends. Number pages consecutively, beginning with the ti-
tle page. Put the page number in the upper-right corner of
each page.
TITLE PAGE
The title page should contain: title of the article, name
and surnames of author(s) and their affiliations, name and
address of the author responsible for correspondence about
the manuscript with fax, phone, and e-mail address; and
a short running head of no more than 40 characters (count
letters and spaces).
BLIND TITLE PAGE. Because reviews are blind, include
a blind title page with only the title.
ABSTRACT
The second page should contain the abstract (ca. 250
words). The abstract should be divided into: Purpose, Basic
procedures, Main findings and Conclusions. It should em-
phasize any new and important aspects of the study.
Below the abstract, authors should provide (and identify
as such) 3 to 6 key words that will assist indexers to cross-
index the article. If suitable MeSH terms are not yet availa-
ble for recently introduced terms, present terms may be
used.
TEXT should contain the following sections: Introduc-
tion, Material and methods, Results, Discussion, Conclu-
sions, Acknowledgements (if necessary), References.
Introduction. State the purpose of the article and sum-
marize the rationale for the study. Give only strictly perti-
nent references and do not include data or conclusions from
the work being reported.
Material and methods. Clearly describe selection of the
experimental subjects. Identify their age, sex, and other
important characteristics. Identify the methods, apparatus
(give the manufacturer’s name and address in parentheses),
and procedures in sufficient detail to allow other workers to
reproduce the results. Give references to established me-
thods, including statistical methods (see below); provide
references and brief descriptions for methods that have
been published but are not well known; describe new or
substantially modified methods, give reasons for using
them, and evaluate their limitations. When reporting expe-
riments on human subjects, indicate whether the procedu-
res followed were in accordance with the ethical standards
of the responsible committee on human experimentation
(institutional or regional). The Editors reserve the right to
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
186
Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors
Wnioski. Przedstawiając wnioski, należy pamiętać
o celu pracy oraz postawionych hipotezach, a także unikać
stwierdzeń ogólnikowych i niepopartych wynikami wła-
snych badań. Stawiając nowe hipotezy, trzeba to wyraźnie
zaznaczyć.
Podziękowania. Można wymienić osoby lub instytucje,
które pomogły autorowi w przygotowaniu pracy bądź
wsparły go finansowo lub technicznie.
Piśmiennictwo. Piśmiennictwo należy uporządkować
według kolejności cytowania w tekście, w którym dla
oznaczenia odwołania do piśmiennictwa należy posługi-
wać się numerami ujętymi w nawiasy kwadratowe, np.
Bouchard et al. [23]. Piśmiennictwo (zawarte tylko w ba-
zach danych, np. SPORTDiscus, Medline) powinno się
składać z nie więcej niż 30 pozycji, z wyjątkiem prac prze-
glądowych. Niewskazane jest cytowanie prac nieopubliko-
wanych.
Przykłady zapisu piśmiennictwa
Powołanie na artykuł z czasopisma [nazwisko autora
(autorów), inicjał imienia, tytuł artykułu, tytuł czasopisma
w przyjętym skrócie, rok wydania, tom lub numer, strony]:
Shinohara M., Li S., Kang N., Zatsiorsky V.M., Latash
M.L., Effects of age and gender on finger coordination in
MVC and submaximal force-matching tasks. J Appl Phy-
siol, 2003, 94, 259–270.
Gdy autorami artykułu jest sześć lub mniej osób, należy
wymienić wszystkie nazwiska, jeżeli jest ich siedem i wię-
cej, należy podać sześć pierwszych, a następnie zastosować
skrót „et al.”
Tytuł artykułu w języku innym niż angielski autor po-
winien przetłumaczyć na język angielski, a w nawiasie
kwadratowym podać język oryginału. Tytuł czasopisma
należy zostawić w oryginale. W pracy powinny być
uwzględnianie tylko artykuły publikowane ze streszcze-
niem angielskim: Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R.,
Jaskólski A., Mechanisms, symptoms and after-effects of
delayed muscle soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sporti-
va, 2002, 4, 189–201.
Powołanie na książkę [nazwisko autora(ów) lub redak-
tora(ów), inicjał imienia, tytuł pracy przetłumaczony na
język angielski, wydawca, miejsce i rok wydania]: Osiń-
ski W., Anthropomotoric [in Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001.
Powołanie na rozdział w książce [nazwisko autora(ów),
inicjał imienia, tytuł rozdziału, nazwisko autora(ów) lub
redaktora(ów), tytuł pracy, wydawca, miejsce i rok wyda-
nia, strony]: McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F., General prin-
ciples of exercise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.), Exercise te-
sting and exercise prescription for special cases. 2nd Ed.
Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1993, 3–28.
Powołanie na materiały zjazdowe tylko umieszczane
w międzynarodowych bazach danych, np. SPORTDiscus:
Racz L., Tihanyi J., Hortobagyi T., Muscle fatigue during
concentric and eccentric contraction. In: Avela J., Komi
P.V., Komulainen J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Annual
reject papers if there is doubt whether suitable procedures
were used. Describe statistical methods with enough detail
to enable a knowledgeable reader with access to the origi-
nal data to verify the reported results. When possible,
quantify findings and present them with appropriate indi-
cators of measurement error or uncertainty (such as confi-
dence intervals). Authors submitting a review manuscript
should include a section describing the methods used for
locating, selecting, extracting, and synthesizing data. These
methods should also be summarized in the abstract.
Results. Present results in a logical sequence in the text,
tables, and figures. Do not repeat in the text all the data
presented in the tables or illustrations; emphasize or sum-
marize only important observations.
Discussion. Emphasize the new and important aspects of
the study and the conclusions that follow from them. Do not
repeat in detail data or other material given in the Introduc-
tion or the Results section. Include implications of the fin-
dings and their limitations, including implications for future
research. Relate observations to other relevant studies.
Conclusions. Link the conclusions with the goals of the
study but avoid unqualified statements and conclusions not
completely supported by the data. Avoid claiming priority
and alluding to work that has not been completed. State
new hypotheses when warranted, but clearly label them as
such.
Acknowledgments. List all contributors who do not
meet the criteria for authorship (e.g., a person who provided
purely technical help or writing assistance). Financial and
material support should also be acknowledged.
References. References (only the ones included in inter-
national data bases, e.g. SPORTDiscus, Medline etc.) sho-
uld be submitted on a separate sheet of paper and in the or-
der of appearance in the text. References should be numbe-
red consecutively in the order in which they are first
mentioned in the text. Identify references in text, tables,
and legends by Arabic numerals in parentheses, e.g. Bo-
uchard et al. [23]. Except in the case of review articles, the
total number of references should not exceed 30.
A journal article should include: surname of the au-
thor(s); first name (only initials); title of the paper; title of
the journal in the accepted abbreviation; year, volume (num-
ber), and pages. List all authors when six or less; when seven
or more, list first six and add et al. Example: Shinohara M.,
Li S., Kang N., Zatsiorsky V.M., Latash M.L., Effects of age
and gender on finger coordination in MVC and submaximal
force-matching tasks. J Appl Physiol, 2003, 94, 259–270.
Articles not in English: Authors should translate the ti-
tle into English and enclose the language of translation in
square brackets. Do not translate the title of the journal.
Only papers with English abstracts should be cited. Exam-
ple: Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R., Jaskólski A.,
Mechanisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed musc-
le soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sportiva, 2002, 4,
189–201.
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HUMAN MOVEMENT
187
Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors
Congress of the European College of Sport Science. July
19–23, 2000, Jyvaskyla Finland, 600.
Powołanie na artykuły w formie elektronicznej:
Donsmark M., Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevold-
sen L.H., Stallknech B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase
(HSL) expression and regulation by epinephrine and
exercise in skeletal muscle. Eur J Sport Sci, Volume 2,
Issue 6 (December 2002). Available from: URL: http://
www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues.cfm/
Przypisy. Przypisy, objaśniające lub uzupełniające
tekst, powinny być numerowane z zachowaniem ciągłości
w całej pracy i umieszczone na końcu tekstu głównego.
Tabele i ryciny. Tabele i ryciny wraz z numeracją, pod-
pisami oraz opisami należy umieścić na osobnych stronach,
na których odwrocie trzeba podać tylko tytuł pracy, bez
nazwiska autora. Jeżeli w tekście nie ma powołania na ta-
belę lub rycinę, należy zaznaczyć miejsce jej umieszczenia.
Ryciny muszą być czarno-białe lub w odcieniach szarości.
Symbole, np. strzałki, gwiazdki, lub skróty należy dokład-
nie objaśnić w legendzie. Wykresy powinny być wykonane
w programach Excel lub Statistica 5.0 i dołączone jako
osobne pliki w formacie *.xls lub *.stg. Pozostałe ryciny
(np. schematy) należy przygotować w programie Corel
Draw (wersja 8 lub niższa) i dołączyć jako osobne pliki
w formacie *.cdr. Fotografie lub inne materiały ilustracyjne
można dostarczyć w formie elektronicznej (*.tif, *.jpg – gę-
stość punktów obrazu 300 lub 600 dpi) bądź w postaci na-
dającej się do ostatecznego opracowania przez Redakcję.
Nie można powtarzać tych samych wyników w tabe-
lach i na rycinach.
Praca, w której tabele i ryciny będą przygotowane nie-
zgodnie z podanymi wymogami, zostanie odesłana do au-
tora.
Korekta autorska
Artykuł po opracowaniu redakcyjnym zostanie przeka-
zany do autora w celu naniesienia przez niego korekty au-
torskiej. Obowiązkiem autora jest odesłanie korekty w cią-
gu jednego tygodnia. Kosztami poprawek innych niż dru-
karskie będzie obciążony autor.
Poczta elektroniczna
Zachęcamy autorów do przesyłania prac w postaci elek-
tronicznej (jako załączniki). Każda część pracy powinna
być przesłana jako oddzielny załącznik: plik tekstowy, plik
z rycinami, plik z tabelami, plik fotograficzny itd. Aby
przyspieszyć przesyłkę, pliki należy skompresować w po-
staci *.arj lub *.zip. Komplet plików powinien być przesła-
ny na adres [email protected]
Prawa Redakcji
Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo poprawiania usterek
stylistycznych oraz dokonywania skrótów. Prace przygoto-
wane niezgodnie z regulaminem będą odsyłane autorom do
poprawy.
A book should include: the author’s or editor’s surname
(authors’ or editors’ surnames), first name initials, the title
of the book in English, publisher’s name, place and year of
publication. Example: Osiński W., Anthropomotoric [in
Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001.
Chapter in a book: McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F.,
General principles of exercise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.),
Exercise testing and exercise prescription for special cases,
2nd Ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1993, 3–28.
Conference proceedings and papers can only be refer-
red to in the text if they are included in international data
bases, e.g. SPORTDiscus. Example: Racz L., Tihanyi J.,
Hortobagyi T., Muscle fatigue during concentric and ec-
centric contraction. In: Avela J., Komi P.V., Komulainen J.
(eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Annual Congress of the Euro-
pean College of Sport Science. July 19–23 2000, Jyvaskyla
Finland, 600.
Article in electronic form. Example: Donsmark M.,
Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevoldsen L.H., Stallknech
B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) expression and
regulation by epinephrine and exercise in skeletal muscle.
Eur J Sport Sci, Volume 2, Issue 6 (December 2002). Ava-
ilable from: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/
bissues.cfm/
Tables and figures. Each table together with its number,
title, and annotations, should be submitted on a separate
sheet of paper. Authors should identify the places where ta-
bles and figures are to be included within the text. Figures
should be prepared in black and white and marked on the
back with the title of paper only (do not include the name of
the author). Legends for the figures should be submitted on
a separate sheet of paper and should be self-explanatory.
When symbols, arrows, numbers, or letters are used to
identify parts of the illustrations, identify and explain each
one clearly in the legend. Only Figures prepared in Excel,
Statistica 5.0 or Corel Chart (version 8 or lower) will be ac-
cepted. The recommended file formats for figures are:
*.jpg, *.tif, with an image resolution of 300 or 600 dpi.
Figures and tables should be numbered consecutively ac-
cording to the order in which they have been first cited in the
text. Data should not be repeated in tables and figures.
Photographs must be black and white glossy prints.
Proofs
The corresponding author will receive one proof. Only
minor corrections can be made at this time. Corrections
other than printing errors may be charged to the author. It is
the author’s responsibility to return the corrected proofs
within 1 week.
Sending via e-mail
Authors who have an access to Internet are encouraged
to send their work-files electronically using standard
e-mail software. The e-mail software must have an option
to send data files attached to the e-mail message. In such
AWF_7_2_13_regulamin_03_DRUK.indd 187 12/15/2006, 11:51:49 AM
HUMAN MOVEMENT
188
Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors
Prawa autorskie
Publikacje podlegają prawu autorskiemu wynikającemu
z Konwencji Berneńskiej i z Międzynarodowej Konwencji
Praw Autorskich, poza wyjątkami dopuszczanymi przez
prawo krajowe. Żadna część publikacji nie może być repro-
dukowana, archiwizowana ani przekazywana w jakiejkol-
wiek formie ani żadnymi środkami bez pozwolenia właści-
ciela praw autorskich.
Płatna reklama
Redakcja przyjmuje zamówienia na reklamy, które
mogą być umieszczane na 2. i 3. stronie okładki lub na do-
datkowych kartach sąsiadujących z okładką. Ceny reklam
będą negocjowane indywidualnie.
cases, all parts of the work should be sent as a separate
files: text file, picture file(s), table file(s), photo
file(s). To speed up the data transfer, files should be com-
pressed (if possible) using *.arj or *.zip formats before
transmission. Complete packages of manuscripts are to be
sent to the following address: [email protected]
Reprints
Each Author will receive 1 copy of the issue in which
his/her work appears.
Advertising
The Editorial Board accepts advertising orders. Adver-
tisements can be published on the second and third page of
the cover or on the pages next to the cover. Advertisement
prices will be negotiated individually.
ZASADY PRENUMERATY CZASOPISMA HUMAN MOVEMENTTHE RULES OF SUBSCRIBING THE HUMAN MOVEMENT JOURNAL
Cena rocznej prenumeraty (dwa numery) dla odbiorców indy-
widualnych w kraju wynosi 27 zł, dla instytucji 55 zł. Dla od-
biorców indywidualnych za granicą wynosi 27 eu, dla instytucji
55 eu.
Numery czasopisma wysyłamy pocztą po otrzymaniu odpo-
wiedniej wpłaty na konto:
BPH PBK S.A. O/Wrocław
18 1060 0076 0000 3200 0040 0409
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
al. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław,
z dopiskiem: Prenumerata Human Movement.
Prosimy zamawiających o bardzo wyraźne podawanie adresów,
pod które należy wysyłać zamawiane egzemplarze czasopisma.
Pojedyncze egzemplarze można zamówić, wpłacając 16 zł (od-
biorca indywidualny) i 30 zł (instytucja) na podane konto i wpi-
sując numer oraz liczbę zamawianych egzemplarzy na odwrocie
blankietu wpłaty (odcinek dla posiadacza rachunku).
Pojedyncze numery można zakupić w cenie 16 zł w punktach
sprzedaży książek w AWF we Wrocławiu oraz AWF w Warsza-
wie.
Dla odbiorców z Europy Wschodniej zachowujemy taką samą
cenę jak dla odbiorców w Polsce, przeliczając złote na walutę
kraju docelowego po kursie w dniu zamawiania.
The price of annual subscription (two issues) for individual fo-
reign subscribers is Euro 27 and Euro 55 for foreign institu-
tions.
The issues of the journal are sent by post after receiving the ap-
propriate transfer to the account:
BPH PBK S.A. O/Wrocław
18 1060 0076 0000 3200 0040 0409
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
al. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland,
with the note: Human Movement subscription.
We ask the subscribers to give correct and clearly written ad-
dresses to which the journal is to be sent.
Single copies can be ordered by transferring Euro 16 (individual
foreign subscribers) and Euro 30 (foreign institutions) to the
above mentioned account and writing in the number and the
amount of issues ordered at the back side of the form.
Single copies of the journal outlets are available at the Universi-
ty School of Physical Education in Wrocław and Warszaw.
For the recipients from Eastern Europe the price is the same as
for Poland, and the price is converted to the currency of a given
country on the day of ordering.
AWF_7_2_13_regulamin_03_DRUK.indd 188 12/15/2006, 11:51:50 AM