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89

HUMAN MOVEMENT

vol. 7, number 2, 2006

MOVEMENT

HUMAN

former ly

Czlowiek i Ruch (Human Movement)l

University School of Physical Edu ca tion in Wroclaw

University School of Physical Edu ca tion in Poznan

l

’

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Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu (University School of Physical Education in Wrocław)

Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Eugeniusza Piaseckiego w Poznaniu (University School of Physical Education in Poznań)

HUMAN MOVEMENT

formerly Człowiek i Ruch (Human Movement)vol. 7, number 2, 2006, pp. 89–188

Editor-in-Chief Ryszard Panfi l

University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

Associate Editor Wiesław Osiński

University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland

Editorial Board

Tadeusz Bober University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandJan Celichowski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandTadeusz Koszczyc University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandStanisław Kowalik University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandŁucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandMarek Zatoń University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

Advisory Board

Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USACharles Corbin Arizona State University, East Mesa, Arizona, USAGudrun Doll-Tepper Free University, Berlin, GermanyJózef Drabik University School of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, PolandKenneth Hardman Manchester University, Manchester, United KingdomAndrew Hills Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, AustraliaZofi a Ignasiak University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandSlobodan Jaric University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAAnna Jaskólska University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Toivo Jurimae University of Tartu, Tartu, EstoniaHan Kemper Vrije University, Amsterdam, The NetherlandsWojciech Lipoński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandGabriel Łasiński University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandRobert Malina Tarleton State University, Stephenville, Texas, USAMelinda Manore Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USAPhilip E. Martin Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USAJoachim Mester German Sport University, Cologne, GermanyToshio Moritani Kyoto University, Kyoto, JapanJohn S. Raglin Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USARoland Renson Catholic University, Leuven, BelgiumTadeusz Rychlewski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, PolandJames F. Sallis San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USAJames S. Skinner Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USAJerry Thomas Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USAKarl Weber German Sport University, Cologne, GermanyPeter Weinberg Hamburg University, Hamburg, GermanyMarek Woźniewski University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, PolandGuang Yue Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USAWladimir M. Zatsiorsky Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USAJerzy Żołądź University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland

Translation: Tomasz SkireckiDesign: Agnieszka Nyklasz

Copy editor: Typoscript: Anna Noga, Barbara BrzezickaProofreading: Iwona Kresak, Halina Marciniak

Indexed in: SPORTDiscus, Index Copernicus, Altis, Sponet

© Copyright 2006 by Wydawnictwo AWF we Wrocławiu

ISSN 1732-3991

http://www.awf.wroc.pl/hum_mov

Editorial Offi ceSecretary: Dominika Niedźwiedź

51-617 Wrocław, ul. Banacha 11, Poland, tel. 071 347 31 [email protected]

Print: Agencja Reklamowa i Drukarnia KONTRACirculation: 300

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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2006, vol. 7 (2)

Editorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Ingrid Bakker, André G. Uitterlinden, Jos W.R. Twisk, Willem van Mechelen, Huibert A.P. Pols, Han C.G. Kemper

Genetic determinants and gene–environment interactions in relation to the 10-year longitudinal

development of lumbar bone mineral density in (young) adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Krzysztof Sas-Nowosielski

Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity of Polish adolescents . . . . 105

Agata Konarska, Joanna Karolkiewicz, Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak

Melatonin and other parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players during an annual training cycle . . . 111

Edward Superlak

The structure of volleyball playing dispositions in players aged 14–15, candidates for the Polish national team . . . . . . . 118

Krzysztof Karpowicz

Interrelation of selected factors determining the effectiveness of training in young basketball players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak, Grażyna Lutosławska, Andrzej Kosmol, Szymon Zuziak

The effect of training experience on arm muscle anaerobic performance in wrestlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Elżbieta Kaluga, Elżbieta Rostkowska

A comparative analysis of changes in tactile sensitivity in men and women practicing selected sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Marek Bolanowski, Wojciech Pluskiewicz, Anna Skrzek, Piotr Adamczyk, Janusz Bolanowski

Bone properties assessed by quantitative ultrasound at the hand phalanges in women exercising Tai Chi . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Krzysztof Buśko, Radosław Rychlik

Changes of the maximal muscle torque in women training Power Yoga (Astanga Vinyasa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Józef Lipiec

Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Competition of research papers on Physical Education Teaching for Prof. Bogdan Czabański’s Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Resolution of the International Scientific Conference “Aging and Physical Activity: Application to Fitness,

Sport and Health”, Rydzyna, Poland, September 15–17, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

CONTENTS

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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The contents of the articles in the present issue of Human

Movement confirm the constantly increasing quality of our

journal. The range of research areas in various aspects of hu-

man motor activity covered by Human Movement has again

been broadened.

The introductory article in the volume is concerned with

the genetic and environmental conditions of skeletal develop-

ment. It is an excellent example of the systemic approach to

research on factors conditioning human development in ge-

neral. The next article discusses psychological and social

aspects of motor activity in the life of young people.

The present volume also includes studies on the relation-

ships between motor activities of different intensity and range,

professional or recreational, and structural and functional

ontogenetic features.

Two other papers are successful attempts to show the sys-

temic conditioning of training effectiveness in different

sports. The volume also includes a review of a monograph

presenting team games as an important area of human activity

and as an interesting and original field of research.

We are also proud to inform you that Professor Karl Weber

of the German Sports University in Cologne has joined the

Human Movement Advisory Board. His significant position

in the academic community of the sports and exercise scien-

ces, as well as the outstanding scholarly competence and

experience, will undoubtedly contribute to the good reputa-

tion of our journal.

Our cooperation with the Associate Editor, Consultant

Editor and Advisory Board has been crucial in accomplish-

ment of our mission. We should be especially grateful to the

reviewers for their critical evaluation, as thanks to them our

journal remains at a high scientific level. My special thanks

go to reviewers of both 2006 volumes:

Zdzisław Adach, Gorzów Wielkopolski (Poland)

Bożena Biniakiewicz, Poznań (Poland)

Tadeusz Bober, Wrocław (Poland)

Eugeniusz Bolach, Wrocław (Poland)

Jan Celichowski, Poznań (Poland)

Stanisław Chełpa, Wrocław (Poland)

Ewa Demczuk-Włodarczyk, Wrocław (Poland)

Wiesława Dłużewska-Martyniec, Poznań (Poland)

Gudrun Doll-Tepper, Berlin (Germany)

Józef Drabik, Gdańsk (Poland)

Lechosław Dworak, Poznań (Poland)

Piotr E. Dylewicz, Poznań (Poland)

Anatol G. Feldman, Montreal (Canada)

Stanisław Gołąb, Kraków (Poland)

Henryk Grabowski, Kraków (Poland)

Jacek Gracz, Poznań (Poland)

Piotr Gronek, Poznań (Poland)

Kenneth Hardman, Manchester (United Kingdom)

Andrew Hills, Queensland (Australia)

Zofia Ignasiak, Wrocław (Poland)

Lidia Ilnicka, Warszawa (Poland)

Slobodan Jaric, Newark (USA)

Zbigniew Jethon, Wrocław (Poland)

Grzegorz Juras, Katowice (Poland)

Toivo Jurimae, Tartu (Estonia)

Maria Kaczmarek, Poznań (Poland)

Roman M. Kalina, Rzeszów (Poland)

Tadeusz Kasperczyk, Kraków (Poland)

Han C.G. Kemper, Amsterdam (The Netherlands)

Barbara Kłapcińska, Katowice (Poland)

Tadeusz Koszczyc, Wrocław (Poland)

Stanisław Kowalik, Poznań (Poland)

Andrzej Krawański, Poznań (Poland)

Marcin Krawczyński, Gdańsk (Poland)

Mark Latash, Penn State (USA)

Józef Lipiec, Kraków (Poland)

Wojciech Lipoński, Poznań (Poland)

Gabriel Łasiński, Wrocław (Poland)

Krzysztof Łastowski, Poznań (Poland)

Tadeusz Maszczak, Warszawa (Poland)

Marek Mędraś, Wrocław (Poland)

Julian Migasiewicz, Wrocław (Poland)

Edward Mleczko, Kraków (Poland)

Władysław Mynarski, Katowice (Poland)

Zbigniew Naglak, Wrocław (Poland)

Wiesław Osiński, Poznań (Poland)

Ryszard Panfil, Wrocław (Poland)

Derek M. Peters, Worcester (United Kingdom)

Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Poznań (Poland)

Joachim Raczek, Katowice (Poland)

Aleksander Ronikier, Warszawa (Poland)

Elżbieta Rostkowska, Poznań (Poland)

Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska, Wrocław (Poland)

Tadeusz Rychlewski, Poznań (Poland)

Antonin Rychtecky, Prague (Czech Republic)

Igor Ryguła, Katowice (Poland)

Tadeusz Rynkiewicz, Gorzów Wielkopolski (Poland)

Tadeusz Sankowski, Poznań (Poland)

Małgorzata Słowińska-Lisowska, Wrocław (Poland)

Henryk Sozański, Warszawa (Poland)

Włodzimierz Z. Starosta, Warszawa (Poland)

Ryszard Strzelczyk, Poznań (Poland)

Tadeusz Trzaska, Poznań (Poland)

Zbigniew Trzaskoma, Warszawa (Poland)

Czesław Urbanik, Warszawa (Poland)

Zbigniew Waśkiewicz, Katowice (Poland)

Peter Weinberg, Hamburg (Germany)

Andrzej Wit, Warszawa (Poland)

Barbara Woynarowska, Warszawa (Poland)

Marek Woźniewski, Wrocław (Poland)

Jerzy Zagórski, Lublin (Poland)

Adam Zając, Katowice (Poland)

Krystyna Zatoń, Wrocław (Poland)

Marek Zatoń, Wrocław (Poland)

Janusz Zdebski, Kraków (Poland)

Stanisław Żak, Kraków (Poland)

Jerzy Żołądź, Kraków (Poland)

EDITORIAL

2006, vol. 7 (2)

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GENETIC DETERMINANTS AND GENE–ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS IN RELATION TO THE 10-YEAR LONGITUDINAL DEVELOPMENT OF LUMBAR BONE MINERAL DENSITY IN (YOUNG) ADULTS

ABSTRACT

Purpose. Genetic factors, as well as environmental factors (e.g. physical activity, nutritional intake, and body composition) are consi-

dered to influence the regulation of (young) adult bone quality. The association between lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD) and

polymorphisms of three genes (i.e. VDR, ER�, COLIA1), as well as gene–environment interactions over a period of 10 years were in-

vestigated in (young) adult men and women. Basic procedures. The study was conducted in participants of the Amsterdam Growth

and Health Longitudinal Study. Longitudinal analyses were performed in Dutch Caucasian males and females, including measure-

ments at their mean ages of 27, 32 and 36 years. LBMD measurements were performed at the L2-L4 region by dual energy X-ray ab-

sorptiometry (DEXA). Polymorphism-containing regions were amplified from genomic DNA with the restriction fragment length po-

lymorphism-polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR). Genotyping was performed for the BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI polymorphisms of the

VDR, for the PvuII and XbaI polymorphisms of the ER�, and for the G-to-T polymorphism in the COLIA1 gene. Main findings. A po-

sitive allele-dose effect of the ER� haplotype PX on the development of (young) adult LBMD was found. Dietary calcium intake mo-

dified the relationship between VDR haplotypes and LBMD, and fat-free mass modified the relationship between COLIA1 polymor-

phisms and LBMD. Conclusions. An allele-dose relationship with LBMD during the third and fourth decades of life was detected for

the PX haplotype allele of the VDR gene. Most Caucasian lumbar bones are likely to benefit from an increased calcium intake, and

all will benefit from an increased fat-free mass.

Key words: polymorphisms, COLIA1, vitamin D receptor, estrogen receptor, lumbar bone mineral density, longitudinal, gene–envi-

ronment interactions, adults

Introduction

Environmental factors, such as physical activity, nu-

tritional intake, the use of oral contraceptives, smoking,

alcohol consumption, and body composition, contribute

to the regulation of bone quality. They are known to in-

fluence the peak bone mass and probably the rate of

change in bone mineral density at adult age [1–3].

On the other hand, from twin and family studies, it

has been shown that genetic factors account for 50–85%

of the variance in bone mineral density, depending on

the site of interest [4]. Of all sites, the lumbar spine bone

mineral density (LBMD) is suggested to have the hi-

ghest heritability [5]. Genetic variation in several genes

is thought to be responsible for this genetic contribution.

The vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene, the estrogen re-

ceptor alpha (ERα) gene, and the collagen type I alpha 1

(COLIA1) gene are potential regulatory and structural

candidate genes in this respect.

Regarding the VDR gene, three common polymor-

phisms, detected as BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI restriction

fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP’s), are investiga-

ted frequently [6, 7]. The biochemical mechanism of the

VDR gene influence on bone density is uncertain, but it

is thought that the VDR mediates vitamin D action by

binding the active metabolite of vitamin D, and subsequ-

ently increasing or decreasing the transcription of target

genes [8]. The active hormonal form of vitamin D is

a central regulator of bone and calcium homeostasis, mo-

dulating intestinal calcium absorption, bone formation,

recruitment and function of osteoclasts, parathyroid hor-

mone production and renal vitamin D activation. The

VDR is therefore a good candidate as a prime regulator

of bone and calcium homeostasis and bone density [9].

Ingrid Bakker1, André G. Uitterlinden2, Jos W.R. Twisk1, 3, Willem van Mechelen1, 4,

Huibert A.P. Pols2, Han C.G. Kemper1*

1 Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine (EMGO), VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands2 Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands3 Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands4 Department of Social Medicine, and “Body@Work”, Research Centre for Physical Activity, Work and Health TNO-VU, VU

University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

*Corresponding author.

2006, vol. 7 (2), 93–104

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I. Bakker et al., Genetic determinants of bone mineral density in adults

The estrogen endocrine system has an important

role in the regulation of BMD and the occurrence of

osteoporosis. Exposure to low estrogen levels, as occur-

ring after menopause in women, is associated with a de-

crease in bone mass and, subsequently, in an increased

risk for osteoporosis. Estrogen exerts its effect primari-

ly via the ERα gene. Several genetic variations in the

ERα gene have been described, including two polymor-

phisms, detected as PvuII and XbaI RFLP’s [10–13].

Type 1 collagen is the major protein component of

the bone matrix. A guanine-to-thymidine (G-to-T) sub-

stitution in the first intron of the COLIA1 gene has been

described [14–16], and from this polymorphism, the

T allele was found to be associated with reduced BMD

[17–18].

Of major interest for developing preventive strate-

gies on osteoporosis are the possible gene–environment

interactions. Knowledge of these interactions would

give health care providers the possibility to adapt pre-

ventive and/or curative strategies against osteoporosis

on the subjects’ genetic predisposition. If, for example,

persons with certain genotypes respond less well to cal-

cium supplementation, such therapies may be of less

benefit to them. Alternatively, in subjects with another

genotype, calcium supplementation may be of greater

importance.

How and how much the genetic polymorphisms

mentioned above influence BMD, and if, the way in

which they interact with environmental factors, remains

poorly understood. Up to date, it has not been thorough-

ly examined what the (combined) influence of the gene-

tics and environmental factors is on bone mineral deve-

lopment during (young) adulthood, that is, during the

third and fourth decades of life.

In this study, we investigated the relative contribu-

tion of the polymorphisms and we searched for possible

gene–environment interactions concerning the 10-year

development of lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD)

in men and women crossing mean ages 27 to 36 years.

We focused on three polymorphisms of the vitamin D

receptor (VDR) gene (i.e. BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI), on the

PvuII and XbaI polymorphisms of the estrogen receptor

alpha (ERα) gene, and on the G-to-T polymorphism in

the collagen type I alpha1 (COLIA1) gene. The environ-

mental effect modifiers analyzed in this study are phy-

sical activity, calcium intake, and fat-free body mass

(FFM).

Material and methods

Design and subjects

The study described in this paper comprises a 10-year

longitudinal analysis in males and females, including

measurements at the mean ages of 27, 32 and 36 years.

The study was conducted in participants of the Amster-

dam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study (AGAHLS)

[19]. The data used for assessing the 10-year longitudi-

nal relationship came from 59 men and 58 women who

were measured once, 106 men and 118 women who

were measured twice, and 60 men and 64 women who

were measured at all the three time points. For each pe-

riod of measurements, all subjects gave their informed

consent. The study was approved by the Medical Ethi-

cal Committee of the VU University Medical Center,

Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Measurements

Lumbar bone mineral density (LBMD)

Bone mineral measurements were performed at the

lumbar spine (L2-L4) by dual energy X-ray absorptio-

metry (DEXA). An estimation of LBMD was made on

each lumbar vertebral body L2-L4, from which the ave-

rage LBMD was obtained. For measurements at the

mean age of 27 years, the Norland XR 26 (Norland

Corp., Fort Atkinson, WI, USA) was used. Because of

the replacement of the Norland XR 26 by the Hologic

QDR-2000 (S/N 2513; Hologic, Inc., Waltham, MA,

USA) during the measurements at the mean age of 32

years, some subjects (n = 295) were measured by the

Norland XR 26 and others (n = 109) by the Hologic

QDR-2000. For all measurements at the mean age of 36

years, the Hologic QDR-2000 was used. Both DEXA

machines were calibrated daily. Differences in absolute

values could be present between the measurements on

both machines. Therefore, standardized values (z-sco-

res) against the mean LBMD of all measured subjects

were used for each measurement. For the bone measu-

rements at the age of 32 years, the subjects measured

with the same machine were grouped together as z-scores

were calculated.

Genotypes

Genomic DNA was extracted from samples of peri-

pheral venous blood, in accordance with standard pro-

cedures. Genotyping for the BsmI, ApaI, and TaqI poly-

morphisms of the VDR, for the PvuII and XbaI poly-

morphisms of the ERα, and for the G-to-T polymorphism


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in the COLIA1 gene was carried out by using methods

based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism-

-polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR), as described

elsewhere [10, 14, 20]. In short, each RFLP-PCR was

carried out in a 10 µl reaction volume containing 5 ng of

genomic DNA, 1.5 mM magnesium chloride, 0.2 mM

deoxy-NTP, 2 pmol of each primer, 0.2 units of Taq po-

lymerase (Promega) and 10x PCR buffer (Promega)

containing 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 100 mM KCl,

0.1 mM EDTA, 1 mM DDT, 50% glycerol, 0.5% Noni-

det®-P40 and 0.5% Tween®20. The reactions were per-

formed in a 384-well thermocycler (MJ Research Te-

trad) with different cycling protocols for each amplicon.

The genotypes were detected by the Single Base Exten-

sion (SBE) procedure using SBE primers of different

lengths. The SBE reactions were performed in accor-

dance with the details provided by the manufacturer

(ABI Prism® SNaPshotTM) and analyzed with software

programs called Gene Mapper 1.1 and Genotyper 3.7.

The genotypes thus generated were also checked by eye.

To confirm the accuracy of the genotyping, 150 random-

ly selected samples were genotyped for a second time

with the same method. No discrepancies were found.

All samples were genotyped blind.

The different genotypes of the genes are named ta-

king into account the absence (capital letter) or presence

(small letter) of the restriction enzyme recognition sites

that are created or abolished by the polymorphism.

Environmental factors

Previously, it was reported that the ground reaction

forces from weight-bearing physical activities (GRF)

[2], the total fat-free body mass (FFM) [3], and the in-

take of alcohol [21] significantly influenced the deve-

lopment of lumbar bone mineral density in the longitu-

dinal cohort. Calcium intake [22], tobacco consump-

tion [23], and estrogen [24] are also considered as

important environmental determinants of lumbar bone

mineral development.

Habitual food intake was measured by a detailed

cross-check dietary history face-to-face interview me-

thod, based on the method developed by Beal [25] and

Marr [26], and adapted to the AGAHLS [27, 28]. This

method provides information about the habitual dietary

intake of the subjects, using the preceding 4 weeks as

a reference period. Another reference period, as close to

the time of measurement as possible, was used in case

subjects were of the opinion that their dietary intake

during this 4-week period was abnormal (e.g. because

of illness, holiday or pregnancy). The interview compri-

ses the entire range of foods and drinks. Only items that

were consumed at least twice a month were recorded.

The cross-check consisted of an additional check on the

reported frequency of meals, items contained, and amo-

unts of the consumed foods and drinks. From this inter-

view, the mean daily intake of, among others, total

energy, calcium and alcohol was calculated by use of

the 1996 database from the Dutch Food and Nutrition

Table [29]. At the mean ages of 27 and 32 years, a stan-

dard form containing cues to record the habitual dietary

intake was used during the interview. At the mean age

of 36 years, an identical interviewer-administered, com-

puter-assisted version of the interview was used. The

relation between both dietary interview methods was

analyzed and showed sufficient agreement for the data

to be used in longitudinal analyses [30].

Daily physical activity was measured also by means

of a structured detailed interview [19]. All reported ac-

tivities during the preceding 3 months (during courses,

at work, at home, during leisure time, organized and

unorganized sports, stair climbing, and transportation

used), with a duration of at least 5 minutes continuously,

and exceeding the level of intensity of 4 times the basal

metabolic rate, were taken into account [27]. Physical

activity was expressed in a score for its biomechanical

ground reaction forces (GRF), as described by Gro-

othausen et al. [31]. Based on these GRF, a total GRF

score was calculated as the sum of all GRF scores and

used in the analyses. This measure is irrespective of the

duration, intensity, and frequency of the activity. To

overcome the difficulty of interpreting results from the

two different methods of physical activity assessment,

standardized values of GRF were used in the analyses.

More detailed information is described elsewhere [2].

FFM was calculated as proposed by Durnin and Wo-

mersley, from measurements of total body weight, the

sum of four skinfolds (i.e. biceps, triceps, subscapular,

and suprailiac skinfold), gender, and age [32].

Smoking habits and use of birth control pills were

measured by questionnaire. The amount of smoked to-

bacco was expressed in grams of tobacco per week, as

described by Bernaards et al. [33]. The use of oral con-

traceptives (yes/no) was considered to be the best possi-

ble proxy of estrogen intake in this study.

Statistical analyses

To check for possible selection, the χ2-test was used

to examine if the distribution of genotypes followed the


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Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium within the total group of

men and women, and separately for both sexes.

For VDR haplotypes, three haplotypes were ob-

served: the baT-allele (haplotype 1 allele), the BAt-allele

(haplotype 2 allele), and the bAT-allele (haplotype 3 al-

lele). Only 4 subjects were homozygous for haplotype 3.

For the ERα gene, also three haplotypes were observed:

px (haplotype 1 allele), PX (haplotype 2 allele) and Px

(haplotype 3 allele). Only 5 subjects were homozygous

for the haplotype 3 allele. For the polymorphism in the

COLIA1 gene, three genotypes were compared: TT, GT,

and GG.

The longitudinal relationships were evaluated by

means of random coefficient analysis (MLwiN, version

1.10.0007; Centre for Multilevel Modeling, Institute of

Education, London, UK) [34]. Because the longitudinal

relationship consists of a within-subject relationship

(~“change over time” component) and a between-sub-

jects relationship (~“cross-sectional” component), both

relationships should be taken into account in the inter-

pretation of the longitudinal relationship. The random

coefficient analysis was chosen because the estimated

regression coefficient combines the two possible rela-

tionships into one regression coefficient. The capability

of this statistical technique to take the between-subject

relationship into account allows the inclusion of subjects

who were measured only once during the 10-year fol-

low-up period. The regression coefficient has the follo-

wing interpretation: suppose that the regression coeffi-

cient for the relationship between a certain genotype

(coded as 1) and the standardized LBMD is 0.1000, then

subjects with that particular genotype have a 0.1000 SD

higher LBMD compared with the others (coded as 0)

over this 10-year adult period. Because 1 SD in the

LBMD in this study is approximately 0.15 g/cm2, a 0.1

SD higher LBMD means approximately a 0.015 g/cm2

higher LBMD. From the regression coefficient no state-

ment can be made on changes (increase or decrease) in

LBMD. In addition, random coefficient analysis was

performed because repeated measurements (at the mean

ages of 27, 32 and 36 years) are clustered within indivi-

duals and therefore not independent. Furthermore, both

the number of observations per individual and the time

interval between observations may vary in random co-

efficient analysis. This analysis also does not use strict

conditions concerning the type of missing data because

it assumes missing data at random. Within the model,

the intercept was assumed to vary randomly between

subjects. The time variable was supposed to vary ran-

domly between subjects. All other determinants were

included as fixed variables [35].

Genetic determinants

To analyze the relationship between the different

polymorphisms and LBMD, the subjects were grouped

according to their genotype. Three effects were consi-

dered to determine the differences between groups: (1)

allele-dose effect, (2) dominant effect, and (3) recessive

effect.

The “allele-dose” was defined as the number of co-

pies of a certain allele in the genotype. For determining

the allele-dose effect, heterozygous and homozygous

subjects were compared with non-carriers (i.e. reference

group) for their relationship with LBMD. The obtained

regression coefficients were interpreted for an allele-

-dose effect.

For the dominant effect, test-allele carriers were

compared with the non-test-allele carriers, and for the

recessive effect, homozygous test-allele subjects were

compared with heterozygous carriers and non-carriers

combined. The analyses on a dominant and/or recessive

effect were only performed if the effects were suspected

from the regression coefficients for heterozygotes and

homozygotes.

To analyze the relationship between genetic poly-

morphisms and LBMD, three analyses were performed:

(1) crude, with adjustment for gender; (2) further adju-

sted for FFM, GRF, calcium intake, total energy intake,

use of oral contraceptives, alcohol intake, and tobacco

consumption. Furthermore, possible interactions between

genetic polymorphisms and gender were investigated.

When the interactions showed a p-value < 0.10, separate

analyses were performed for males and females.

Gene–environment interactions

To analyze gene–environment interactions in the re-

lationship with LBMD, adjustment was made for the

factors mentioned above, except for the environmental

factor included in the interaction term. All interactions

were considered significant at p < 0.10.


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Results

Characteristics of the subjects

Tab. 1 shows the means and their standard deviations

of the LBMD, total energy intake, calcium intake, alco-

hol consumption, GRF, FFM, tobacco consumption, and

the use of oral contraceptives, measured at the mean

ages of 27, 32, and 36 years in males and females. For

the measurements on the Norland apparatus, paired

LBMD measures obtained at the mean ages of 27 and 32

years showed a significant decrease in men (–0.017 g/cm2;

p = 0.02, n = 48), and a non-significant decrease in

women (-0.009 g/cm2; p = 0.19; n = 52). For the measu-

rements on the Hologic apparatus, paired analyses

showed no significant change in LBMD for either men

(0.003 g/cm2; p = 0.69; n = 41) or women (–0,007 g/cm2;

p = 0.18; n = 50) between the mean ages of 32 and 36

years.

Allele frequencies are shown in Tab. 2. The genoty-

pe distributions were found to follow the Hardy–Wein-

berg Equilibrium for VDR (pmen

= 0.88, pwomen

= 0.98),

ERα (pmen

= 0.50, pwomen

= 0.49), and COLIA1 (pmen

= 0.08,

pwomen

= 0.82). The distributions for ERα and COLIA1

appeared to differ significantly (p = 0.04 and 0.02 re-

spectively) between men and women.

Table 1. Characteristics of the study population: mean ± SD of the longitudinal data used

of (young) adult men and women at the mean ages of 27, 32, and 36 years

Men Women

27 years

(n = 84)

32 years

(n = 197)

36 years

(n = 170)

27 years

(n = 97)

32 years

(n = 207)

36 years

(n = 182)

LBMD (g/cm2)

– Norland

– Hologic

1.170 ± 0.158

–

1.158 ± 0.180a

1.121 ± 0.146b

–

1.111 ± 0.160

1.143 ± 0.138

–

1.125 ± 0.134c

1.093 ± 0.113d

–

1.065 ± 0.120

Calcium intake

(mg/day)

1363 ± 549 1376 ± 626 1431 ± 607 1152 ± 414 1189 ± 417 1256 ± 411

Alcohol consumption

(g/day)

11.7 ± 14.0 14.6 ± 16.1 18.4 ± 19.7 7.2 ± 9.9 7.2 ± 9.3 10.2 ± 13.1

Total energy intake

(MJ/day)

12.0 ± 2.8 12.5 ± 3.2 12.4 ± 3.1 8.9 ± 2.0 9.3 ± 2.0 9.7 ± 2.1

GRF (score) 5.2 ± 2.7 5.8 ± 3.0 9.5 ± 3.6 4.8 ± 2.5 5.3 ± 2.6 9.2 ± 3.9

Tobacco (g/week) 37.2 ± 65.4 19.5 ± 49.2 19.9 ± 49.3 20.7 ± 50.2 14.8 ± 39.1 14.5 ± 38.3

Oral contraceptives

(% yes)

n.a. n.a. n.a. 62% 56% 41%

FFM (kg) 64.5 ± 6.1 65.4 ± 6.3 66.4 ± 6.9 47.3 ± 4.9 46.7 ± 4.8 48.0 ± 5.5

LBMD – lumbar bone mineral density, GRF – ground reaction forces, FFM – fat-free mass, a N = 146, b N = 51, c N = 149, d N = 58, n.a. – not applicable

Table 2. Allele frequencies of candidate genetic determinants

Men Women

Number (frequency, %) Number (frequency, %)

VDR haplotypes – baT (1)

– Bat (2)

– bAT (3)

164 (51%)

120 (37%)

38 (12%)

195 (53%)

137 (37%)

36 (10%)

ERα haplotypes – px (1)

– PX (2)

– Px (3)

164 (51%)

133 (41%)

27 (8%)

177 (49%)

131 (36%)

52 (14%)

COLIA1 – G

– T

262 (81%)

60 (19%)

318 (88%)

44 (12%)


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Table 3. Linear regression coefficients (SE); p-value for the longitudinal relationships

between polymorphisms and standardized LBMD in (young) adults

Crude Adjusted

VDR haplotypes

allele-dose effect

– baT (1) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

– Bat (2) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

– bAT (3) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

dominant effect

– baT (1) – non-carriers

– carriers

recessive effect

– Bat (2) – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

– bAT (3) – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

0

0.2296 (0.1227); p = 0.06

0.1152 (0.1251); p = 0.36

0

0.0735 (0.1157); p = 0.53

-0.1369 (0.1706); p = 0.42

0

-0.1581 (0.1233); p = 0.20

0.7070 (0.5084); p = 0.16

0

0.1640 (0.1281); p = 0.20

0

-0.1801 (0.1589); p = 0.26

0

0.5795 (0.5002); p = 0.25

0

0.2000 (0.1178); p = 0.09

0.0938 (0.1206); p = 0.44

0

0.0774 (0.1104); p = 0.48

-0.1258 (0.1624); p = 0.44

0

-0.1220 (0.1199); p = 0.30

0.5513 (0.4848); p = 0.26

0

0.1395 (0.1222); p = 0.25

0

-0.0212 (0.1061); p = 0.84

0

0.4539 (0.4762); p = 0.34

ERα haplotypes

allele-dose effect

– px (1) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

– PX (2) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

– Px (3) – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

dominant effect

– px (1) – non-carriers

– carriers

– PX (2) – non-carriers

– carriers

recessive effect

– px (1) – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

– PX (2) – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

– Px (3) – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

0

-0.1587 (0.1148); p = 0.17

-0.2317 (0.1417); p = 0.10

0

0.1650 (0.1138); p = 0.15

0.2427 (0.1383); p = 0.08

0

-0.0741 (0.1214); p = 0.54

0.1833 (0.4494); p = 0.68

0

-0.1780 (0.1098); p = 0.11

0

0.1905 (0.1051); p = 0.07

0

-0.1223 (0.1184); p = 0.30

0

0.1523 (0.1238); p = 0.22

0

0.1272 (0.4399); p = 0.77

0

-0.1614 (0.1107); p = 0.14

-0.2263 (0.1363); p = 0.10

0

0.1895 (0.1089); p = 0.08

0.2530 (0.1331); p = 0.06

0

-0.0800 (0.1167); p = 0.49

0.0193 (0.4288); p = 0.96

0

-0.1789 (0.1057); p = 0.09

0

0.2100 (0.1006); p = 0.04

0

-0.1155 (0.1139); p = 0.31

0

0.1489 (0.1194); p = 0.21

0

-0.0418 (0.4194); p = 0.92

COLIA1

allele-dose effect

– T – non-carriers

– heterozygotes

– homozygotes

recessive effect

– T – non-homozygotes

– homozygotes

0

0.2053 (0.1287); p = 0.11

-0.2600 (0.2960); p = 0.38

0

-0.3158 (0.2952); p = 0.28

0

0.1125 (0.1235); p = 0.36

-0.3223 (0.2813); p = 0.15

0

-0.3538 (0.2796); p = 0.21

In the crude model, adjustment was made for gender. The adjusted model is the crude model extended by adjustment for fat-free

mass, standardized ground reaction forces, calcium intake, total energy intake, alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and

the use of birth control pills.


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Longitudinal relationships


Results on the longitudinal relationship between the

genetic polymorphisms and LBMD over the 10-year

period between the mean ages of 27 and 36 years are

shown in Tab. 3.

VDR gene. No allele-dose, dominant or recessive

effect was detected for the longitudinal relationship be-

tween the VDR haplotypes and LBMD over the 10-year

period.

ERα gene. A positive allele-dose effect of the ERα

haplotype 2 (PX) on the development of (young) adult

LBMD was found. In the adjusted model, compared with

non-2-carriers (1.1, 1.3, 3.3), haplotype 2-heterozygotes

(1.2, 2.3) had a 0.19 SD higher LBMD (p = 0.08), and

2-homozygotes (2.2) had the highest LBMD (βadj

= 0.25,

p = 0.06). The haplotype 1 (px) of the ERα gene showed

no significant effect on LBMD during (young) adult-

hood, but a trend for a negative allele-dose effect was

apparent. In the adjusted model, compared with non-1-

-carriers, haplotype 1-heterozygotes had a 0.16 SD lower

LBMD (p = 0.14), and haplotype 1-homozygotes had

the lowest LBMD (βadj

= -0.23, p = 0.10). For haplo-

Figure 1. Regression coefficients for the longitudinal

relationship between the dietary calcium intake (g/day)

and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in baT-homozygotes,

baT-heterozygotes, and non-baT-carriers of the VDR

haplotypes in (young) adults. Adjusted for gender, fat-free

mass, standardized ground reaction forces, total energy

intake, alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and use

of birth control pills

baT

homozygotesbaT

heterozygotesnon-baT

carriers

baT-calcium interaction

0.20

0.10

0.00

–0.10

–0.20

regre

ssio

n c

oeff

icie

nt

p = 0.31

p = 0.06

p = 0.83


relationship between the dietary calcium intake (g/day)

and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in BAt-carriers

and non-BAt-carriers of the VDR gene in (young)

adults. Adjusted for gender, fat-free mass, standardized

ground reaction forces, total energy intake, alcohol

consumption, tobacco consumption, and use


BAt

carriersnon-BAt

carriers

BAt-calcium interaction

0.20

0.10

0.00

–0.10

–0.20

regre

ssio

n c

oeff

icie

nt

p = 0.06

p = 0.28


relationship between the fat-free mass (kg)

and standardized (L2-L4) LBMD in TT, GT, and GG

polymorphisms of the COLIA1 gene in (young)

adults. Adjusted for gender, standardized ground

reaction forces, calcium intake, total energy intake,

alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, and use


TT

COLIA1-FFM interaction

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

regre

ssio

n c

oeff

icie

nt

p < 0.001

GT GG

p < 0.0001p < 0.0001


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type 3 (Px), no effect on LBMD during (young) adult-

hood was found.

COLIA1 gene. No recessive, dominant or allele-

-dose effect on (young) adult LBMD was found for po-

lymorphisms in the COLIA1 gene.


Dietary calcium intake appeared to modify the rela-

tionship between VDR haplotypes and the LBMD du-

ring the 10-year (young) adult period. While the intake

of calcium was not found to be related with LBMD in

baT-homozygotes (haplotype 1-homozygotes) (p = 0.31)

or in non-baT-carriers (p = 0.83), a trend (p = 0.07) for

a positive relationship with LBMD was found in the

baT-heterozygotes, as illustrated by Fig. 1. In BAt-carriers

(haplotype 2-carriers), the intake of calcium was also

found to be positively related to LBMD development

(trend: p = 0.06); this was not found for non-BAt-carriers

(Fig. 2).

FFM was found to modify the relationship between

COLIA1 polymorphisms and LBMD. As shown in

Fig. 3, the significant positive effect of FFM on LBMD

in subjects carrying the TT-genotype turned out to be

higher than in GT and GG subjects.

No environmental effect modifiers in the relation-

ship between polymorphisms of the ERα gene and

LBMD could be detected. Weight-bearing physical acti-

vity (GRF) was not found to interact with any of the

three investigated genes.

Discussion

The risk of developing osteoporosis later in life is

not only determined by the attained level of peak bone

mass during adolescence, but also by the rate of bone

mineral loss during adulthood. Besides by environmen-

tal factors, bone mineral development is thought to be

determined by genetic factors and by an interaction be-

tween environmental and genetic factors. The relative

contribution of these factors in regulating BMD is in-

completely understood. In this study, the association of

several such genetic factors in the regulation of lumbar

bone mineral development, as well as the possible mo-

dification of the relationship by environmental factors

were assessed in a longitudinal cohort study of healthy

(young) adult Dutch men and women.


A genetic effect was detected for the haplotype 2 al-

lele (PX ) of the ERα gene. Men and women carrying

this haplotype showed a positive relationship with

LBMD at (young) adult age, with evidence for an allele-

-dose effect. Effect modification by the environmental

factors, FFM and dietary calcium intake, was detected

in the relationship between polymorphisms of respecti-

vely the COLIA1 and VDR genes and LBMD.

VDR gene

In the study, no relationship between VDR haplo-

type 2 allele (BAt) and LBMD was detected. However,

a meta-analysis (including 16 papers, and performed in

1996) revealed that bone mass was lower in individuals

with the BB-genotype of the BsmI polymorphism, com-

pared with the bb-genotype. The difference in LBMD

was –2.5% [36]. In a study among healthy Caucasian

females, BB-genotype was also significantly correlated

with decreased LBMD in 197 girls (aged 7–18 years),

but not in 172 premenopausal (aged 18–56 years) adult

females [37]. In addition, from a study among 164 wo-

men aged > 30 years, it was concluded that the VDR

effect in younger adult women was relatively stronger

than in older women [38]. In an 18-months longitudinal

study in 72 elderly subjects, BB-homozygotes lost

LBMD, while bb-homozygotes did not [37]. In a study

among 229 postmenopausal women, loss of LBMD

over a period of 2 years was greater in the BB group,

compared with the bb group [39]. On the other hand, in

28 premenopausal Finnish women, a trend for a higher

LBMD among the BB-genotype subjects was found.

This non-significant finding was possible owing to

a lack of power. However, a significant difference in

calcium absorption between the genotypes was found,

which could be explained by the better vitamin D status

among the BB-genotype group [40]. More in accordance

with our results, but with BsmI, TaqI and ApaI analyzed

separately, the VDR genotypes did not predict bone

turn over or BMD in a sample of 189 healthy premeno-

pausal French women (aged 31–57 years) [41].

ERα gene

A role for estrogen and its action mediated through

the ERα gene in attainment and maintenance of BMD

has been suggested, i.e. estrogen action has been asso-

ciated with the maintenance of BMD following meno-

pause and in the prevention of fractures [42].

The study showed a positive allele-dose and a domi-

nant effect for the ERα haplotype 2 allele (PX ) on the

longitudinal development of LBMD in Dutch Caucasian

(young) adults. For the allele-dose effect of haplotype 1


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(px), and thereby also for p, a trend for a negative rela-

tionship with LBMD was found.

Inconsistent associations of the ERα polymorphisms

with BMD have been reported. Recently, in 2042 indi-

viduals of the Rotterdam Study, a significant negative

allele-dose effect of the ERα haplotype 1 allele (px) on

LBMD was found in elderly women, but not in elderly

men [43]. In a population-based study of pre- and peri-

menopausal women, PvuII and XbaI ERα genotypes

were both associated separately with the levels of

LBMD (i.e. a negative allele-dose effect for both p and

x on LBMD), but not with the change in LBMD over

a 3-year period [18].

Although several studies have identified an associa-

tion between ERα genotype and BMD, the allele that

predicts low or high BMD may be population-specific.

In Caucasian populations, the p allele was found to be

associated with low BMD [18, 43], while in Japanese

women, the P allele is likely to be associated with low

BMD [44]. In other population groups, no obvious rela-

tionship between ERα genotype and BMD have been

found [45, 46], which might be caused by differences in

the distribution of alleles among population groups or

by variable effects of modifier genes or environmental

factors in a given population.

COLIA1 gene

No relationship was found between COLIA1 poly-

morphisms and LBMD in (young) adult subjects. In the

largest study to date (1778 postmenopausal Dutch wo-

men), the effects of the COLIA1 polymorphisms on

BMD were found to depend on age (since menopause),

which suggests their role in determining the rate of

postmenopausal bone loss. The overall effect on LBMD

was, however, small, accounting for 2% of the variance

in LBMD in women aged 75–80 years [14]. Langdahl et

al. [16] reported that subjects with the TT-genotypes had

significantly lower LBMD values than subjects with the

GT- or GG-genotypes. In 583 women aged 24–44 years

from the Michigan Bone Health Study, no relationship

between COLIA1 polymorphisms and LBMD was

identified [18].


The mechanism through which the studied polymor-

phisms influence LBMD is likely to be modified by the

presence of various environmental factors like calcium

intake, GRF and FFM. The knowledge on the interac-

tion between genetic and environmental factors gives

health care providers information to tune preventive or

curative treatment strategies in relation to bone health

to the subjects’ genetic predisposition.

VDR gene

The finding of an interaction between calcium intake

and VDR genotype in the relationship with BMD has

been described by other investigators, especially in

postmenopausal women [37, 39, 47]. However, the re-

sults in postmenopausal women appear to be conflic-

ting: one study demonstrated an interaction between the

BB-genotype and calcium in the relationship with BMD

[39], another study found an interaction involving the

Bb-genotype [37], and a third study implicated an inter-

action concerning the bb-genotype group [47]. These

findings may, however, not be “conflicting” if the

VDR–calcium interaction depends on the level of dietary

calcium intake. The level of dietary calcium intake varied

considerably between the 3 described studies: values of

274–530 mg calcium/day, 1226–1235 mg calcium/day,

and 827 mg calcium/day were mentioned.

In a study in premenopausal women, an interaction

between VDR genotype and calcium intake was descri-

bed [48]. The BB- and Bb-genotypes were found to de-

monstrate an association between high calcium intake

(> 1036 mg/day) and greater femoral BMD. These and

other findings of Salamone et al. suggest that increasing

calcium intake and/or physical activity may be impor-

tant in maximizing one’s genetic potential for achieving

and maintaining BMD [48]. Krall et al. [39] also sugge-

sted that the association between VDR genotype and

bone loss depended on the level of calcium intake.

The mechanism of calcium being associated with

greater BMD only for those with the BB- or Bb-genotype

is not fully understood. One possible explanation is that

the B allele is in linkage disequilibrium with another

sequence variation elsewhere within the VDR gene,

which promotes calcium absorption [47]. In this, Krall

et al. [39] have suggested that there may be a functional

defect in the intestinal vitamin D receptor in subjects

carrying the BB-genotype of the VDR gene, resulting in

reduced calcium absorption efficiency. A significantly

reduced fractional absorption capacity was observed in

a group of calcium-depleted women with the VDR 2.2

genotype (BAt.BAt), compared with those with the VDR

1.1 genotype (baT.baT). This suggests a lower intestinal

calcium absorption efficiency among subjects with the

VDR 2.2 genotype [49, 50]. Also in the VDR gene, a si-

gnificant association between the TaqI polymorphism


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and bone loss at the lumbar spine was found, which was

strongest in those in the lowest tertile of calcium intake

[51].

From the results of the study, it can be concluded

that increasing calcium intake in (young) adults is pro-

bably not always effective for LBMD. The effect of cal-

cium on LBMD is likely to depend on the VDR poly-

morphism of the subject. Subjects heterozygous for the

VDR haplotype 1 allele (baT), and/or carrying the VDR

haplotype 2 allele (BAt) are most likely to benefit from

increasing calcium intake. Further analysis on the sub-

jects with VDR 1.2 genotype (baT.BAt), which is the most

common one (in our study population; n = 136, 38%), in-

deed showed a positive relationship between calcium in-

take and LBMD (standardized βadj

= 0.13, p = 0.02).

Thus, the majority of the population is likely to benefit

from an increased calcium intake. For this, no statement

can be made on the amount of calcium needed to bene-

fit most.

COLIA1 gene

In the study, an interaction with FFM in the relation-

ship between COLIA1 polymorphism and LBMD was

observed. Increasing FFM or muscle mass was found to

be related to a higher (young) adult LBMD in all sub-

jects, but the extent depends on the COLIA1 genotype

of the subject. From the study, no information can be

provided about how much FFM would be beneficial for

bone health or how to achieve an increased FFM. To our

knowledge, no other study has found an interaction be-

tween COLIA1 polymorphisms and FFM in the rela-

tionship with LBMD. However, in a study among com-

munity-dwelling elderly men, the findings suggested

that the COLIA1 genotype-specific differences for

BMD might be mediated, at least in part, by differences

in muscle strength. In the study performed by van Pot-

telbergh et al., the COLIA1 polymorphism was associa-

ted with BMD and with the muscle strength [52].

Questions can be raised about whether FFM is an

intermediate factor in the relationship between COLIA1

polymorphisms and LBMD. Further analyses of the

data showed a strong relationship between COLIA1 ge-

notype and FFM. Via this pathway, FFM can be the

factor that influences LBMD accrual, as was demon-

strated in an earlier study [3]. The results from an ad-

ditional analyses on the relationship between COLIA1

genotype and FFM indicated that subjects with the

GG-genotype have significantly less (> 2 kg) FFM

(βadj

= –2.12, p < 0.001). If FFM were an intermediate

factor, a lower LBMD would be expected in the GG

group. In the study, the recessive effect of the G-genotype

on LBMD was negative, but not significant. These

findings are in agreement with the “mechanostat”, as

described by the Utah paradigm [53]. In the mechano-

stat hypothesis, the genetic factors are thought to deter-

mine the thresholds for modelling and remodelling of

the bone, above which GRF and muscle-bone contrac-

tions will strengthen the bone.

Study limitations

In the study on the longitudinal association between

genotypes and (young) adult LBMD and the interplay

of environmental factors, the statistical power was of

concern. The number of subjects was small and therefore

the study had limited power to detect significant asso-

ciations. A larger sample would have also resulted in

a narrowing of the confidence intervals around the ob-

served regression coefficients.

Calcium intake, which is a modifier in the relation-

ship between VDR genotypes and LBMD, is known to

differ widely between populations. Therefore, it is pos-

sible that the influence of VDR genotypes on bone me-

tabolism could be observed only among populations

with a relatively low calcium intake, which was not the

case in the study. Here, the calcium intake was rather

high, compared with other studies [37, 47, 48].

LBMD levels are likely to be determined by several

genes, acting collectively. The combination of alleles at

different loci may be more important than any genotype

at a particular locus. In addition, genes that primarily

influence bone accretion may be different from those

that affect bone resorption [18]. Therefore, future re-

search should also focus on the gene–gene interactions

and the relationship with LBMD.

Conclusions

In conclusion, a genetic relationship with LBMD du-

ring the third and fourth decades of life was only found

for the PX haplotype allele of the PvuII-XbaI polymor-

phism in introns of the ERα gene, i.e. an allele-dose ef-

fect and a dominant effect. Gene–environment interac-

tions were found for the VDR gene in combination with

calcium intake and for the COLIA1 gene in combination

with FFM. Increasing calcium intake is likely to have

a positive effect in the majority of the subjects: in the

VDR non-1.1 (baT.baT) subjects, and/or in the carriers of

the VDR haplotype 2 (BAt) allele. The most common


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VDR genotype in the group of Dutch subjects was the

1.2 (baT.BAt) genotype (~38% of the study population),

which is also likely to benefit from extra calcium. No

statement can be made about how much calcium is

needed. All subjects are likely to benefit from an increase

in FFM, but this effect is most apparent in subjects with

the COLIA1 TT-genotype (~3.5% of the population).

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all subjects from the AGAHLS co-

hort for their cooperation during the past 25 years.

This paper is published as Chapter 6 in: I. Bakker, Affectors

of the adult lumbar bone: genetics body composition, and life-

style; Results from the Amsterdam Growth and Health Lon-

gitudinal Study. Gezondheid in Beweging (GIB) publication

no. 12, 2003. ISBN: 90-802727-7-9.

This study was supported by grants from the Dairy Founda-

tion on Nutrition and Health, the Dutch Heart Foundation

(grant 76051-79051), the Dutch Prevention Fund (grants

28-189a, 28-1106 and 28-1106-1), the Dutch Ministry of Well

Being and Public Health (grant 90-170), the Dutch Olympic

Committee/Netherlands Sports Federation, Heineken Inc.,

and the Scientific Board of Smoking and Health.

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Paper received by the Editors: February 6, 2006.

Paper accepted for publication: June 23, 2006.

Address for correspondence

Han C.G. Kemper

EMGO Institute

VU University Medical Center

Van der Boechorststraat 7

1081 BT Amsterdam, the Netherlands

e-mail: [email protected]


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APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR IN PREDICTING LEISURE TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF POLISH ADOLESCENTS

Introduction

Even though regular participation in physical acti-

vity leads to manifold and well documented benefits,

many people in Poland, including youth, are sedentary

or their physical activity is too low to meet the recom-

mended level [1, 2]. It is so in spite of numerous ac-

tions aimed at increasing people’s physical activity,

including obligatory physical education in schools,

which is expected to prepare for lifelong physical acti-

vity. To make the process more effective, it is necessa-

ry to recognize factors that determine volitional physi-

cal activity. One of the most promising current areas

of research aimed at understanding these factors and

the relationships between them is empirical verifica-

tion of various theoretical models of behaviour change

[3]. One such model is Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Be-

haviour (TPB) [4] (Fig. 1).

The TPB proposes that the direct determinant of vo-

litional behaviour is a person’s intention to perform the

behaviour in a given context and time. Intention is the

degree to which a person formulates volitional plans of

action and as such should not be confused with the no-

tion of expectations, which are rather some form of

wish ful thinking and assessing in terms of probability

that the desirable behaviour will occur in future (“I wo-

uld like to ...”, “It would be a good thing to ...”) [5].

Intention is determined by three variables: (1) attitude

toward the behaviour, defined as “... the individual’s posi-

tive or negative evaluation of performing the particular

behaviour of interest” [4, p. 117]; (2) subjective norms,

defined as “the person’s perception of social pressure to

perform or not to perform the behaviour” [4, p. 117]; (3)

perceived behavioural control (PBC), defined as “per-

ceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour” and

assumed to “reflect past experience as well as anticipa-

ted impediments and obstacles” [4, p. 132]. PBC, besides

exerting motivational consequences on intention, is sug-

gested to directly influence behaviour because “in many


Chair of Educational Sciences, Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The study was aimed at examining the usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in predicting leisure time

physical activity of Polish adolescents aged 13–19, thus explaining how the TPB constructs (behavioural intention, attitude, subjective

norms and perceived behavioural control) influence their participation in leisure time physical activity. Basic procedures. Anonymous

questionnaires were completed by 303 students (206 girls, 97 boys) aged 13–19 (M 16.15, SD 1.56). The obtained data were analysed

with the use of structural equation modelling (path analysis). Main findings. The results of the analyses indicated that intention was

a significant predictor of participation in leisure time physical activity and that significant predictors of intention were attitude and

perceived behavioural control. The influence of subjective norms was insignificant. Attitude was the strongest predictor of intention,

with the value of the standardised path coefficient over 0.4, while values greater than 0.5 are considered as large effect. Conclusions. The findings of the study provide partial support for the application of the TPB in predicting leisure time physical activity of

adolescents and suggest that educational interventions should focus on shaping attitudes and increasing the level of control over

young people’s behaviour.

Key words: physical activity, youth, theory of planned behaviour

2006, vol. 7 (2), 105–110

Figure 1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour

Subjectivenorms

BehaviourIntention

Attitude

Perceived behavioural

control

AWF_7_2_02Nowosielski03_2k_DRUK.indd 105 12/15/2006, 9:52:43 AM

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K. Sas-Nowosielski, Theory of Planned Behaviour in predicting leisure time physical activity

instances, the performance of a behaviour depends not

only on motivation to do so but also on adequate control

over the behaviour in question. It follows that perceived

behavioural control can help predict goal attainment in-

dependent of behavioural intention to the extent that it

reflects actual control with some degree of accuracy” [4,

p. 134]. The concept of PBC to some degree refers to the

concept of perceived self-efficacy in Bandura’s Self-effi-

cacy Theory [6], although the question whether both

these notions could be identified is contentious, as while

some authors treat both notions as synonyms, others ar-

gue that their complete identification is unfounded [7–

10]. Supporters of the latter approach point out that self-

-efficacy, as Bandura defines it, reflects only a degree to

which a person perceives his or her control over the beha-

viour, whereas the notion of PBC relates also to “external”

aspects of such control, e.g. barriers of physical activity.

From the three aforementioned determinants of in-

tention, attitude and PBC seem to be the most important

in influencing it [11]. After reviewing over 70 research

studies Hagger et al. conclude that “... people’s attitudes,

and to a lesser extent perceived behavioural control and

self-efficacy, seem to be the key influences in forming

intentions to participate in physical activity. In practical

terms this suggests that interventions based on the en-

hancement of attitudes toward physical activity may

lead to a concomitant increase in physical activity beha-

viour” [11, p. 25]. The most controversial construct of

the TPB is subjective norms, as in many research stu-

dies its influence on intention was at most weak [10–14].

For this reason some authors cancel this variable from

their research [14], while others claim that the influence

of the variable on intention is dependent on other varia-

bles, like the extent to which people are concerned with

Table 1. Items assessing the Theory of Planned Behaviour variables

Intention

“I plan to ...”

“I intend to ...”

“I will ...”

“... participate in physical activity in my leisure time within the next few weeks.”

Attitude

“According to me leisure time physical activity is ...”

“healthy – unhealthy.”

“pleasant – unpleasant.”

“interesting – boring.”

“joyful – stressful.”

“necessary – unnecessary.”

“important – unimportant.”

“useful – harmful.”

Subjective norms

“Do people who are important to you and whose opinions you are taking into account (parents, peers, teachers etc.) think that

in your leisure time ...”

“you should be physically active – you should avoid physical activity?”

“physical activity is useful for you – physical activity is useless for you?”

“Are their opinions relating to physical activity in your leisure time ...”

“important for you – unimportant for you?”

“influencing your behaviour – not influencing your behaviour?”

Perceived Behavioural Control

“To what extent participation in leisure time physical activity for you is ...”

“easy – difficult?”

“completely under your control – completely out of your control?”

Physical activity

“In your leisure time do you participate in physical activity which lasts at least 15 minutes each time and is intense enough to

raise your heart rate and breath, and to lead to sweating, like walking briskly, jogging, aerobics, cycling, gymnastics, resistan-

ce exercises etc.?”

“no”

“yes”

……. days a week

……. hours/minutes each time


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others’ approval of them [15], or that it should be redefi-

ned and broadened with other elements of social influ-

ence, like social support [16, 17].

Despite the reservations, the TPB and its earlier ver-

sion, labelled the Theory of Reasoned Action, contribu-

ted much to understanding the factors lying at the base

of performing volitional physical activity and other he-

alth behaviours. However, in Poland it is only mentio-

ned by some authors [examples: 18, 19], but has never

been used in physical activity research.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the useful-

ness of the TPB in predicting leisure time physical acti-

vity of Polish youth, and to answer the question if the

variables predicted by the theory (attitude, subjective

norms and PBC) determine the intention to participate

in leisure time physical activity and if the intention pre-

dicts the behaviour.


The research was carried out in the fourth quarter

of 2004 in one of the schools in Mysłowice, Poland.

The participants were 303 students (206 girls, 97 boys)

aged between 13 and 19 (M 16.15, SD 1.56). They were

told that they were participating in the study concer-

ning their physical activity behaviours and that it was

voluntary. A diagnostic poll method of research was

adopted.

The participants filled in an anonymous question-

naire designed by the author for the needs of the study

and based on suggestions on how to develop a TPB

questionnaire published by Ajzen [4, 20] (Tab. 1). Inten-

tion was measured by three statements relating to parti-

cipation in leisure time physical activity and evaluated

on a Likert scale from 1 (“definitely not”) to 5 (“definitely

yes”). Attitude, subjective norms and PBC were measu-

red by 7-point scales anchored to appropriate statements

(see Tab. 1). The respondents” behaviour was assessed

by a question if they participated in leisure time physi-

cal activity that was at least moderate in intensity, like

walking briskly, jogging, aerobics, cycling, gymnastics,

resistance exercises etc. Participants answered on how

many days a week and how long each time they under-

took such physical activity.

The reliability of the scales measuring TPB varia-

bles was assessed by Cronbach’s coefficient α. Accor-

ding to Sokołowski and Sagan [21], an instrument is re-

liable if α > 0.6. All scales fulfilled this criterion, obta-

Table 2. Means (M), standard deviations (SD) of physical activity and correlations

between the four Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) variables

M SD Physical

activity

Intention Attitude Subjective

norm

Respondents total

Physical activity (min/week) 134.75 139.68

Intention 3.53 0.96 0.43*

Attitude 1.92 0.96 0.30* 0.50*

Subjective norms 1.14 1.26 0.18* 0.31* 0.44*

Perceived Behavioural Control 1.44 1.30 0.26* 0.42* 0.54* 0.39*

Girls


Intention 3.46 0.94 0.45*

Attitude 1.88 0.99 0.30* 0.45*

Subjective norms 1.04 1.28 0.22* 0.36* 0.45*


Boys


Intention 3.67 1.00 0.39*

Attitude 2.00 0.88 0.31* 0.62*

Subjective norms 1.36 1.21 0.07 0.18 0.40*


* p < 0.05


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108


ining α values between 0.72 (subjective norm’s scale)

and 0.88 (scales of intention and attitude).

Means and standard deviations were calculated for

each scale. Correlations between variables were calcu-

lated by Pearson’s correlation coefficient r. Compari-

sons between means for both sexes were calculated by

the t-Student’s test. For determining relationships be-

tween the TPB variables, the structural equation model-

ling technique was adopted, which is rather rarely ap-

plied in social research in Poland, but considered one of

the best methods for causal interpretation of statistical

data [22]. This technique enables testing of causal rela-

tionships between variables, in order to assess how well

the theoretical model fits the data obtained (more on

structural equation modelling see: [22]). The evaluation

of goodness-of-fit of the model to the data was per-

formed with the use of: χ2 (the obtained p value associated

with the χ2 should be relatively large, p > 0.05), good-

ness-of-fit index (GFI) and adjusted goodness-of-fit in-

dex (AGFI) (in both cases a model is considered as

good-fitted to the data if values of both indexes are

> 0.95), root mean square error of approximation

(RMSEA) (when < 0.05, the model is considered as

good-fitted, when < 0.01 – as excellent-fitted), and Aka-

ike Information Criterion (the more this index is close

to 0, the better the model fits the data). All calculations

were carried out in Statistica 5.5.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlations between va-

riables are presented in Tab. 2. When the entire sample

data were used, all correlations between the variables

turned out significant – the strongest correlations existed

between attitude and PBC (r = 0.54) and between attitude

and intention (r = 0.50), the weakest correlation was be-

tween subjective norms and physical activity (r = 0.18).

When calculated for each sex separately, the data sho-

wed that for boys the correlations between subjective

norms and physical activity and between subjective

norms and intention were insignificant. Com parisons

between boys and girls demonstrated that the average

amount of time devoted to leisure time physical activity

was significantly higher for boys (p = 0.002) and that

boys seemed to perceive greater social pressure on per-

forming physical activity (the mean of subjective norms

scale was higher at p = 0.036). In the case of intention

only tendency toward statistical difference was obse-

rved (with boys showing stronger intentions; p = 0.078).

The assessment of causal relationships between varia-

bles was performed with structural equation modelling

(path analysis). Indexes of goodness-of-fit showed an

adequate fit of the TPB model to the data: χ2 p = 0.90;

RMSEA = 0.001; GFI = 0.99; AGFI = 0.99, Akaike In-

formation Criterion = 0.092. Causal relationships be-

tween the variables and obtained values of structural

path coefficients are shown on the path diagram in

Fig. 2. Single-headed arrows show causal effects, point-

ing from cause to effect, double-headed arrows show

merely a correlation between variables. Arrows point-

ing at the variables of “intention” and “physical activity”

that are not anchored to another variable of the model

show the so-called residual error, and represent the in-

fluence of factors not included in the analysis.

The intention toward physical activity had a signi-

ficant and strong influence on this kind of behaviour

(β = 0.73, p = 0.000), while the influence of PBC on

physical activity was insignificant (β = 0.03, p = 0.774).

The significant contributors to intention were identified

as attitude (p = 0.000) and PBC (p = 0.004), whereas

the influence of subjective norms was insignificant

(p = 0.228). The stronger of the two significant predic-

tors was attitude, whose effect size was β = 0.43, which

is considered the upper level of medium effect, while

values of path coefficients greater than 0.5 are conside-

red large effect. The influence of PBC was small, but

close to medium: β = 0.23. Thus, attitude appeared to be

the most important source of influence on intention.

This conclusion is also supported by calculation of indi-

rect influences of attitude, subjective norms and PBC

on physical activity: indirect influence of attitude was

Figure 2. Path diagram showing causal relationships between

the four Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) variables and

sizes of the path coefficients found in the study

Subjectivenorms

Physical activityIntention

Attitude

Perceived behavioural

control

0.54*

0.43*

0.23*

* Path significant at p < 0.05

Note: the two unanchored arrows pointing at Intention and Physical activity are residual errors

0.44*

0.38*

0.09 0.73*

0.03

0.85* 0.68


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0.31, comparing with 0.17 for PBC and 0.06 for subjecti-

ve norms. Path analyses performed separately for both

sexes (not shown in path diagrams) disclosed that the

influence of attitudes on intentions was the most impor-

tant source of influence both in boys and in girls, and

especially strong among the former (β = 0.62, p = 0.000;

compared with β = 0.33, p = 0.000 for girls). The sexes

differed in relation to the size effect of subjective norms

on intention and PBC on intention. In the first case the

influence was insignificant for boys (p = 0.11), and

significant, although weak, for girls (β = 0.19, p = 0.029).

It may suggest that although boys perceive more social

pressure to be physically active, girls are more influenced

by it. The influence of PBC on intention was significant

and moderately strong for boys (β = 0.33, p = 0.008) and

weak and insignificant for girls (β = 0.18, p = 0.062).

Discussion

The study shows that the TPB may pose a useful

theoretical framework for explaining the leisure time

physical activity behaviours of youth aged 13–19. The

intention toward leisure time physical activity at least

partially influenced participation in this kind of exerci-

se behaviour. Attitude, subjective norms and PBC acco-

unted for about 29% of variance in intention (F(3, 299)

= 39.87; p = 0.000; R2 = 0.29). From the three determi-

nants of intention predicted by the TPB, attitude and

PBC were significant, while the influence of subjective

norms on intention was not. This finding is in accordan-

ce with many studies in which the first two variables

turned out much stronger predictors of intention than

the third one, with their influence on intention small or

insignificant; see e.g. Hagger et al. [11]. Our results may

suggest that other forms of social influence on intention

should be taken into account, like social support. The

suggestion found its preliminary confirmation in the

study of Courneya et al. [16], who discovered that this

construct better predicts intentions than subjective

norms. In our study social influence on intention was

restricted to subjective norms and operationalised in

accordance with the original TPB model. As mentioned

previously, the influence of subjective norms on inten-

tion may also be mediated by other variables, not con-

trolled in the study. As the study of Latimer and Ginis

[15] shows, one such variable may be the extent to

which people are concerned with others’ approval of

them: for people highly concerned with receiving disap-

proval from others (i.e. with high fear of negative evalu-

ation) the influence of subjective norms on intentions to

exercise was higher than for people who were low on

the aforementioned kind of fear.

The research also showed that the direct effect of

perceived behavioural control on physical activity was

insignificant. It should be noted, however, that the qu-

estion of such an influence, although assumed in the

theory, is not conclusive amongst investigations. Some

research has found the influence to be significant and

strong [10], in others it turned out insignificant, and

some authors believed themselves justified to ignore the

path between the variables completely [23].

There were differences between sexes in relation to

the influence of TPB variables on intention, although

there was a relatively small number of males in the cur-

rent study. This question is undoubtedly interesting

from both theoretical and practical point of view, as it

may provide information to design effective educational

interventions taking into account potential sex-based

differences in physical activity determinants.

Conclusions

The study showed that the TPB may be a useful

model to identify factors that potentially influence in-

tention to undertake leisure time physical activity

among adolescents aged 13–19. Two conclusions for

educational interventions could be drawn from the

study. Firstly, the results suggest an important role of

attitudes in forming behavioural intention. This fin-

ding supports the view of those theoreticians of physi-

cal education in Poland who claim that developing atti-

tudes is the most important goal of education toward

physical activity [19]. Secondly, perceived behavioural

control must be enhanced by convincing young people

that they possess appropriate resources (such as skills)

to perform the behaviour of interest, and they must be

taught techniques to cope with common barriers to

physical activity.

References

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terminants, well-being and interventions. Routledge, London–

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Press, Chicago 1988.


HUMAN MOVEMENT

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intention: Conceptual and methodological issues. J Sport Exerc

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6. Bandura A., Self-efficacy. The exercise of self-control. W.H.

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J Sports Sci, 1999, 17, 269–281.

Paper received by the Editors: May 30, 2005.

Paper accepted for publication: April 4, 2006.



Zakład Pedagogiki i Edukacji Zdrowotnej

Katedra Humanistycznych Podstaw Kultury Fizycznej

Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego

ul. Mikołowska 72A

40-065 Katowice, Poland



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111

MELATONIN AND OTHER PARAMETERS OF BLOOD ANTIOXIDANT SYSTEM IN VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS DURING AN ANNUAL TRAINING CYCLE

Introduction

The first report on the antioxidant properties of mela-

tonin was published by Tan et al. [1] in 1993. Since this

publication melatonin has been a subject of numerous

studies carried out on humans and test animals [2–8].

The existence of an indole cycle in the melatonin

molecule is the reason for its anti-oxidative properties

[2, 9]. Reiter [10] revealed in his research that melatonin

was a scavenger of peroxyl anion radicals and a poten-

tial scavenger of hydroxyl. Following Reiter, Hardeland

et al. [2] and Poeggeler et al. [9] suggested a mechanism

through which melatonin functioned as an antioxidant.

According to them, the reaction between the indole cyc-

le and hydroxyl or peroxyl radicals produces an indole

cation, which is then converted into a stable form of

N1-acetyl-N2-5-methoxykunuramin (AMK). According

to Halliwell [11], melatonin antioxidant activity is reali-

zed through two mechanisms: scavenging free radicals

and inhibiting their formation. The melatonin antioxi-

dant activity is also manifested by detoxicating hydro-

gen peroxide and lipid peroxides [3, 6, 12, 13].

Melatonin features a great ability of cell penetration.

It is easily dissoluble in the hydrophobic and hydrophi-

Agata Konarska1, Joanna Karolkiewicz2, Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak2,*

1 Chair of Sports Medicine and Physicotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland2 Chair of Physiology, Biochemistry and Hygiene, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The aim of the study was to analyze changes in prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters, with special focus on melatonin

as an antioxidant, in volleyball players during an annual training cycle. Basic procedures. The study was attended by eleven

volleyball players aged 16–17 years from the UKS “Budowlanka” Poznań sports club. The measurements were taken on five dates: in

the preparatory “A” period (September 2002), in the pre-starting period (October 2002), in the starting period (March 2003), in the

transient period (May 2003) and in the preparatory “B” period (September 2003). On all the dates, venous blood from the basilic vein

was drawn from resting players. The concentration of melatonin (MLT), creatinine and creatine kinase (CK) in venous blood serum

was estimated. Also, the total antioxidant capacity (TAS) and concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the

blood plasma were determined. Main findings. The obtained results showed that the parameters of prooxidant-antioxidant balance

in players during an annual training cycle differed significantly in individual periods. The lowest level of concentration of both MLT

and TAS occurred in the starting period (the third date of measurements), when the subjects were training with the heaviest physical

loads. MLT concentration at the beginning of the pre-starting period, as compared with the preparatory period, was increasing,

however, without statistical significance. A highly statistically significant difference was noted between the pre-starting period and

the starting period (p ≤ 0.01), when the level of MLT was reduced from 26.04 to 15.2 pg/ml. A statistically significant increase in MLT

concentration in relation to the starting period was observed in the transient period (p < 0.05). In the analysis of the concentration of

the total antioxidant capacity of plasma (TAS) on five dates of measurements, a significant decrease on the third date, as compared

with the first one, was found; from the third date of measurement, the TAS level grew systematically. Nevertheless, the difference in

TAS at the beginning and at the end of the study was not statistically significant, although there was a growth tendency from 1.6 to

1.7 mmol/l. In the period between the first and the third dates of measurement, an increase was observed in the concentration of

TBARS, i.e. products of peroxidation of lipids reacting with thiobarbituric acid. On the third date of measurement, the concentration

of the compound in question increased significantly (p ≤ 0.01), as compared with the second date of measurement; on the fourth

date, no statistically significant changes in the concentration of this parameter were observed. Conclusions. (1) The average resting

concentration of melatonin in blood serum depends on the type of training load, which confirms its participation in eliminating

oxidative stress induced by the character of training load. (2) Concentrations of the studied oxidative stress parameters in the blood of

volleyball players in individual mesocycles of an annual training cycle seem to be determined by the type of training load. The lowest

concentrations of the parameters of the antioxidant system were observed in the starting period, i.e. when the players were training

with the heaviest training loads.

Key words: melatonin, antioxidant system, physical activity

2006, vol. 7 (2), 111–117

*Corresponding author.

AWF_7_2_03Konarska03_2k_DRUK.indd 111 12/15/2006, 10:00:39 AM

HUMAN MOVEMENT

112

A. Konarska, J. Karolkiewicz, Ł. Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak, Parameters of blood antioxidant system in volleyball players

lic environment, and its intracellular concentration is

often higher than its concentration in body fluids. De-

spite its lower concentration than glutathione, melatonin

is widely available in the cell and thus regarded by

a number of researchers as one of the most important

antioxidants [2, 3, 10]. Pieri et al. [4], in their in vitro

study, showed that melatonin was a scavenger of hydro-

xide radicals – belonging to the most reactive and toxic

free radicals – five times more effective than glutathione

and ten times more effective than mannitol. They also

revealed that melatonin was a far more effective peroxyl

radical scavenger than vitamin C, vitamin E and redu-

ced glutathione. A study by Alonso et al. [14] showed

that melatonin acted as a protection against exercise-in-

duced inflammatory damage in rat muscle by inhibiting

the expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and NF-

-κB kinase. The majority of studies on the antioxidant

activity of melatonin were conducted in vitro [2, 9] or

on test animals [15]. The results of human studies are

fewer; moreover the researchers have worked in various

conditions.

In regard to melatonin’s possible significance in the

system of endogenous antioxidant defense, research was

undertaken here aimed at specification of changes in

prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters in volleyball

players in an annual training cycle, with a special em-

phasis on melatonin as an antioxidant.


The study sample consisted of eleven volleyball

players from the UKS “Budowlanka” Poznań sports

club. The anthropometric profiles of the subjects, as

well as their training experience during five successive

measurement periods are presented in Tab. 1.

The subjects were training for 90 minutes, four times

a week on the average. During an annual training cycle

they took part in two training camps (a 14-day camp in

July and a 12-day camp in August). At the camps, the

subjects trained three times a day.

The measurements were taken during the annual

training cycle at the turn of 2002 and 2003, on five da-

tes: in the preparatory “A” period (September 2002), in

the pre-starting period (October 2002), in the starting

period (March 2003), in the transient period (May 2003)

and in the preparatory “B” period (September 2003).

Table 1. Basic characteristics of subjects in five study periods (n = 11)

Study period

± SD

I II III IV V

Age (years) 16.0 ± 0.45 16.0 ± 0.45 16.5 ± 0.69 16.6 ± 0.67 17.1 ± 0.30

Body height (cm) 183.0 ± 6.12 183.0 ± 6.42 184.0 ± 6.44 184.0 ± 6.37 185.0 ± 6.97

Body mass (kg) 73.0 ± 8.46 73.7 ± 8.42 73.9 ± 8.91 74.6 ± 9.60 76.6 ± 8.59

BMI (kg/m2) 21.9 ± 2.34 21.9 ± 2.22 21.8 ± 2.48 22.0 ± 2.77 22.4 ± 2.78

Training experience (years) 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 4.3 ± 2.45 5.3 ± 2.45

Table 2. The mean active training time with consideration of versatile exercises (V), guided exercises (G),

special exercises (S) and exercise intensity in the study periods of the volleyball players’ annual training cycle

Training period

Exercise category Energy range

Total

time

(hours:

minutes)V G S

Maintenance

Development

Aerobic MixedAnaerobic

– lactic

Anaerobic

– nonlactic

Intensity range

1 2 3 4 5

Preparatory “A” period 51% 30% 19% 12.0% 22.0% 33.0% 16.5% 16.5% 82:30

Pre-starting period 19% 31% 50% 11.0% 16.5% 25.0% 22.0% 25.5% 36:00

Starting period 10% 27% 63% 14.0% 10.5% 14.5% 28.0% 33.0% 162:00

Transient period 60% 31% 9% 12.0% 33.0% 28.5% 12.5% 14.0% 31:30

Preparatory “B” period 50% 31% 19% 10.0% 21.0% 34.0% 18.0% 17.0% 120:00


HUMAN MOVEMENT

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The training loads during each period are presented in

Tab. 2.

The blood for tests was taken from the basilic vein of

the subjects with an empty stomach, between 8 a.m. and

9 a.m. in a room in broad daylight (the subjects did not

exercise on the preceding day). The melatonin (MLT)

concentration in the venous blood serum was marked

with the ELISA immunoenzymatic method using the

ICN Biomedicals set (USA). The following parameters

were estimated in the blood plasma: total antioxidant

capacity (TAS, total antioxidant status) – with a test

developed by the Randox Laboratories Ltd. based on in-

hibition of ABTS (2,2’-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoli-

ne-6-sulfonic acid) oxidation; concentration of thiobar-

bituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) – with a spec-

trophotometric method with n-butanol extraction of

chromogen, following the guidelines suggested by Bu-

ege and Aust [16]; creatine kinase activity – with the

Cormay test (Poland). Lactate concentration in the capil-

lary blood from the tip of the finger was marked with the

enzymatic method using a Boehrringer–Manheim test.

In order to estimate the effect of training loads on

the prooxidant–antioxidant balance parameters, as well

as on melatonin concentration in blood serum, an analy-

sis of the subjects’ training loads in the successive pe-

riods of the annual training cycle was performed. The

training loads were classified according to the applied

training means: versatile, guided and special. A collec-

tive registration sheet of training loads and a register of

training means categories were used [17].

The obtained study results were then statistically

processed. All parameters were checked in terms of

conformity of their distribution with normal distribu-

tion. The conformity was evaluated with the Shapiro–

Wilk test; the level of statistical significance was set at

p = 0.05. To estimate the statistical differences signifi-

cance, Chi-squared test was used. All calculations were

made with Statistica 6.0 PL software.

The study was conducted with the subjects’ consent

and was granted the approval of the Local Ethics Com-

mittee of Scientific Research at the University School of

Medical Sciences in Poznań, Poland.

Results

The results of the study are presented in Tab. 1–3

and graphically illustrated in Fig. 1–3. Tab. 1 presents

the basic characteristics of the subjects in five periods

of the annual training cycle (from September 2002 to

September 2003). The mean age of the subjects ranged

from 16 to 17 years, and their average training experien-

ce amounted to five years.

Tab. 2 shows the mean training active time and inten-

sity in the studied periods of the training cycle. The sub-

jects were training for 90 min, four times a week. During

the annual training cycle they took part in two training

camps (a 14-day camp in July and 12-day camp in

August). At the camps the training sessions took place

three times a day. The study was conducted at the turn of

2002 and 2003.

The mean values of prooxidant-antioxidant parame-

ters in the blood of resting players during each period of

measurement are shown in Tab. 3 and graphically illu-

strated in Fig. 1–3.

Statistically significant differences, at 1% confiden-

ce level, in blood melatonin concentration were noted

between the pre-starting and starting periods (11.2 pg/

ml decrease). Differences at the 5% confidence level

were observed between the preparatory “A” period and

starting period (7.5 pg/ml decrease), preparatory “A”

period and preparatory “B” period (4.5 pg/ml decrease),

pre-starting period and preparatory “B” period (8.2 pg/

ml decrease), and starting period and transient period

(10 pg/ml increase).

Statistically significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) in the

total antioxidant capacity of the subjects’ blood plasma

Table 3. Mean values of selected parameters of oxidative stress in volleyball players’ blood

Parameter

Measurement dates

± SD

I II III IV V

TAS (mmol/l) 1.6 ± 0.50 1.3 ± 0.43 1.2 ± 0.37 1.3 ± 0.39 1.7 ± 0.52

MLT (pg/ml) 22.7 ± 9.24 26.4 ± 9.80 15.2 ± 4.69 25.2 ± 12.37 18.2 ± 5.76

TBARS (µmol/l) 2.2 ± 0.89 2.0 ± 0.64 3.0 ± 0.46 3.1 ± 0.85 2.2 ± 0.18

CK (U/I) 60.8 ± 9.36 65.2 ± 19.29 62.8 ± 13.12 57.1 ± 13.33 54.4 ± 17.84

TAS – total antioxidant status, MLT – melatonin, TBARS – thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, CK – creatine kinase


HUMAN MOVEMENT

114


were noted between the starting period and the prepara-

tory “B” period (0.5 mmol/l increase), and, at the 5%

confidence level, between the preparatory “A” period and

starting period (0.4 mmol/l decrease), pre-starting and

preparatory “B” periods (0.4 mmol/l increase), starting

and transient periods (0.1 mmol/l increase), and transient

and preparatory “B” periods (0.4 mmol/l increase).

Statistically significant differences in the concentra-

tion of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS),

at the 1% confidence level, were observed between the

preparatory “A” and starting periods (0.8 µmol/l incre-

ase), pre-starting and starting periods (1 µmol/l incre-

ase), pre-starting and transient periods (1.1 µmol/l in-

crease), starting and preparatory “B” periods (0.8 µmol/l

increase), and transient and preparatory “B” periods

(0.9 µmol/l decrease). Differences at the 5% confidence

level were noted between the preparatory and transient

periods.

Discussion

Intense physical exercise is a commonly recognized

factor inducing oxidative stress. The level of prooxidant

changes intensification is determined by the exercise

intensity and duration [18–22]. The above-mentioned

effect of exercise is clearly demonstrated by the study of

Goto et al. [23]. For twelve weeks, the authors observed

three groups of young men performing exercises on

a cycle ergometer with different intensities (25, 50, 75%

VO2max

); the increase in peroxidative processes was re-

gistered only in the group performing exercises of the

highest intensity.

Karolkiewicz and Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak [24] in

their study of male rowers, proved that the increase in

the physical capacity in the annual training cycle corre-

sponded to the increase in glutathione (GSH) – a basic

intraerythrocyte antioxidant. Jenkins et al. [25] noted

that oxygen uptake by a human muscle in vitro was clo-

sely related to catalase and superoxide dismutase activi-

ty, which can suggest that an increase in muscle aerobic

metabolism corresponds to an increase in the muscle

antioxidant potential. During the study mentioned, the

activity of the enzymes of the “enzymatic triad” and the

concentration of reduced glutathione in red cell hemoly-

sate were not marked. Instead, the authors focused on

the dynamics of the changes in total antioxidative capa-

city, including melatonin.

Tab. 3 and Fig. 1–3 show that the concentrations of

the studied parameters in the five periods of the annual

training cycle (from 2002 preparatory period until 2003

preparatory period) differed significantly. The different

values of the studied parameters observed in individual

training mesocycles seem to confirm their dependence

Figure 1. Mean resting concentration of melatonin (MLT)

(pg/ml) in the annual training cycle

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

meanmean ± SDmin.-max.

�2 = 14.28

p < 0.01

MLT

(p

g/m

l)

I II III IV V

Measurement dates

The level of statistical significance between the study periods: p ≤ 0.01: II-IIIp < 0.05: I-III, I-V, II-V, III-IV

Figure 2. Mean resting total antioxidant status (TAS)

(mmol/l) in the annual training cycle

3.4

3.2

3.0

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4


�2 = 10.12

p < 0.05

TA

S (

mm

ol/

l)

I II III IV V

Measurement dates

The level of statistical significance between the study periods:p ≤ 0.01: III-Vp < 0.05: I-III, II-V, III-IV, IV-V


HUMAN MOVEMENT

115


on the character of training loads applied. The lowest

MLT and TAS concentration was noted in the starting

period (the third period under study), i.e. when the sub-

jects were training with the heaviest training loads.

Such changes noted during the third period under study

can result from the high MLT and TAS depletion in re-

sponse to long-lasting intense exercise, which, during

the third period, was characterized by the highest con-

tribution of phosphagen and glycolytic-lactic metabo-

lism to the coverage of energy expenses.

In the starting period, the total training volume amo-

unted to 9720 min (6121 min for special training loads,

814 for guided training loads, and only 97 for versatile

loads). In the remaining training mesocycles the pro-

portions between training loads were different. For

instance, in the preparatory period, the volume of spe-

cial training amounted to 940 min, and that of versatile

training – to 2524 min. Thus, in the starting period,

about 60% of the training work involved a significant

contribution of anaerobic metabolism, whereas in the

preparatory period 50% of the training work consisted

of aerobic loads. Because of prooxidant changes intensi-

fication in the starting period, a significant increase in

creatine kinase was noted [26]. Creatine kinase contri-

butes to the production of phosphocreatine and cata-

lyzes the reversible transfer of high energy pho-

sphate between phosphocreatine and adenosine-5-di-

phosphate (ADP) [27]. Radda’s study [28] proved that

the volume of absorbed oxygen depended on creatine

kinase activity, which was limited by the cell ratio be-

tween creatine and phosphocreatine. During the star-

ting period, the activity of this intracellular enzyme was

higher than in the other periods, with the exception of

the pre-starting period (Tab. 3), and was correlated with

the TBARS concentration near the level of statistical si-

gnificance (r = 0.543; p = 0.0810). In the second period

under study, characterized by the highest activity of

creatine kinase (CK), the correlation CK activity and

TBARS concentration appeared to be statistically signi-

ficant (r = 0.527; p < 0.05). It shows that the subjects’

heavy training loads in the pre-starting and starting pe-

riods contributed to the increase of their oxidative

stress. It should be added, however, that there may be

more reasons for the increase in CK activity. Apart

from exercise duration and intensity, an increase in CK

activity in blood may depend on training experience,

type of muscle contraction or gender [29–32]. Poprzęcki

et al. [31] showed that the increase in CK activity follo-

wing concentric exercise was lower than that following

eccentric exercise.

The significant correlation between the training me-

socycles and melatonin blood concentration and total

antioxidant capacity is reflected in the changes observed

in the remaining periods under study. The melatonin

concentration in the pre-starting period was higher than

in the preparatory period, but the difference was not sta-

tistically significant. A statistically significant difference

was recorded between the pre-starting period and the

starting period (from 26.4 to 15.2 pg/ml; p ≤ 0.01). Ano-

ther statistically significant difference in melatonin

concentration was noted between the starting period

and the transient period (p < 0.05). Alongside the chan-

ges in melatonin concentration, also changes in the total

antioxidant capacity in blood plasma were observed. It

can be concluded that melatonin is an integral compo-

nent of the plasma total antioxidant capacity, despite the

fact that no significant correlation between the studied

parameters was found. Data from literature indicate

that melatonin participates in antioxidant defense by

stimulating the activity of hepatic peroxidase glutathio-

ne [33], which decomposes hydrogen peroxide and,

thus, inhibits peroxidation processes.

It should be emphasized, however, that changes in

melatonin concentration, as compared with TAS con-

centration, featured significantly higher dynamics (one

Figure 3. Mean resting concentration

of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) (µmol/l)

in the annual training cycle

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0


�2 = 24.02

p < 0.01

TB

AR

S (

µm

ol/

l)

I II III IV V

Measurement dates

The level of statistical significance between the study periods:p ≤ 0.01: I-III, II-III, II-IV, III-V, IV-Vp < 0.05: I-IV


HUMAN MOVEMENT

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has to bear in mind that the subjects were not supple-

mented with antioxidative preparations). The level of

melatonin and TAS concentration declined from the

first to the third period; however, only in the case of

MLT were the differences statistically significant, at 1%

confidence level. A similar tendency was observed du-

ring the time between the transient period and the star-

ting period; in the former, both MLT and TAS concen-

trations were significantly higher, at 5% level of confi-

dence (Fig. 2, 3).

A manifestation of the increasing oxidative stress

between the first and third periods is an increase in

thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The

TBARS concentration in blood serum reflects the level

of peroxidation of cell membrane lipids and their cle-

arance in the liver [21]. In the starting period, the

TBARS concentration was significantly higher than in

the pre-starting period (p ≤ 0.01); no statistically signifi-

cant differences were noted between the transient and

preparatory “B” period. Different studies have indicated

that exercise intensity has a decisive effect on lipid pe-

roxidation [34, 35]. Exercise of high intensity signifi-

cantly increases TBARS concentration, whereas exercise

of low intensity causes no changes in the concentration

of this parameter.

The total antioxidant capacity of blood serum (TAS)

was significantly lower in the starting period than in the

preparatory “A” period, and significantly higher in the

fourth and fifth periods. The difference in the TAS le-

vel between the first and fifth periods was not statisti-

cally significant, but an increase was noted from 1.6 to

1.7 mmol/l. The increase in all the studied parameters

in the fourth and fifth periods is associated with the

subjects’ lighter training loads at that time. In the tran-

sient period, aerobic exercises constituted about 60% of

the training work, whereas anaerobic exercises only

9%, i.e. 170 min. In the preparatory “B” period, aerobic

exercises amounted to 50% of the training time (3600

min), and anaerobic exercises only 1368 min. It is also

interesting that no statistically significant correlations

between the periods mentioned were noted. The chan-

ges in the studied parameters in the transient period are

difficult to explain. As Tab. 3 shows, an increase in

TAS and MLT concentration, as well as a slight in-

crease in TBARS and decrease in CK activity were re-

corded in the transient period. On the one hand, these

positive changes in the studied parameters can be attri-

buted to the application of lighter training loads, on the

other hand, the higher TBARS concentration is not

indicative of such influence of training loads. Some stu-

dies show that in highly trained athletes the TBARS

concentration is correlated with maximal absorption of

oxygen and is higher than in untrained subjects [22,

36].

Between the first and the fifth periods under study

(preparatory season 2002 and 2003), statistically signi-

ficant differences in melatonin and creatine kinase con-

centration were observed. The mean values of other pa-

rameters were almost identical. The causes of melatonin

concentration lowering are numerous; however, in the

present study, the factor of lighting, the time of drawing

blood and physical exercise preceding drawing the

blood samples were excluded.

Conclusions

1. The average resting concentration of melatonin in

blood serum depends on the type of training load,

which confirms its participation in eliminating oxidati-

ve stress induced by the character of training load.

2. Concentrations of the oxidative stress parameters

in the blood of volleyball players in particular mesocyc-

les of the annual training cycle seem to be determined

by the type of training load. The lowest concentrations

of the parameters of the antioxidant system were noted

in the starting period, i.e. when the subjects were tra-

ining with the heaviest training loads.

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Paper received by the Editors: June 1, 2006.

Paper accepted for publication: October 3, 2006.


Łucja Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak

Zakład Higieny


ul. Królowej Jadwigi 27/39

61-871 Poznań, Poland



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2006, vol. 7 (2), 118–129

THE STRUCTURE OF VOLLEYBALL PLAYING DISPOSITIONS IN PLAYERS AGED 14–15, CANDIDATES FOR THE POLISH NATIONAL TEAM

Introduction

Complex practical problems connected with the spe-

cificity of players’ actions during a sports competition

are often studied from the scientific and cognitive

points of view. Gaining information by way of an objec-

tive analysis of the conditions of players’ actions in

achieving the game’s objective is an issue of fundamen-

tal significance. Its effective solution can vastly contri-

bute to the development of individual sports games in

theory and praxis. One of the most basic concepts lin-

ked to the problem mentioned is the player’s action,

which is understood as the player’s conscious, intentio-

nal and free behaviour in particular game situations [1].

The player’s action skills are conditioned by his

situation in the field, as well as his psychological, intel-

lectual and motor abilities, called ontogenetic disposi-

tions. “A good player is characterized by his personality

traits, specialist knowledge of the game and training,

effective decision-making processes, special motor

skills, coordination skills, fitness and agility” [1].

According to Panfil [2], the terms “traits” or “abili-

ties”, commonly used in anthropomotorics or theory of

sport, refer to the athlete’s body in general. If there is,

however, a visible significant relationship between

a player’s abilities and effectiveness in action, such abi-

lities should be understood as dispositions to play,

which make the player’s action possible. Naglak [1] de-

fines athlete’s abilities as individual differences which

make individuals – uniformly trained and motivated

– achieve different effects in learning and acting. Accor d-

ing to Panfil [2], the basic ontogenetic traits manifes ting

particular dispositions to play include constitutional

traits, intellectual traits (states of mind), coordina tive

traits (abilities), fitness traits (abilities), psychological

traits (states), social traits (skills), and organizational

traits (skills).

Following Morawski [3], it can be assumed that man

is a subject characterized by cohesion (everything has

its cause), complexity (existence of different levels, each

being necessary for effective action), and dynamics

(a given state in time can be altered without external

Edward Superlak

Chair of Team Sports Games, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. Skills of players in complex game situations are conditioned by the range and level of their ontogenetic dispositions, which

are usually classified into psychological, intellectual, coordinative, fitness-related, organizational and social. A player’s highly

developed dispositions may form new qualitative complexes of dispositions, called interdispositions, being effects of the player’s

dispositional synergy. The study aims at a multi- and interdisciplinary identification of dispositions to play volleyball in young players

with a high level of playing skills, necessary to achieve the game’s objectives. Basic procedures. The range of volleyball skills includes

service, reception, game tactics, offensive action, blocking and defensive action skills. The subjects for the study were 84 talented

young volleyball players, aged 14–15. The methods used in the study included pedagogical tests and anthropometric measurements.

Main findings. The analysis of the collected data showed that the highest percentage of players were distinguished by their intellectual

potential (IQ, 19%), body mass (19%) and the level of specialist knowledge (17.9%). The lowest percentage of players were

distinguished by their short response time to the test of knowledge (10.7%) and jumping ability (11.9%). The applied model of internal

synergy constituted a structure of dispositions on a significantly high level featured by one of the players. In order to achieve the aim

of the study, a multidisciplinary approach to players’ dispositions was adopted, combining elements of psychology, anthropomotorics

and theory of sports games. Conclusions. The high percentage of players with higher than average levels of two different dispositions

constitutes an important factor in seeking interdispositions, i.e. internal interdispositional synergy. It might be assumed that the fitness

interdisposition is composed of speed–strength–jumping ability dispositions. The intellectual (semantic-cognitive) interdisposition

consists of specialist knowledge and intellectual potential. If a player features a very high level of two different dispositions, not only

his dispositions, but also interdispositions can be determined. A player with a high level of skills in solving different situations during

a game who presents high levels of dispositions is a player with an interdisposition of rational and dynamic action.

Key words: ontogenetic dispositions, interdispositions, internal synergy, playing skills

AWF_7_2_04Superlak03_2k_DRUK.indd 118 12/15/2006, 10:54:56 AM

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E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young players

influence). By accepting the above triad of factors, it

can be concluded that a player’s ontogenetic disposi-

tions, regardless of their number and level of segmenta-

tion, constitute a certain entity, i.e. structure.

Considering the different pace of mental and physi-

cal development of children and adolescents, particular

traits (abilities) are developed unequally, which means

that everyone possesses an individual and unique struc-

ture of dispositions. An action is undertaken by a player

in his internal sphere (perception, information proces-

sing, making decisions), and external sphere (realisation

of motor tasks). With regard to different ontogenetic dispo-

sitions, implementation of the same task (from its com-

mencement to its conclusion) by different players acti-

vates their individual dispositions on different levels.

This means that producing similar results during the

same action by different players is conditioned by the

individual (ontogenetic) activation of particular dispo-

sitions (internally and externally) (Fig. 1).

Due to its specificity of actions, each team game

predestines players with dispositions required for the

game.

Panfil [4], in his research on the possibilities of mu-

tual compensation of ontogenetic dispositions influen-

cing players’ effective action in play, observed that

some players featured a compensation of traits or abili-

ties. In consequence, a player’s dispositions (often diffe-

rent from those required for the game) contribute to

their effectiveness in action and achievement of the ga-

me’s objectives. This phenomenon is called “equi-fina-

lism”; thanks to it, players with different structures of

ontogenetic dispositions, by undertaking proper actions,

fulfil the praxeological criteria of effectiveness in play,

e.g. reliability, efficacy and activeness. The case of spike

in volleyball may serve as an illustration of this process.

The effectiveness of a spike depends on the player’s le-

vel of concentration, his perception of external factors

relevant to the performance of a spike (the number of

blocking players of the opposing team, receiving forma-

tion, set-up of the defensive players in the back court,

the score of the game, etc.), evaluation of the ball trajec-

tory in time and space, planning and realization of the

sequence of movements, largely dependent on the play-

er’s coordination abilities (spatial orientation, movement

smoothness and accuracy, motor adjustment) and fit-

ness (speed and strength). The same effects of action

can be achieved by players with different structures of

ontogenetic dispositions, e.g. body height, level of play-

ing skills, etc. Different players achieve the same effect

acting in the same conditions, but they “utilize” different

dispositions or the same dispositions on different levels

of activation (using them to a different extent). This pro-

cess is called compensation of action, or, more precise-

ly, mutual compensation of ontogenetic dispositions.

According to Panfil [4], individual dispositions af-

fect sports play interdependently but to a different

extent. In team games, different arrangements of mutual

ontogenetic dispositions can be observed. They form

interdispositions and ensure effective actions allowing

the game’s objectives to be achived. An interdisposition

is an arrangement of interrelated ontogenetic dispositions

which leads to formation of a new quality, and does not

constitute merely a direct sum of the constituent disposi-

tions. Interdispositions are formed through internal

synergic effects related to players’ psychophysi cal ca-

pabilities, and they are achieved through a perfect

cooperation of different body systems (Fig. 2). Synergy

in team games is an equi-final arrangement of facilita-

tion and organization effects that leads to achieving the

game’s objectives. The effects mentioned constitute the

so-called external synergy. It is determined by interde-

pendent ontogenetic dispositions of individual team

players, which form equi-final arrangements of syner-

gic dispositions. The synergic arrangements of ontoge-

netic dispositions to play are called internal synergy. Figure 1. Hypothetical participation of a selected player’s

ontogenetic dispositions during the player’s action

A

C

T

I

O

N

Reaction

Level of disposition activation

Psychological

Intellectual

Coordinative

Fitness-related

Categories of ontogenetic dispositions

Stimulus


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Czajkowski [5], in his description of theories of per-

sonality referring to Eysenck’s theory of personality

traits, states that “a certain one-sidedness of this theory

is a perception of man as a collection of particular

features and properties, with insufficient emphasis on

the mutual interaction of these factors”. Czajkowski

concentrates on finding relationships between the traits

and properties within one sphere (mental sphere), i.e. on

finding a mental interdisposition.

Studies on intellectualization in young soccer play-

ers during learning special playing skills by way of

acquisition of specialist knowledge, its understanding

and application, were carried out by Duda [6]. The au-

thor shows that players featuring a higher level of intel-

lectual abilities develop better playing skills. Superlak’s

study [7] indicated that young volleyball players (14–15-

-year-old) with the training experience of 0.5–4 years

have acquired the specialist knowledge of the game in

6–48%. There was, however, no statistically significant

correlation between the level of acquired knowledge

and the actual results in sports competition.

In his work on tactical decisions in team games,

Krawczyński [8] notices “an unquestionable direct rela-

tionship between motor skills and intellectual proces-

ses”. The authors quoted by Krawczyński (Lacombe,

Sarrazin, Alain) are convinced that “making decisions

is an important aspect of the cognitive processes in

sport, as the quality of a single sports action depends

equally on the accuracy of movement and the speed of

decision-making processes”.

Ulatowski [9] stresses the concurrent learning of fac-

tors subject to training, as they are all interrelated. Some

dispositions can be, in fact, interrelated. The que stion of

difficulty in recognising dispositions to play which con-

dition success in sport is discussed by Szwarc [10], who

claims that “a comprehensive recognition of playing

talents is impossible because of the uneven personal

development and multidimensional space of the player’s

self-fulfilment”.

In their research, Raczek et al. [11] express an opi-

nion that the study of human motor function should

concentrate not only on a multidimensional analysis of

the performed movements, but also on the recognition

of internal individual dispositions. The main dimension

of motor function are predispositions, defined by Szopa

et al. [12] as the elementary structural and functional

characteristics of the human body, which, to a large

extent, are genetically conditioned.

Depending on the player’s needs, his different dis-

positions are activated on different levels in different

circumstances of his actions. A correct decision is a de-

cision which is plausible in a given situation, has been

chosen out of many possible variants, has been taken

promptly, and has produced the effect of surprise in the

opponent with its timing and means. For instance,

a volleyball player, before delivering a serve, must

Figure 2. Model of mutual arrangements of dispositions and formation of interdispositions

Psychological dispositions Somatic features

Ontogenetic interdisposition

motivation

personality

temperament

emotions

kineticsmotor adjust-ment

balancespatial orienta-

tion

speed of reaction

Coordinative dispositions

Coordinative interdisposition

Psychological interdisposition

Intellectual dispositions

perception

decisions

intelligence

knowledge

speed endurance

strength efficiency

Fitness dispositions

Intellectual interdisposition

Fitness interdisposition


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choose one of many possible variants of action, conside-

ring his own skill level in performing different types of

service.

The player’s decision is based on his processing of

information regarding the receiving formation of the

opposing team. The serving player estimates the ability

to act in individual players of the receiving team and

chooses the player (or a spot on the court) with the

lowest level of playing skills (according to his own esti-

mates). Then he estimates the distance between the

served ball and the net (close or far). The player’s sequ-

ence of thoughts is his estimation of the probability of

an effective action (scoring a point). The external action

is the realisation of properly programmed and coordina-

ted motor tasks (following the player’s decision), i.e. se-

rving the ball, for example, into the back zone of the

opposing team’s court.

The player’s decisions are often determined by his

specialist knowledge about the game’s tactics and tech-

niques, by his intelligence (understood as an ability to

perceive and process information, draw conclusions and

implement the task), and by his emotional balance. It can

be assumed that the activated dispositions (satisfactory

condition) interact, on their different levels (necessary

condition), with one another, constituting a qualitatively

new arrangement of dispositions on a higher level (accu-

rate decision), called interdisposition. In a similar way,

interdispositions can be formed within particular sphe-

res of dispositions (psychological, intellectual, coordina-

tive, fitness-related) or across these spheres (Fig. 3).

Aim

The numerous studies on athletes’ ontogenetic dis-

positions, conditioning their effective actions, have been

mostly carried out from the standpoint of one particular

branch of science, e.g. psychology – Wlazło [13],

physiology – Chmura [14], bioengineering – Bober et

al. [15], biochemistry – Mędraś and Słowińska-Lisow-

ska [16], and the theory of human motor function

– Duda [6], Szwarc [10].

The aim of the study was a multi- and interdimen-

sional identification of dispositions to play volleyball in

young players featuring skills to act effectively during

a play. The basis for an effective action consists of indi-

vidual dispositions, hypothetically constituting a unique

qualitative and quantitative structure in each player.

The range of volleyball players’ skills includes effective

actions in service, reception, game tactics, offence,

blocking and defence.

The research questions were the following:

1. What are the disposition structures of players distin-

guished by particular categories of dispositions (in-

tellectual, fitness, somatic)?

2. Are there any internal synergies within the ontoge-

netic dispositions under study, manifested by a for-

Figure 3. Hypothetical arrangements of dispositions forming a player’s interdispositions of action

intelligence emotional balance

strength speed

perception knowledge

kinesthetic feeling

prompt reaction

motor adjustment spatial orientation

Accurate decision

– interdispositionPower

– interdisposition

Ontogenetic playing disposition

Accuracy of movement

– interdisposition


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122

E. Superlak, Volleyball playing dispositions in young playersT

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7

One-

arm

rea

ch

0.9

9

0.7

4

0.8

0 –

0.1

2 –

0.1

8

0.2

3 –

0.3

7 –

0.2

7 –

0.1

4 –

0.1

0 –

0.0

7 –

0.1

2 –

0.1

3

0.0

4 –

0.0

1

0.0

5

Tw

o-a

rm r

each

0.7

2

0.7

8 –

0.1

3 –

0.2

2

0.1

8 –

0.3

6 –

0.2

9 –

0.1

3 –

0.1

0 –

0.0

8 –

0.1

4 –

0.1

3

0.0

6

0.0

1

0.0

4

Jum

p w

ith o

ne

arm

up

0.9

3

0.5

8

0.4

2

0.3

3

0.0

3

0.0

4

0.1

2

0.0

0

0.0

9

0.0

0 –

0.0

1

0.1

5

0.0

2 –

0.0

7

Jum

p w

ith t

wo a

rms

up

0.4

1

0.4

4

0.2

7 –

0.0

8

0.0

7

0.1

0 –

0.0

2

0.0

7 –

0.0

4 –

0.1

2

0.1

4 –

0.0

1

0.0

5

Jum

pin

g a

bil

ity w

ith o

ne

arm

up

0.8

3

0.2

1

0.4

9

0.3

8

0.3

5

0.1

2

0.2

1

0.1

4

0.1

5

0.1

7

0.0

3 –

0.1

7

Jum

pin

g a

bil

ity w

ith t

wo a

rms

up

0.1

6

0.4

0

0.5

2

0.3

4

0.1

1

0.2

1

0.1

3

0.0

0

0.1

3 –

0.0

3

0.0

1

Dy

nam

ic f

orc

e

0.2

1

0.0

8

0.1

6

0.1

6

0.1

60.1

20.2

6–

0.0

10.2

9–

0.1

5

Loco

moti

ve

spee

d (

“envel

op

e”)

0.1

3

0.3

6

0.2

8

0.3

3

0.3

3

0.3

6

0.1

3

0.1

8 –

0.0

7

Sp

eed (

10m

ru

n)

0.0

9 –

0.1

6 –

0.0

1 –

0.0

9

0.0

5 –

0.0

2 –

0.0

3

0.0

5

Psy

cho

-moto

r re

spon

se 1

0.6

8

0.7

1

0.5

4

0.1

8

0.1

2

0.0

7

0.0

3

Tim

e 1

0.6

8

0.8

1

0.1

8

0.0

0

0.1

6

0.1

3

Psy

cho

-moto

r re

spon

se 2

0.8

3

0.1

5

0.0

7

0.0

0

0.1

4

Tim

e 2

0.1

5

0.0

4

0.1

6

0.2

0

Sp

ecia

list

know

ledge

–0.1

8

0.1

8 –

0.1

3

Know

ledge

test

tim

e –

0.1

1

0.1

4

IQ –

0.1

9

Tim

e IQ


HUMAN MOVEMENT

123


mation of new qualitative arrangements, i.e. interdi-

spositions?


The subjects for the study were 84 volleyball players

aged 14–15 years, training volleyball on a regular basis

for 1.5–4 years. The players played in 14 teams from all

over Poland, competing in the Polish Tournament of

Young Olympic Hopes under the auspices of the Polish

Volleyball Association. The subjects trained in sports

clubs and they were selected (by way of measurements,

fitness and qualification tests) for regional teams. The

main objective of the tournament was the selection of

the most outstanding players to the School of Sports

Championship of the Polish Volleyball Association,

and, consequently, to the national junior volleyball

team.

The study was carried out with an exploratory ap-

proach to recognize the players’ dispositions to play

volleyball. Pedagogical tests were applied, classified as

research methods by Łobocki [17] and as measurement

techniques by Pilch and Bauman [18]. The tests were

used for assessing the subjects’ intellectual and fitness-

-related abilities, as well as psychomotor responses. The

following research tools were applied:

1. The test of intellectual potential (TIP1): task sol ving

time (min) and intelligence quotient (IQ) (pts).

2. The test of specialist knowledge (TSK2): answer

time (min), the number of correct answers given by

players versus the experts’ answers.

3. Psycho-motor response (perimeter test3): the num-

ber of perceived visual signals in perimeters 1 and 2,

total psycho-motor response time in perimeters 1 and

2.

4. Fitness test4: force – running jump with one arm up

(cm), standing jump with both arms up (cm); dyna-

mic force – 3 kg medicine ball overhand throw from

the kneeling position (cm); locomotive speed –

running with direction change (“envelope” run) (s);

speed – 10m distance run (s).

5. Somatic features: – body height (cm), body mass

(kg), one-arm reach in the standing position (cm),

two-arm reach in the standing position (cm).

In the statistical analysis, in order to determine the

normality of variable distribution, the Kolmogorov–

Smirnov test was used. With regard to the characteristics

of players distinguished by their ontogenetic disposi-

tions, the procedure of standardization [18] was carried

out (with normal distribution of variables), and the ob-

tained values were presented on a “Z” scale. The values

were marked “+” and “–”, and ranged from +3 to –3.

The results were grouped in the following ranges:

1. From –0.99 to 0 or from 0 to +0.99 – no significance.

2. From –1.99 to –1 or from +1 to 1.99 – lower signifi-

cance.

3. From –2.99 to –2 or from +2 to 2.99 – high signifi-

cance.

4. Below –3 or above +3 – very high significance.

Results

The statistical significance of correlations was esti-

mated with Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

(Tab. 1). High and very high significant correlations

(0.5 � r < 1) were observed in somatic features, running

jump with one arm up and standing jump with both

arms up. Similar levels of statistical significance were

noted in the psycho-motor response test. An ave-

rage significant correlation (0.3 � r < 0.5) was noted

between the dynamic force and jump with one arm up

and body mass, and locomotive speed and players’ jum-

ping ability.

In the quantitative analysis of the players distin-

guished by their level of manifested dispositions, raw

data were changed into standardized data. It was

assumed that if a given disposition achieved the value of

+1 on the “Z” scale, its rank was low but significant. The

number of players with significantly high levels of dis-

positions (in the range of +1 > z < +1.99) from among

the study sample (n = 84) constituted about 19–10.7% of

individual ontogenetic dispositions. The highest number

of players was distinguished by their body mass and in-

telligence quotient (19%), followed by their level of

specialist knowledge (17.9%). The lowest number of

players was distinguished by their answer time in the

test of specialist knowledge (10.7%) and the results of

the running jump with one arm up (11.9%) (Fig. 4). The

quantitative analysis of players is presented in Fig. 5.

1 Developed by Rican P., Psychodiagnosticke a didaktycke testy.

N.P., Bratislava.2 Developed by Superlak E., AWF, Wrocław.3 Developed by Machnacz W., AWF, Wrocław.4 Developed by volleyball coaches of regional teams and approved

by the Department of Training of the Polish Volleyball Associa-

tion.


HUMAN MOVEMENT

124


Two observations can be made: first of all, there was

not a single player with a higher than average level of

psycho-motor response (in terms of reaction time and

the number of perceived signals); secondly, in terms of

task solving time (specialist knowledge and intellectual

ability), the number of players with positively signifi-

cant levels of dispositions (“+”) was lower than the

number of players with negatively significant disposi-

tions (“–”).

Among the players with significant body height

(n = 11; 13.1% of the sample), 27.3% featured a signifi-

cantly high IQ, 21% fitness level, and 18.2% specialist

knowledge level (Fig. 6). Among the players with signi-

ficantly high levels of at least two fitness dispositions

(n = 20; 23.8% of the sample), 43.6% featured a high le-

vel of fitness ability (one or more dispositions), 35% of

Figure 4. The percentage of players distinguished by significant levels of the studied ontogenetic dispositions (n = 84)

body height (13.1%)

body mass (19%)

one-arm reach (15.5%)

two-arm reach (14.3%)

jump with one arm up (13.1%)

jump with two arms up (15.5%)

jumping ability with one arm up (11.9%)

jumping ability with two arms up (14.3%)dynamic force (16.7%)

speed in the “envelope” run (16.7%)

speed (10m run) (13.1%)

correct answers (17.9%)

answer time (10.7%)

IQ (19%)

IQ answer time (13.1%)

Figure 6. The profile of dispositions in players with signifi-

cant body height (n = 11; 13.1% of the sample)

two-arm reach (91%)

fitness test

(21%)

IQ (27.3%)

specialist knowledge (18.2%)

Figure 5. The number of players with significantly low and

high levels of the studied dispositions (on the “Z” scale)

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

“+” values

Somatic features

Motor ability Psycho-motor response

Specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential test

bo

dy

he

igh

t

bo

dy

ma

ss

on

e-a

rm r

ea

ch

two

-arm

re

ach

jum

p w

ith o

ne a

rm u

p

jum

p w

ith t

wo a

rms

up

jum

pin

g a

bili

ty w

ith o

ne a

rm u

p

jum

pin

g a

bili

ty w

ith t

wo a

rms

up

dyn

am

ic fo

rce

spe

ed in

th

e “

enve

lop

e”

run

spe

ed (

10m

ru

n)

pe

rim

ete

r 1

pe

rim

ete

r 1 t

ime

pe

rim

ete

r 2

pe

rim

ete

r 2 t

ime

corr

ect

an

swe

rs

an

swe

r tim

e IQ

IQ a

nsw

er

time

“–” values


HUMAN MOVEMENT

125


two-arm reach, 17.5% of specialist knowledge, and 15%

of IQ (Fig. 7). Among the players with significantly

high intellectual dispositions (n = 9; 10.7% of the sam-

ple), 55.6% featured a high level of specialist know-

ledge, 44.4% of IQ, 33.3% of two-arm reach, and 19.4%

of fitness abilities (Fig. 8).

Among the players with at least two different signi-

ficantly high dispositions (n = 38; 45.3% of the sample),

28.9% featured a significantly high two-arm reach, 25%

of IQ, 23.7% of specialist knowledge, and 14.3 of fitness

(Fig. 9).

The most important part of data analysis in the pre-

sent study is the analysis of individual players’ disposi-

tions. Fig. 10–12 present dispositions of particular play-

ers; shaded areas indicate above-average levels of dispo-

sitions (z > 1). Particular players differ in terms of the

type, quantity and level of the featured dispositions, i.e.

each player possesses a different profile of ontogenetic

dispositions. Player K.J. (Fig. 10) represents length cha-

racteristics of the body, i.e. a longer arm-reach and gre-

ater jumping ability, as well as a higher level of specia-

list knowledge. Player B.Z. (Fig. 11) features significan-

tly higher jumping abilities and locomotive speed (10m

run), as well as the level of specialist knowledge. Also

players with the lowest levels of ontogenetic dispositions

were identified in the sample. The volleyball player in

Fig. 12 showed no disposition on the level higher than

average (z > +1), but nine lower-than-average disposi-

tions (z < –1). The collected research results referring to

a particular player create a specific hierarchic structure

of dispositions, which are distributed within the range of

values determined by the scale. The data presented in

Fig. 13 indicate that the player under study obtained

very high values in the case of two dispositions (z > +2),

high values in the case of six dispositions (+2 > z > +1),

low values in the case of one disposition (-2 < z < –1),

Figure 7. The profile of dispositions in players featuring

a significantly high level of fitness (at least two dispositions)

(n = 20; 23.8% of the sample)

two-arm reach (35%)

fitness test

(43.6%)

IQ (15%)



a significantly high level of intellectual dispositions (at least

two dispositions) (n = 9; 10.7% of the sample)


fitness test

(19.4%)

IQ (44.4%)



a significantly high level of at least two ontogenetic disposi-

tions (n = 38; 45.3% of the sample)


fitness test

(14.3%)

IQ (25%)



HUMAN MOVEMENT

126


and average values in the case of the six dispositions left

(–1 < z < +1).

The obtained results constitute an attempt to explain

the formation of internal synergy within the sphere of

ontogenetic dispositions, leading to the emergence of

interdispositions. In the analysis of correlations between

the variables, first, the logic of correlation was taken

into consideration, followed by the level of significance

and its direction. The case of player K.M. was chosen as

an application model illustrating the interdispositions

(Fig. 14). The common feature of individual fitness abi-

lities are specific energetic changes in the player’s body.

Figure 10. The profile of dispositions in the player K.J.

“Z” scale

somatic features

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00

–0.50

–1.00

real scaleb

od

y h

eig

ht

bo

dy

bo

dy

ma

ssm

ass

on

e-a

rm

rea

ch

two

-arm

re

ach

jum

p w

ith

on

e a

rm u

p

jum

p w

ith

two a

rms

up

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

on

e a

rm u

po

ne a

rm u

p

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

two a

rms

up

two a

rms

up

dyn

am

ic

forc

e

spe

ed in

th

e “

enve

lop

e”

run

spe

ed

spe

ed

(10

m r

un)

(10

m r

un)

kno

wle

dg

e

(su

m o

f a

nsw

ers

)

kno

wle

dg

e

(answ

er

time)

IQ

IQ

an

swe

r tim

e

1.05

0.10

1.25

1.521.631.63

1.21

0.87

–0.30

0.13

0.96

–0.72

1.15

1.55

–0.09

0.21

fitness specialist knowledge test and specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential testintellectual potential test

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

09.13

100

4.4941.4914.52

8.58.5

4869

303

325

255255256256

70

192192

1.84

Figure 11. The profile of dispositions in the player B.Z.

“Z” scale

somatic features

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00

–0.50

–1.00

–1.50

real scale

bo

dy

he

ight

bo

dy

bo

dy

ma

ssm

ass

on

e-a

rm

rea

ch

two

-arm

re

ach

jum

p w

ith

on

e a

rm u

p

jum

p w

ith

two a

rms

up

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

on

e a

rm u

po

ne a

rm u

p

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

two a

rms

up

two a

rms

up

dyn

am

ic

forc

e

spe

ed in

th

e “

enve

lop

e”

run

spe

ed

(10

m r

un)

kno

wle

dg

e

(sum

of

an

swe

rs)

kno

wle

dg

e

kno

wle

dg

e

(an

swe

r (a

nsw

er

time)

time)

IQ

IQ

an

swe

r tim

e

0.75

–0.01

1.04 0.97

2.172.171.92 1.92

1.61

–0.24 –0.31

1.47

1.04

-0.92 –0.09

0.82

fitness

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

07.34

100

6.5340.5315.43

7.9

6077

310

331

250

254

69

190

1.59

specialist knowledge test and specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential testintellectual potential test


HUMAN MOVEMENT

127


If these changes are on a significantly high level, it can

be concluded that a new qualitative fitness relationship

– speed–strength interdisposition – is formed between

the strength disposition (z = 3.57) and the speed disposi-

tion (z = 2.38). Together with above-than-average jump-

ing ability, a new strength–speed–jumping interdisposi-

tion is created. Similarly, in terms of the relationship

between the level of specialist knowledge (z = 1.7) and

intelligence (z = 1.47), a new semantic-cognitive inter-

disposition is created. From the analysis of the interdis-

positions of player K.M. it can be concluded that his

profile features a structure of a significant fitness inter-

Figure 12. The profile of ontogenetic dispositions in the player with the lowest levels of dispositions (in the sample studied)

“Z” scale

somatic featuressomatic features

0.50

0.00

–0.50

–1.00

–1.50

–2.00

–2.50

–3.00

real scaleb

od

y b

od

y h

eig

ht

he

ight

bo

dy

bo

dy

ma

ssm

ass

on

e-a

rm

on

e-a

rm

rea

chre

ach

two

-arm

tw

o-a

rm

rea

chre

ach

jum

p w

ith

jum

p w

ith

on

e a

rm u

po

ne a

rm u

p

jum

p w

ith

jum

p w

ith

two a

rms

up

two a

rms

up

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

on

e a

rm u

po

ne a

rm u

p

jum

pin

g

jum

pin

g

ab

ility

with

a

bili

ty w

ith

two a

rms

up

two a

rms

up

dyn

am

ic

dyn

am

ic

forc

efo

rce

spe

ed in

sp

ee

d in

th

e “

enve

lop

e”

the “

enve

lop

e”

run

run

spe

ed

spe

ed

(10

m r

un)

(10

m r

un)

kno

wle

dg

e

(su

m o

f a

nsw

ers

)

kno

wle

dg

e

kno

wle

dg

e

(an

swe

r (a

nsw

er

time)

time) IQIQ IQ

IQ

a

nsw

er

an

swe

r tim

etim

e

–1.99 –1.25 –2.35 –2.21

-2.84

0.30

–2.42 –0.70 –1.26 –1.35 –0.21 –1.43 –0.41 –0.09 –0.30

fitness specialist knowledge test and intellectual potential test

300

250

200

150

100

50

09.29

100

6.11

34.11

15.366.1

42

57

263

380

221223223

58

172

1.91

Figure 13. The profile of the player K.M. with significantly high levels of fitness and intellectual dispositions

body height –0.47

body mass

1.40

1.45

1.34

3.57

1.49

2.38

1.70

1.47

one-arm reach –0.38

two-arm reach –0.46

jump with one arm up 0.64

jump with two arms up 0.50

jumping ability with one arm up

jumping ability with two arms updynamic force

speed in the “envelope” run

speed (10m run)

knowledge (sum of answers)

knowledge (answer time) –0.58

IQ

IQ answer time –1.49


HUMAN MOVEMENT

128


disposition (speed–strength–jumping ability) and intel-

lectual disposition (specialist knowledge–intelligence).

Conclusions

1. From among the 84 studied volleyball players, the

largest number were distinguished by their high level of

intelligence (IQ, 19%), body mass (19%), and specialist

knowledge (17.9%). The lowest number of players fea-

tured a short answer time in the specialist knowledge

test (10.7%) and the ability to jump with one arm up

(11.9%). In the group of players distinguished by their

body length features (13.1% of the sample), higher le-

vels of intelligence were displayed by 27.3% of the sam-

ple, of fitness by 21%, and of specialist knowledge by

18.2% of the players. In the group of players distingu-

ished by at least two dispositions studied (45.3% of the

sample), a significantly longer two-arm reach was fea-

tured by 28.9% of the players, IQ by 25% of the players,

specialist knowledge by 23.7%, and fitness by 14.3% of

the players. The high percentage of players with higher

than average levels of two different dispositions consti-

tutes an important factor in seeking interdispositions,

i.e. internal interdispositional synergy.

2. As a model example of internal synergy forma-

tion, the arrangement of dispositions in one of the play-

ers was selected. The chosen player displayed these dis-

positions on a significantly high level. It might be as-

sumed that the fitness interdisposition is composed of

speed–strength–jumping ability dispositions. The intel-

lectual (semantic-cognitive) interdisposition consists of

specialist knowledge and intellectual potential. It should

be emphasized that the selected player presented a hi-

gher-than-average body height – 182 cm (z = –0.47).

3. In reference to the aim of the study, a multidisci-

plinary approach to the players’ dispositions was pre-

sented, with the implementation of knowledge from the

areas of psychology, human motor function and theory

of sports games. The author of the study assumed the

interdisciplinary approach, being convinced that the

players’ unique skills of solving the constantly changing

situations during a volleyball game were conditioned by

a given structure of ontogenetic dispositions, different

in each player. If a player features a very high level of

two different dispositions (z > +2), not only his disposi-

tions, but also interdispositions can be determined.

A player with a high level of skills in solving different

situations during a game who presents high levels of dis-

positions, e.g. accurate and quick decision-making or

a high level of speed and strength, is a player with an

interdisposition of rational and dynamic action, i.e. with

the qualitative component of his skills. This is an im-

portant factor in the effective achievement of the game’s

objectives. If future research reveals relationships be-

Figure 14. The profile of the volleyball playing interdisposition in the player K.M.

Fitness dispositions

strength14.1 m

3.57 (“Z”)

speed (10 m run)1.09 s

2.38 (“Z”)

speed (“envelope” run)14.4 s

1.49 (“Z”)

jumping ability with two arms up

59 cm1.45 (“Z”)

jumping ability with one arm up73 cm

1.40 (“Z”)

Intellectual interdisposition

Fitness interdisposition

Volleyball playing ontogenetic interdisposition in the player K.M.

Intellectual dispositions

specialist knowledge46.25%

1.70 (“Z”)

IQ120 (quotient)

1.47 (“Z”)

Somatic features

body mass81 kg

1.34 (“Z”)

body height182 cm

–0.47 (“Z”)


HUMAN MOVEMENT

129


tween interdispositions and playing skills, it will be an

important tool for coaches in solving practical problems

in the long-term training of team games players.

References

1. Naglak Z., Teaching and learning ball games [in Polish]. Vol. 1.

AWF, Wrocław 2005.

2. Panfil R., Praxeology of sports games [in Polish]. AWF, Wro-

cław 2006.

3. Morawski J., Selected problems of methodology of sport re-

search [in Polish]. Biblioteka PTNKF, Warszawa 2000.

4. Panfil R., Facilitation of football players’ activities [in Polish].

AWF, Wrocław 1994.

5. Czajkowski Z., Psychology as training facilitation [in Polish].

COS, RCM-S KFiS, Warszawa 1996.

6. Duda H., Intellectualization of football instruction [in Polish].

AWF, Kraków 2003.

7. Superlak E., Coaches’ and players’ knowledge of effective ac-

tions in volleyball [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport,

2002, 46.

8. Krawczyński M., Collective tactical decisions in team games

[in Polish]. AWFiS, Gdańsk 1999.

9. Ulatowski T., Versatile physical skills. The foundations of

championship and the necessity of tests. In: Śledziewski D.,

Karwacki A. (ed.), Training of sport gifted youth [in Polish].

Vol. 12. PTNKF, Warszawa 2003, 88–114.

10. Szwarc A., The level of selected motor skills in Polish and Ger-

man top junior football players. In: Żak S., Spieszny M., Klocek

T. (ed.), Team games in physical education and sport [in Polish].

AWF, Kraków 2005, 116–119.

11. Raczek J., Mynarski W., Ljach W., Theoretical and empirical

foundations of development and diagnosis of coordination mo-

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12. Szopa J., Wątroba J., Żak S., The basics of anthropomotorics [in

Polish]. PWN, Warszawa–Kraków 1996.

13. Wlazło E., Interpersonal attitudes in teenage football teams. In:

Wlazło E. (ed.), Psychology of a sports team [in Polish]. AWF,

Wrocław 2003, 71–87.

14. Chmura J., Physiological basics of player’s speed of action. In:

Czerwiński J., Sozański H. (ed.), Modern ideas of training in

team games [in Polish]. AWFiS, Gdańsk 2004, 39–69.

15. Bober T., Rutkowska-Kucharska A., Szpala A., Hard vs. soft

landing in depth jump. Acta of Bioengineering and Biomecha-

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18. Pilch T., Bauman T., The principles of pedagogical research.

Quantitative and qualitative strategies [in Polish]. WA Zak,

Warszawa 2001.




Edward Superlak

Katedra Zespołowych Gier Sportowych


al. Paderewskiego 35

51-612 Wrocław



HUMAN MOVEMENT

130

Krzysztof Karpowicz

Department of the Theory of Sport, Chair of the Theory and Methodology of Sport, University School of Physical Education,

Poznań, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The main objective of the study was to identify selected factors determining the effectiveness of the training process and to

describe the changes in relations between them in a yearly training cycle of young basketball players. Also, an attempt was made to

specify the degree of determination of the sports level by individual factors. Basic procedures. Empirical material consisted of the

results of tests carried out in a group of young basketball players aged 12.5–13.5 years (78 boys). The measurements were made three

times and included the following parameters: somatic build, general fitness and special fitness. The sports level was also described,

which was determined on the basis of two parameters: (a) the position of the given player’s team in the province league at the end of

the season; (b) the position of the player in his team based on the coach’s ranking. Main findings. During the analyses it was proved,

among other things, that not all factors taken into account displayed interdependency with the sports level of young basketball

players. It was noted that the sports level was determined to the largest extent by their weight and height structure and by the degree

of special fitness, which in turn depended on speed and strength abilities. The structure of interdependencies between the analysed

factors indicates some regularities. Body build parameters and indicators determine the level of motor skills, and these, in particular

speed and strength predispositions, determine special fitness. Conclusions. The knowledge relating to the conditions of sports level

in basketball points at multiple factors stemming from various areas of the human body structure and the external environment. In

the case of adults, the identification of these factors is not easy, and in reference to children and youths it is even more difficult.

These problems result from the conditions of the progressive stage of ontogenetic development. Thus, the studies of this type are

rarely undertaken.

Key words: young basketball players, sports level, determination

Introduction

Contemporary requirements of competitive sport

create the need of constant search and extension of the

field of information allowing the optimal understanding

of the phenomena which accompany the process of sports

training. Ulatowski [1] and Ważny [2], among others,

draw attention to the fact that for years the research has

been carried out according to a traditional pattern: as

a search for the link between independent variables

(morphological, biochemical, physiological indicators

etc.) and a dependent variable – sports performance.

According to many authors, sports performance is

an expression of an athlete’s accumulated abilities, de-

veloped through a long-term, conscious training pro-

cess.

In other words, sports performance constitutes a fi-

nal manifestation of the biological capabilities of an

athlete; therefore, it includes: inborn predisposition, ef-

fects of the natural and social environment, effect of the

training process.

For a correct control of the training process in team

games, the knowledge is necessary of the impact of in-

dividual factors on sports performance and establishing

their optimal level. For example, Wachowski and Strzel-

czyk [3] indicate that sports performance depends on

many factors, which may be divided into those which

are subject to training and those which are not.

According to Naglak [4], the factors which determine

the realisation of tasks in a team game are: mental capa-

bilities (ensuring rational decisions and choice of ac-

tion), special motor abilities (ensuring effective perfor-

mance of intentions), and coordination abilities (en-

suring strong, quick and persistent carrying out of

inten tions).

In Ulatowski’s opinion [5], among the factors which

determine the effectiveness of sports competition

are: physical conditions, general physical fitness,

technical fitness, tactical abilities, and psychological

features.

The discussion on the factors determining the effec-

tiveness of sports competition in basketball cannot be

INTERRELATION OF SELECTED FACTORS DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING IN YOUNG BASKETBALL PLAYERS

2006, vol. 7 (2), 130–146

AWF_7_2_05Karpowicz03_2k_DRUK.indd 130 12/15/2006, 10:57:44 AM

HUMAN MOVEMENT

131

K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball players

limited only to the technological area. The development

of an athlete’s abilities is a long-term process and must

go stage by stage, as the effectiveness of reaching the

objectives depends on their logical placement in a stric-

tly defined period [6].

This study relates to young male basketball players

who started the directed stage of the training process.

This is a particular developmental period, coinciding

with a high sensitivity of the body to external stimuli.

In the light of the above, the main aims of the study

have been formulated as follows:

1. To identify the factors determining the effectiveness

of the training process at the directed stage of sports

training.

2. To describe and analyse the changes in the structure

of the interrelation between the factors in a training

macrocycle.

3. To establish the degree of the sports level being de-

termined by individual factors.

The following research questions were posed:

1. What factors determine the effectiveness of the train-

ing process in young basketball players?

2. Are there any relations between the factors and what

is their nature?

3. How does their influence on the sports level change

in an annual training cycle?


The empirical material was collected in direct stu-

dies which covered young male basketball players aged

12.5–13.5 years from nine clubs of the Wielkopolska

province. The schedule of the studies provided for three

measurements determined by time structure. The first

measurement was planned at the beginning of the pre-

paratory period, the second one at the end of the first

starting period and the third one at the end of the second

starting period. The studied group included 78 subjects.

The measurements covered three groups of factors

which had been assumed to determine the effectiveness

of training in basketball: (a) somatic parameters, (b) ge-

neral fitness, (c) special fitness.

In order to establish the body build, the following

somatic features were measured with the use Martin’s

method [7]: (1) height, (2) weight, (3) the width of the

base of the distal arm bone, (4) the width of the base of

the distal thigh bone, (5) the thickness of the skinfold on

the arm, (6) the thickness of the skinfold under the lo-

wer angle of the scapula, (7) the thickness of the skin-

fold over the iliac crest, (8) the thickness of the skinfold

under the knee, (9) the largest circumference of the arm,

(10) the largest circumference of the leg.

The anthropometric measurements allowed for esta-

blishing the body build of the subjects according to

Sheldon’s typological system as modified by Heath and

Carter [8].

The level of motor abilities was established with the

following tests:

• starting speed – the speed of running at the distance

of 5 m (m/s);

• running speed – the speed of running at the distance

of 20.0 m (m/s);

• speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m (m/s);

• jumping ability – a reach jump (cm);

• agility – the time of run on the figure of eight (s);

• reaction time – the time of a simple reaction to an

optical stimulus (s);

• eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus (n);

• pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball (m);

• static strength – measurement of the power of flexor

muscles of fingers (kG);

• aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test (pts).

Special fitness was established with the use of the

following tests [9, 10]:

• a slalom with dribbling (s);

• a two-hand pass from the chest (m);

Table 1. Differences between the somatic parameters on

the first and third dates of measurements

Somatic

parameters

First date–third date

First

mean

Third

mean

Diffe-

renceT–Student’s

Height 168.75 173.05 4.30 26.27

Weight 55.39 59.42 4.03 16.20

BMI 19.281 19.718 0.436 3.65

Logarithm of

four skinfolds 3.48 3.34 –0.14 6.35

Endomorphy 2.91 2.49 –0.42 6.02

Mesomorphy 3.27 3.48 0.21 5.60

Ectomorphy 4.28 4.29 0.01 0.17

BMI – body mass index, statistically significant correlation

at the level of p ≤ 0.01


HUMAN MOVEMENT

132

K. Karpowicz, Factors determining the effectiveness of training in basketball playersT

able

2. D

iffe

rence

s b

etw

een g

ener

al f

itnes

s para

met

ers

on t

he

thre

e d

ates

of

mea

sure

men

ts

Gen

eral

fit

nes

s

Fir

st d

ate–

Sec

ond d

ate

Sec

ond d

ate–T

hir

d d

ate

Fir

st d

ate–T

hir

d d

ate

First mean

Second

mean

Difference

T–Student’s

Second

mean

Third mean

Difference

T–Student’s

First mean

Third mean

Difference

T–Student’s

v 5

m (

m/s

)

4.4

615

4.5

402

0.0

787

3.0

9

4.5

402

4.6

261

0.0

859

3.0

4

4.4

615

4.6

261

0.1

646

5.7

7

v 2

0 m

(m

/s)

5.7

840

5.8

958

0.1

118

5.6

9

5.8

958

6.0

195

0.1

237

7.34

5.7

840

6.0

195

0.2

355

11.5

4

v 1

5 ×

20 m

(m

/s)

5.4

703

5.5

473

0.0

770

3.6

6

5.5

473

5.6

626

0.1

153

4.9

6

5.4

703

5.6

626

0.1

923

8.7

2

WD

(cm

)

41.8

43

.5

1.7

2.8

1

43.5

45

.5

2.0

4.4

9

41.8

45

.5

3.7

6.1

0

“8”

(s)

13

.747

13

.64

4

–0.1

03

1.37

13

.64

4*

13.4

64*

–

0.1

79*

2.5

7*

13

.747

13

.46

4

–0.2

83

3.4

9

Rea

ctio

n t

ime

1 (

ms)

243

.4

232.9

–10

.44.5

2

232.9

*

228.2

*

–4.7

*2.2

1*

243

.4

228.2

–15

.27.

13

Rea

ctio

n t

ime

2 (

ms)

232.9

224.1

–

8.8

4.3

2

224.1

224.8

–

0.7

0.4

1

232.9

224.8

–

8.1

3.8

0

Cro

ss a

pp. 1 (

n)

11

.9

20.9

9.

09.

67

20.9

27.

9

7.0

8.9

7

11.9

27.

9

16.1

15.3

5

Cro

ss a

pp. 2 (

n)

18

.5

26.4

7.

99.

25

26.4

32.0

5.6

7.70

18

.5

32.0

13

.413

.11

Med

icin

e bal

l (m

)

7.12

7.

24

0.1

21.

35

7.24

7.

89

0.6

58.3

8

7.12

7.

89

0.7

89.

90

Str

eng

th (

kG

)

33.9

09

40.4

90

6.5

8111

.40

40.4

90

42.6

74

2.1

85

3.3

9

33.9

09

42.6

74

8.7

65

12.6

3

Monto

ye

(pts

)

49.

4

50.2

0.8

1.19

50.2

52

.3

2.0

83.5

5

49.

4

52.3

2.9

4.5

1

stat

isti

call

y s

ign

ific

ant

corr

elat

ion a

t th

e le

vel

of

p ≤

0.0

1, *

sta

tist

ical

ly s

ign

ific

ant

corr

elat

ion a

t th

e le

vel

of

p ≤

0.0

5, v 5

m –

sta

rtin

g s

pee

d –

the

spee

d o

f ru

nn

ing a

t th

e

dis

tance

of

5 m

, v 2

0 m

– r

un

nin

g s

pee

d –

the

spee

d o

f ru

nn

ing a

t th

e d

ista

nce

of

20 m

, v 1

5 ×

20 m

– s

pee

d e

ndu

rance

– a

rep

eate

d r

un 1

5 ×

20 m

, W

D –

ju

mpin

g a

bil

ity –

a re

ach j

um

p, “8

” – a

gil

ity –

the

tim

e of

run o

n t

he

fig

ure

of

eig

ht,

Rea

ctio

n t

ime

1 –

the

tim

e of

sim

ple

rea

ctio

n t

o o

pti

cal

stim

ulu

s b

efore

work

, R

eact

ion t

ime

2 –

the

tim

e

of

sim

ple

rea

ctio

n t

o o

pti

cal

stim

ulu

s af

ter

work

, C

ross

app. 1 –

eye

and h

and c

oord

inat

ion –

a c

ross

appara

tus

bef

ore

work

, C

ross

app. 2 –

eye

and h

and c

oord

inat

ion –

a cr

oss

appara

tus

afte

r w

ork

, M

edic

ine

bal

l – p

ick-

up s

tren

gth

– a

th

row

of

a m

edic

ine

bal

l, S

tren

gth

– s

tati

c st

reng

th –

pow

er m

easu

rem

ent

in t

he

flex

or

mu

scle

s of

finger

s, M

onto

ye

– a

erobic

per

form

ance

– M

onto

ye’

s st

ep-t

est

Tab

le 3

. D

iffe

rence

s b

etw

een s

pec

ial

fitn

ess

para

met

ers

on t

he

thre

e d

ates

of

mea

sure

men

ts

Gen

eral

fit

nes

s

Fir

st d

ate–

Sec

ond d

ate

Sec

ond d

ate–T

hir

d d

ate

Fir

st d

ate–T

hir

d d

ate

First mean

Second

mean

Difference

T-Student’s

Second

mean

Third mean

Difference

T-Student’s

First mean

Third mean

Difference

T–Student’s

Dri

bbli

ng (

s)

7.55

9

7.488

–

0.0

711.

62

7.488

7.

214

–

0.2

756.6

7

7.55

9

7.21

4

–0.3

46

6.8

8

Pas

s (m

)

9.92

10

.65

0.7

36.0

4

10.6

5

11.1

7

0.5

25.6

9

9.92

11

.17

1.

25

9.71

Sli

de

step

(s)

19

.37

18

.52

–

0.8

55.8

9

18.5

2

17.6

24

–

0.8

98

9.48

19.3

7

17.6

24

–1.

750

11.2

8

Shots

(s)

11

5.9

2

112.0

8

–3.8

51.

75

112.0

8

104.9

49

–7.

128

4.1

0

115.9

2

104.9

49

–10

.974

4.5

4

stat

isti

call

y s

ign

ific

ant

corr

elat

ion a

t th

e le

vel

of

p ≤

0.0

1


HUMAN MOVEMENT

133


• leg work in defence (s);

• shots at the basket – a “five circles” test (s).

The sports level of young basketball players was de-

termined on the basis of two parameters: (1) the position

of a given player’s team in the province league at the

end of the season, (2) the position of a player in his team

based on the coach’s ranking.

In cooperation with the Department of Statistics of

the University School of Physical Education in Poznań,

using Cantor numbers [11], the following formula was

devised to specify the indicator of sports level of each

player:

PS = ML*W1 + MZ*W2

where PS – sports level indicator, W1 – weight of the

position of the team in the league, W2 – weight of the

position of the player in the team, ML – position of the

team in the league, MZ – position of the player in the

team.

Results

In order to answer the research questions and meet

the objectives of the study, in each of the groups the ki-

netics of the changes taking place in the training macro-

cycle was described using the t-Student’s test, and its

significance was established. The relations between the

analysed factors were investigated with correlation

matrix. The strength of the influence of the factors in

question on the dependent variable, namely sports per-

formance, was established with the use of the linear re-

gression analysis with the choice of the best subset of

variables.

The detailed profile of the results is presented in

Tab. 1–14.

Discussion

This study relates to young basketball players who

entered the directed stage of the training process with

the analysed cycle. This is a special developmental pe-

riod which coincides with a high sensitivity of the body

to external stimuli. In basketball the directed stage co-

vers young people between 13 and 15 years of age, that

is during the pubertal spurt. This is the last period of the

body high flexibility in the ontogenesis of an athlete.

The stage should focus on mastering the basics of tech-

nique, and sensory and motor habits should be strong

enough for the dynamic increase in body length para-

meters not to significantly disrupt the motor coordina-

tion [12].

There are various conditions determining the sports

level in basketball. In this paper, it was assumed that the

sports level of young basketball players was determined

by three groups of parameters: somatic build, general

Table 4. Correlation coefficients for somatic parameters

Date Height

Weight1st 0.78**

Weight3rd 0.78**

BMI1st 0.37** 0.87**

BMI3rd 0.39** 0.88**

Logarithm

of four

skinfolds

1st 0.27* 0.70** 0.83** Logarithm

of four

skinfolds3rd 0.31** 0.72** 0.82**

Endomorphy1st 0.25* 0.70** 0.84** 0.99**

Endomorphy3rd 0.30** 0.72** 0.83** 0.99**

Mesomorphy1st –0.29* 0.20 0.54** 0.30** 0.35**

Mesomorphy3rd –0.27* 0.26* 0.60** 0.29* 0.30**

Ectomorphy1st 0.01 –0.61** –0.92** –0.77** –0.79** –0.72**

3rd –0.01 –0.62** –0.92** –0.76** –0.76** –0.78**

BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation



HUMAN MOVEMENT

134


Table 5. Correlation coefficients for general fitness parameters

Datev 5 m

(m/s)

v 20 m

(m/s)

1st 0.51**v 20 m

(m/s)2nd 0.64**

3rd 0.73**

v 15 × 20

m

(m/s)

1st 0.45** 0.86**v 15 × 20 m

(m/s)2nd 0.56** 0.90**

3rd 0.64** 0.90**

WD

(cm)

1st 0.34** 0.66** 0.61**WD

(cm)2nd 0.46** 0.70** 0.71**

3rd 0.62** 0.76** 0.69**

“8”

(s)

1st – 0.48** –0.66** –0.75** –0.51**“8”

(s)2nd –0.45** –0.62** –0.71** –0.55**

3rd –0.48** –0.49** –0.53** –0.50**

Reaction

time 1

(ms)

1st 0.05 –0.12 –0.03 –0.06 –0.03 Reaction

time 1

(ms)

2nd –0.02 –0.04 –0.03 –0.18 0.02

3rd –0.03 –0.16 –0.11 –0.23* 0.00

Reaction

time 2

(ms)

1st –0.01 –0.17 –0.01 –0.11 0.02 0.67**Reaction time 2

(ms)2nd –0.06 0.02 0.05 –0.09 0.01 0.79**

3rd –0.04 –0.11 –0.07 –0.15 –0.02 0.67**

Cross

app. 1

(n)

1st 0.24* 0.06 0.12 0.16 –0.29* 0.13 0.03 Cross

app. 1

(n)

2nd 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.01 –0.03 –0.16 –0.16

3rd –0.04 0.02 0.10 0.00 –0.08 –0.01 –0.06

Cross

app. 2

(n)

1st 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.27* –0.26* 0.10 –0.02 0.80** Cross

app. 2

(n)

2nd 0.04 0.06 0.09 –0.01 0.04 –0.15 –0.15 0.91**

3rd 0.05 0.07 0.12 0.05 –0.18 –0.09 –0.10 0.92**

Medicine

ball

(m)

1st 0.11 0.25* 0.22* 0.31** –0.11 –0.17 0.05 –0.16 –0.01 Medi-

cine ball

(m)

2nd 0.12 0.36** 0.32** 0.24* –0.03 0.08 0.28* 0.10 0.13

3rd 0.42 0.40** 0.45** 0.36** –0.13 –0.11 0.01 0.09 0.11

Strength

(kG)

1st 0.07 0.44** 0.27* 0.33** –0.09 –0.19 –0.13 –0.13 –0.06 0.59**Strength

(kG)2nd 0.26* 0.50** 0.44** 0.31** –0.11 0.01 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.53**

3rd 0.50** 0.53** 0.48** 0.57** –0.19 –0.14 –0.09 0.01 0.04 0.65**

Montoye

(pts)

1st –0.07 –0.11 –0.03 –0.33** 0.00 0.03 0.03 –0.23* –0.15 –0.11 –0.17

2nd –0.05 –0.10 –0.06 –0.12 –0.03 –0.17 –0.08 –0.27* –0.29* –0.17 –0.09

3rd –0.05 –0.19 –0.12 –0.07 0.04 –0.08 0.10 –0.19 –0.27* 0.16 0.05

* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01,

v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of running at the

distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump, “8” –

agility – the time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work,

Reaction time 2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross

apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball – pick-up

strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of fingers, Montoye

– aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test


HUMAN MOVEMENT

135


fitness and special fitness. Individual parameters are

subject to progressive or regressive changes over time.

Their co-occurrence makes up a structure of conditions

which undergo modification. Also, their impact on the

sports level and the order of priority changes depending

on the place in the time structure of the sports training

process.

The somatic build of the subjects was considered in

seven aspects relating to quality and quantity values.

The measurements were taken twice, that is on the first

and the third date of measurements.

The height and weight structure of young basketball

players aged 12.5–13.5 years is characterised by values

greater than average; the mean height and weight puts

them at the top end of the centile grids. Certainly this is

not a result of basketball training, but an effect of selec-

ting tall players to this sport. The coefficients of varia-

tion of 5% show relative similarity of the studied group

in this respect. The analysis of variation coefficients of

body weight shows that intra-group variation was four

times higher than in the case of height.

The size of changes in the height in the analysed

cycle was 4.3 cm. Bearing in mind that it relates to a pe-

riod of six months, this value may be considered signifi-

cant. However, it should also be remembered that the

period discussed coincides with the beginning of puber-

tal spurt. The increase of body mass was significant,

but not proportional to height.

The thickness of skinfolds and the relative body fat

content negatively affect the sphere of motor abilities of

a person [13, 14]. After Osiński [15] and Szopa [16], it

was assumed that ontogenetic variation of body fat in

boys is small, and from the age of 11 there is a visible

stabilisation. One could thus state that the kinetics of

changes in this parameter in young basketball players

has a positive direction. The noted values of the mean of

the four skinfolds lower in a statistically significant way

in the analysed training cycle. It is worth noting that si-

gnificant progressive changes occurred in the case of

the BMI, informing about the body stockiness. It can be

assumed that the increase of the weight and height in-

dex does not result from the progressing body fat, but is

probably an effect of the increase in active mass. This

observation is confirmed, among others, by the studies

of Łaska-Mierzejewska [17], Sakowicz and Żak [18].

The young basketball players analysed were also

characterised by a very slender body build, but the rate

of change in this factor on subsequent dates of measure-

ment was low, although positive. Positive from the point

of view of post-training effects were the changes of the

meso- and endomorphic factor. The former increased in

a statistically significant way, and the latter decreased

in a statistically significant way. This confirms the ear-

lier observations that the training of young basketball

players resulted in the change of inactive mass into ac-

tive mass, that is the increase of muscles at the cost of

fat. One cannot assume that this is a direct relation. The

structure of this process is probably more complex.

Fitness preparation determines to a large extent the

effectiveness of teaching and mastering technical abili-

ties, exerts a specific influence on the effectiveness of

tactical activities, affects current mental disposition of

a player. The type and level of the players’ fitness pre-

paration are a total of the accumulated effect of deve-

lopment of individual motor abilities. This is not a sim-

ple total of values, but a unique functional model deter-

mined by the requirements of a start effort and

developmental regularities [19].

Establishing the level of general physical fitness of

young basketball players and comparing it with the re-

sults obtained by non-training people or athletes doing

other sports was not the object of this study. It seems

obvious that basketball players are characterised by

a higher physical fitness than individuals who do not

practise any sports. The level of motor preparation at

this stage of training is different in various sports and

determined, among other things, by the somatic build of

the athletes. However, the structure of physical fitness

should show the same tendencies which are the effect of

the regularities of ontogenesis [20].

Table 6. Correlation coefficients for special

fitness parameters

Date Dribbling (s)

Pass

(m)

1st –0.19Pass

(m)2nd –0.02

3rd –0.20

Slide step

(s)

1st 0.47** –0.22*Slide step

(s)2nd 0.39** –0.32**

3rd 0.61** –0.30**

Shots

(s)

1st 0.24* –0.18 0.10

2nd 0.15 –0.18 0.23*

3rd 0.35** –0.36** 0.36**

* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05,

** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01


HUMAN MOVEMENT

136


The kinetics of the changes in general fitness para-

meters of young basketball players indicates that all

analysed elements were subject to progressive, statisti-

cally significant changes in the whole training cycle.

The rates of the increases in the results between indivi-

dual dates of measurements were different.

Speed abilities of the players showed a steady statis-

tically significant progress on subsequent dates of

measurements. This is probably related, apart from

applied training loads, to the fact that boys at this age

are in the period sensitive for the development of speed

[21, 15, 22].

The results obtained by the subjects on subsequent

dates of measurements in the run on the figure of eight

are interesting. This test posed requirements in terms of

controlling the body and the ability to adjust motor be-

Table 7. Correlation coefficients between general fitness and somatic parameters

General fitness Date

Somatic parameters

Height Weight BMI

Logarithm

of four

skinfolds

Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy

v 5 m

(m/s)

1st 0.12 –0.11 –0.27* –0.27* –0.27* –0.17 0.34**

3rd 0.31** 0.22* 0.10 –0.18 –0.20 0.16 0.01

v 20 m

(m/s)

1st 0.39** 0.12 –0.14 –0.35** –0.36** –0.01 0.27*

3rd 0.47** 0.27* 0.04 –0.24* –0.26* 0.04 0.12

v 15 × 20 m

(m/s)

1st 0.25* –0.07 –0.31** –0.53** –0.52** –0.04 0.40**

3rd 0.44** 0.27* 0.06 –0.21 –0.22* 0.05 0.09

WD

(cm)

1st 0.28* 0.15 0.01 –0.19 –0.18 0.05 0.10

3rd 0.38** 0.24* 0.06 –0.21 –0.21 0.11 0.07

“8”

(s)

1st 0.00 0.19 0.29* 0.43** 0.41** –0.07 –0.27*

3rd 0.06 0.13 0.16 0.34** 0.34** –0.09 –0.14

Reaction time 1

(ms)

1st –0.18 –0.20 –0.18 –0.21 –0.20 –0.04 0.14

3rd –0.09 –0.11 –0.10 –0.04 –0.02 –0.06 0.10

Reaction time 2

(ms)

1st –0.07 –0.11 –0.11 –0.11 –0.12 –0.12 0.09

3rd –0.05 –0.04 –0.01 –0.06 –0.06 0.05 0.01

Cross app. 1

(n)

1st –0.02 –0.13 –0.19 –0.18 –0.18 –0.18 0.21

3rd 0.18 0.15 0.08 0.11 0.11 –0.17 0.00

Cross app. 2

(n)

1st 0.11 0.06 –0.02 –0.09 –0.09 –0.15 0.08

3rd 0.19 0.14 0.05 0.08 0.07 –0.22* 0.03

Medicine ball

(m)

1st 0.66** 0.72** 0.55** 0.37** 0.37** 0.08 –0.33**

3rd 0.63** 0.71** 0.58** 0.31** 0.29* 0.26* –0.39**

Strength

(kG)

1st 0.70** 0.72** 0.53** 0.29* 0.28* 0.16 –0.29*

3rd 0.68** 0.66** 0.46** 0.21 0.20 0.12 –0.23*

Montoye

(pts)

1st –0.22* –0.17 –0.08 –0.07 –0.07 0.13 –0.03

3rd –0.08 –0.01 0.04 –0.08 –0.07 0.20 –0.07

BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at

the level of p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of

running at the distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach

jump, “8” – agility – the time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus

before work, Reaction time 2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordi-

nation – a cross apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball

– pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of

fingers, Montoye – aerobic performance – Montoye’s step-test


HUMAN MOVEMENT

137


haviour to a quickly changing situation. It turns out that

the results were steadily improving, but only between

the second and third measurements the changes were

statistically significant, at the level of p < 0.05. It could

be expected that basketball training should definitely

affect this property of motor abilities. However, it should

be borne in mind here that, as claimed by Osiński [15]

and Sozański and Śledziewski [21], the highest rate of

increases of this feature in boys is noted between the

age of 7 and 10. Later they still obtain good results, but

the progress is much smaller. This is confirmed by the

studies of Jóźwiak [23], who noted that agility (determi-

ned by the run on the figure of eight) in basketball play-

ers showed the largest variation in the training cycle.

Besides, as it may be assumed, high and slender body

build of young basketball players who undergo the pu-

bertal spurt would not favour a dynamic development of

the abilities to control the body in various situations.

The simple reaction time was subject to progressive

changes in the analysed cycle. The measurement of the

reaction time related to two variants: rest and post-ef-

fort reaction time. The kinetics of changes indicate that

the most significant changes occurred in both cases be-

tween the first and second dates of measurements. It is

also characteristic that on all dates of measurements the

players reacted more quickly after effort. This is related

to the properties of the nervous system, which works

best in so called “exultation phase” [24].

Eye and hand coordination and spatial orientation

are correlated psychomotor abilities [25, 26]. According

to Szopa et al. [14], both predispositions are characteri-

sed by strong genetic control, which is strengthened

with age. The studies of Sakowicz and Żak [18, 27]

among others, say that the effect of sports training on

the development of coordination abilities is little after

the age of 11. The development of coordination abilities

is mostly determined by the maturing of the nervous

system chiefly in the brain and cerebellum [28].

The results presented in this study differ in some re-

spects from the opinions presented above. Young ba-

sketball players turn out to be characterised by a con-

stant, statistically significant progression of eye and

hand coordination. Better results were obtained after

effort, as in the case of reaction time.

Muscular strength is related mainly to energetic (fit-

ness) abilities.

In this paper, strength abilities were considered in

two aspects: absolute static strength of flexors and

extensors of the arm, and pick-up strength. The results

noted refer to the general regularities, in particular in

the case of the strength in static conditions. However,

there are no significant increases of pick-up strength

between the first and second dates of measurements,

which is probably related to a large saturation of the test

results with the movement technique.

Aerobic performance is also included in the group of

energetic abilities [29]. Its physiological basis is effi-

ciency, which is a biological potential of the body.

The efficiency of young basketball players appears

to be subject to similar relations. In the analysed cycle,

Table 8. Correlation coefficients between special fitness and somatic parameters

Special fitness Date

Somatic parameters

Height Weights BMI

Logarithm

of four

skinfolds

Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy

Dribbling

(s)

1st 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.21 0.20 –0.05 –0.08

3rd 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.38** 0.37** –0.10 –0.16

Pass

(m)

1st 0.63** 0.57** 0.35** 0.20 0.19 0.02 –0.15

3rd 0.03 0.20 0.29* 0.21 0.22* 0.27* –0.29*

Slide step

(s)

1st –0.17 –0.08 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.12 –0.09

3rd –0.07 0.13 0.24* 0.33** 0.33** 0.10 –0.28*

Shots

(s)

1st 0.02 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.06 –0.15

3rd –0.19 –0.13 –0.05 –0.03 –0.04 0.03 –0.02

BMI – body mass index, * statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation



HUMAN MOVEMENT

138


Table 9. Correlation coefficients between general and special fitness

General fitness DateSpecial fitness

Dribbling (s) Pass (m) Slide step (s) Shots (s)

v 5 m

(m/s)

1st –0.15 0.03 –0.01 –0.17

2nd –0.30** 0.38** –0.42** –0.14

3rd –0.47** 0.48** –0.54** –0.25*

v 20 m

(m/s)

1st –0.25 0.36** –0.17 –0.21

2nd –0.36** 0.58** –0.55** –0.08

3rd –0.38** 0.52** –0.40** –0.29*

v 15 × 20 m

(m/s)

1st –0.29* 0.32** –0.13 –0.24*

2nd –0.44** 0.48** –0.52** –0.13

3rd –0.42** 0.50** –0.40** –0.29*

WD

(cm)

1st –0.33** 0.41** –0.16 –0.34**

2nd –0.35** 0.37** –0.54** –0.17

3rd –0.45** 0.50** –0.49** –0.30**

“8”

(s)

1st 0.43** –0.19 0.23* 0.25*

2nd 0.55** –0.25* 0.40** 0.08

3rd 0.58** –0.14 0.42** 0.25*

Reaction time 1

(ms)

1st 0.09 –0.17 0.10 0.16

2nd 0.01 –0.04 0.14 0.25*

3rd 0.20 –0.22* 0.21 0.07

Reaction time 2

(ms)

1st 0.16 –0.13 0.07 0.13

2nd 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.19

3rd 0.14 –0.13 0.17 0.06

Cross app. 1

(n)

1st –0.27* 0.07 –0.12 –0.12

2nd –0.11 0.13 –0.04 –0.24*

3rd –0.07 0.07 0.07 0.04

Cross app. 2

(n)

1st –0.26* 0.17 –0.11 –0.21

2nd –0.07 0.11 0.00 –0.16

3rd –0.08 0.02 –0.01 0.06

Medicine ball

(m)

1st –0.03 0.58** –0.04 –0.05

2nd 0.12 0.67** –0.17 –0.13

3rd –0.16 0.70** –0.09 –0.35**

Strength

(kG)

1st –0.06 0.62** –0.16 0.11

2nd 0.00 0.70** –0.19 –0.11

3rd –0.13 0.78** –0.18 –0.20

Montoye

(pts)

1st 0.26* –0.16 0.25* 0.01

2nd –0.10 –0.12 –0.05 0.02

3rd –0.19 0.14 –0.04 0.05

* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05, ** statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m

– starting speed – the speed of running at the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of running at the distance

of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump, “8” – agility – the

time of run on the figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work, Reaction time

2 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work, Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus

before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball – pick-up strength –

a throw of a medicine ball, Strength – static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles of fingers, Montoye – aerobic

performance – Montoye’s step-test


HUMAN MOVEMENT

139


a statistically significant increase of this property of the

body was noted. However, the rate of these changes was

varied. Higher increases were noted between the second

and third dates of measurements. Probably it was a po-

sitive effect of the accumulation of applied training lo-

ads and adaptation to changes in the body as a result of

the pubertal spurt.

Technical preparation is a process directed to lear-

ning and mastering sports abilities thanks to which

a player shows his biological potential in the complex

conditions of sports competition. It depends mainly on

the level of motor abilities and motor talents.

In the discussion on technical preparation it should

be remembered that the manifestation of these abilities

is related to the level of motor abilities. It is difficult to

state to what extent it is possible to separate in tests the

advancement of movement technique from motor predi-

spositions of a player [30]. Thus, when using various

tests specifying technical preparation, one should bear

in mind that in fact special fitness is being studied. On

the other hand, such elements as dribbling, catches and

passes, shots at the basket or moving in defence are cal-

led technique by basketball methodologists.

All analysed elements show a statistically significant

progression in the training cycle. The lack of significant

changes between the first and second dates of measure-

ments in the case of dribbling in slalom and shots from

five positions should be explained. The rea son for this

should probably be seen in the coordination and techni-

cal complexity of the tests. It seems that out of the analy-

sed parameters dribbling and shots are more difficult

tasks even with the hypothetical assumption of an identi-

cal effect of motor abilities. Later significant changes

(between the second and third dates of measurements)

were probably the effect of basketball training within the

framework of which these skills are mastered.

The dynamics of the increases in the analysed para-

meters of special fitness, as could be expected, was de-

termined by their initial level, which, in turn, depends

on motor abilities, among others.

Correlation coefficients between height, weight and

body indexes and components of the studied players in-

dicate in many cases obvious relations resulting from

the process of body growth. Only in the case of ecto-

morphic factor and body height no relations were noted.

Generally, it may be stated that the body build parame-

ters of young basketball players which were analysed

are related to a very different extent. This fact is confir-

med by the studies of Osiński [15], among others.

Table 10. Correlation coefficients between the analysed

parameters and sports level

Analysed

parameter

Sports level

First date Second date Third date

v 5 m (m/s) 0.23* 0.24* 0.39**

v 20 m (m/s) 0.47** 0.47** 0.40**

v 15 × 20 m (m/s) 0.46** 0.45** 0.45**

WD (cm) 0.43** 0.46** 0.51**

“8” (s) –0.40** –0.33** –0.12

Reaction time 1

(ms) –0.26* –0.25* –0.43**

Reaction time 2

(ms) –0.17 –0.11 –0.34**

Cross app. 1 (n) 0.00 0.19 0.03

Cross app. 2 (n) 0.10 0.13 0.08

Medicine ball (m) 0.34** 0.31** 0.34**

Strength (kG) 0.24* 0.21 0.36**

Montoye (pts) 0.00 0.05 0.06

Dribbling (s) –0.14 –0.20 –0.42**

Pass (m) 0.41** 0.39** –0.09

Slide step (s) –0.24* –0.52** –0.51**

Shots (s) –0.47** –0.39** –0.26*

Height 0.36** 0.38**

Weight 0.16 0.19

BMI –0.05 –0.02

Logarithm of four

skinfolds –0.10 –0.10

Endomorphy –0.12 –0.11

Mesomorphy –0.16 –0.16

Ectomorphy 0.17 0.14

* statistically significant correlation at the level of p ≤ 0.05,

** statistically significant correlation at the level of

p ≤ 0.01, v 5 m – starting speed – the speed of running at

the distance of 5 m, v 20 m – running speed – the speed of

running at the distance of 20 m, v 15 × 20 m – speed

endurance – a repeated run 15 × 20 m, WD – jumping

ability – a reach jump, “8” – agility – the time of run on the

figure of eight, Reaction time 1 – the time of simple

reaction to optical stimulus before work, Reaction time 2

– the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus after work,

Cross app. 1 – eye and hand coordination – a cross

apparatus before work, Cross app. 2 – eye and hand

coordination – a cross apparatus after work, Medicine ball

– pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Strength –

static strength – power measurement in the flexor muscles

of fingers, Montoye – aerobic performance – Montoye’s

step-test, BMI – body mass index


HUMAN MOVEMENT

140


The analysis of correlation coefficients between gene-

ral fitness parameters of young basketball players indica-

tes that the largest clusters of significant relations can be

found in groups of the motor abilities of speed and

strength character. No significant relations between para-

meters characterising coordination abilities were noted.

These did not correlate with other parameters, either.

The analysed tests examining special fitness refer-

red to the basic abilities of basketball technique. Accor-

ding to Ulatowski [9], dribbling, moving in defence, the

pass and shot at the basket are elementary skills which

characterise special fitness of a player, in particular in

youth sport.

The analysis of correlation coefficients between the

individual parameters of special fitness indicates that

the ability to move in defence is characterised by the

largest number of significant relations. It co-occurs po-

sitively with all other variables, and the strongest rela-

tions were noted on the third date of measurement. The

relations between shot effectiveness and dribbling in

slalom, two-handed pass from the chest and moving in

defence should be noted. It turns out that these relations

were gradually strengthened on subsequent dates of

measurements, to achieve the highest values at the end

of the analysed cycle. Thus, it can be concluded that the

training process affected the development of these abili-

ties differently, depending on their place in the time

structure of the training process.

The results of the research indicate that the relations

between the parameters of somatic build of young ba-

sketball players and their motor abilities refer to the ru-

les demonstrated earlier. The height and weight unam-

biguously co-occurred with strength abilities. Similar

relations were shown by Osiński [15]. Also, results in

line with other studies were noted in the case of the rela-

tion between height and weight with speed parameters.

It was found that the increases in weight and height

were accompanied by better results in speed tests. It

should be noted that the phenomenon was intensified on

subsequent dates of measurements. The level of body

fat of the players co-occurs inversely proportionally

with speed parameters and directly proportionally with

strength parameters. However, these relations are weak-

ened during the whole training cycle. According to

Osiński [13], the thickness of the body fat layer negati-

vely affects the level of motor abilities, in particular

body efficiency and speed abilities. In this study, stati-

stically significant relations of this type were found

only in the case of speed abilities and pick-up strength

on the first date of measurements. At the end of the ana-

lysed cycle they were significantly weakened. The co-

-occurrence of body fat with the level of efficiency was

totally insignificant on both dates of measurements.

It is also interesting that there is no co-occurrence of

such abilities as aerobic performance, reaction time and

eye and hand coordination with other somatic parame-

ters. Osiński [13] claims that the increase in basic soma-

tic parameters favours mainly the development of abso-

lute muscular strength, but also does not create favoura-

ble conditions for the manifestation of physiological

efficiency and relative strength and freedom in control-

ling the body.

Table 11. Results of multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x) somatic parameters

First date Third date

R2 of all features 26.49% 33.64%

Tree most important features Weight(x2) BMI(x

3) Ecto(x

7) Weight(x

2) BMI(x

3) Ecto(x

7)

Regression equationy = 61.857 + 0.506(x

2) – 3.527(x

3)

– 3.606(x7)

y = 93.861 + 0.694(x2) – 5.282(x

3)

– 5.711(x7)

R2 23.34% 30.62%

Two most important features Weight(x2) BMI(x

3) Weight(x

2) BMI(x

3)

Regression equation y = 9.906 + 0.179(x2) – 0.692(x

3) y = 9.944 + 0.191(x

2) – 0.752(x

3)

R2 17.34% 18.69%

The most important feature Weight(x2) Weight(x

2)

Regression equation y = 4.550 + 0.034(x2) y = 4.058 + 0.040(x

2)

R2 2.56% 3.57%

R – coefficient of determination, BMI – body mass index, Ecto – ectomorphy


HUMAN MOVEMENT

141


Generally it may be stated that the analysed correla-

tion coefficients are subject to positive changes in time

and confirm the regularity that the values of somatic

parameters are accompanied by the most favourable va-

lues of functional features. However, it should be borne

in mind that the course of relations between the level of

a specific morphological parameter and any motor pro-

perty, leading to a differentiation of populations and in-

dividuals, may be very complex.

The obtained results of the study allow for the as-

sumption that in young basketball players subjected to

systematic training loads, the relations between somatic

build and motor abilities are the same or refer to gene-

rally accepted developmental regularities of the popula-

tion of non-training people. However, they are characte-

rised by a higher level of motor abilities, which is an ef-

fect of training stimulation.

The relations of special fitness with somatic build

were different on subsequent dates of measurements. At

the beginning of the analysed cycle, significant relations

were noted only between height and weight and BMI

and the two-handed pass from the chest. It may be assu-

med that this relation was based on the fact that in taller

players the ball left the hands at a higher level, which

had a better result. The weakening of these relations (to

a statistically insignificant level) on the third date of

measurements resulted from the fact that training sti-

mulation significantly affected the movement technique

of a player. However, other relations appeared referring

to the level of body fat of the players, which was negati-

vely co-occurring with dribbling on the slalom and mo-

ving in defence. This is an obvious relation, resulting

from the negative influence of fat tissue on the level of

speed abilities, required in dribbling in slalom and mo-

ving in defence. However, it is puzzling that the above

relations were noted only on the third date of measure-

ments, whereas in the case of motor parameters it was

found that body fat co-occurred negatively and statisti-

cally significantly with the level of speed abilities only

on the first date of measurements.

The relations of general fitness parameters and tech-

nical skills of a player inform us to a large extent to

what degree they are saturated with them.

The results of the studies indicate that the largest

number of significant relations of special fitness was

noted in the case of speed abilities. These relations

strengthened on subsequent dates of measurements.

This suggests that to a large extent mastering technical

skills, such as dribbling in slalom, two-handed pass

from the chest or moving in defence, are determined by

the level of speed abilities. To a smaller extent they co-

-occur with the shot effectiveness of the players, however

Table 12. Results of the multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x)

general fitness parameters


R2 of all features 36.14% 36.63% 50.42%

Three most

important features

“8”(x12

) Med. ball.(x17

)

Reac. 1(x13

)

20 m (x9) Med. ball(x

17)

Reac. 1(x13

)

15 × 20 m(x10

) WD(x11

)

Reac. 1(x13

)

Regression equationy = 23.818 – 1.071(x

12)

+ 0.480(x17

) – 0.025(x13

)

y = –7.239 + 3.110(x9)

+ 0.302(x17

) – 0.029(x13

)

y = 1.008 + 1.860(x10

)

+ 0.103(x11

) – 0.043(x13

)

R2 29.53% 30.58% 39.38%

Two most important

features“8”(x

12) Med. ball(x

17) 20 m(x

9) Reac. 1(x

13) WD(x

11) Reac. 1(x

13)

Regression equation y = 16.812 – 1.041(x12

) + 0.555(x17

) y = –8.739 + 3.654(x9) – 0.027(x

13) y = 8.513 + 0.163(x

11) – 0.041(x

13)

R2 24.52% 27.50% 36.66%

The most important

feature“8”(x

12) 20 m(x

9) WD(x

11)


) y = –15.519 + 3.726(x9) y = –2.251 + 0.191(x

11)

R2 15.77% 22.28% 25.97%

R – coefficient of determination, Med. ball – pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball, Reac. 1 – the time of simple

reaction to optical stimulus before work, WD – jumping ability – a reach jump


HUMAN MOVEMENT

142


the correlation coefficients have a tendency to increase.

The relation between the level of strength abilities and

the skills of a two-handed pass of a ball from the chest

seems to be obvious, which is confirmed by highly si-

gnificant values of correlation coefficients. In the rema-

ining cases no significant relations of special fitness and

the level of strength were found, except the shot test on

the third date of measurements. However, it seems that

it was more of an accidental relation than one resulting

from specific rules.

The relations of coordination abilities and special

fitness require separate discussion.

It is generally believed that coordination abilities have

great significance in the process of sports training, in par-

ticular in learning sports and technical abilities. They de-

termine the degree and quality of acquiring motor abili-

ties, mastering and stability of motor skills and their ap-

propriate and effective use in changing conditions [31].

Many authors who touched upon this problem in re-

ference to basketball mention mainly coordination abili-

ties as those which, during a match, and with a similar

level of other factors, determine the success of a team

[32–35].

The results of these studies do not fully confirm the

above rule. In the analysed training cycle, the relations

of such coordination parameters as reaction time, eye

and hand coordination and technical preparation are not

as obvious as in the studies of other authors. No signifi-

cant relations were noted which could suggest some re-

gularities. Single significant correlations at the level of

p < 0.05 are rather accidental. On this basis one cannot

decide on the lack of effect of coordination abilities on

special fitness.

The multi-layered structure of the sports level condi-

tions leads to the search for and the description of the

variables which to a largest extent affect this value, espe-

cially that there are few studies of this type. In this study

it was assumed that the most significant conditions of

sports performance in the sport of children and youths

were somatic build, general fitness and special fitness.

In sports where the performance is defined in me-

asurable terms, where the success or failure is determi-

ned by one athlete, it is relatively easy to assess objecti-

vely its values and his or her effort. It is more difficult to

do it in team games, where one of the significant factors

is cooperation, and the final score depends on a total of

individual activities of individual players [36].

Correlation coefficients between the studied para-

meters and the sports level of young basketball players

indicate that the largest number of relations occurred in

the case of speed abilities, as well as endurance and speed

abilities and strength abilities. No co-occurrence of

Table 13. Results of the multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x)

special fitness parameters


R2 of all features 46.43% 39.26% 39.08%

Three most

important featuresPasses(x

21) Slide(x

22) Shots(x

23) Passes(x

21) Slide (x

22) Shots(x

23) Dribbl.(x

20), Passes(x

21) Slide(x

22)


21)

– 0.501(x22

) – 0.038(x23

)

y = 19.159 + 0.363(x21

)

– 0.664(x22

) – 0.038(x23

)

y = 18.112 + 1.060(x20

)

+ 0.547(x21

) – 0.575(x22

)

R2 45.61% 39.26% 38.98%

Two most important

featuresSlide(x

22) Passes(x

23) Slide(x

22) Passes(x

23) Passes(x

21) Slide(x

22)


22)

– 0.042(x23

)

y = 25.437 – 0.771(x22

)

– 0.042(x23

)

y = 13.656 + 0.555(x21

)

– 0.761(x22

)-

R2 40.10% 35.33% 37.28%

The most important

featureSlide(x

22) Slide(x

22) Slide(x

22)


) y = 23.484 – 0.920(x22

) y = 23.198 – 0.950(x22

)

R2 27.83% 26.99% 25.84%

R – coefficient of determination


HUMAN MOVEMENT

143


sports level with the indicator of body efficiency was

noted, either. Similar conclusions were reached by Jóź-

wiak [37]. This situation is probably a consequence of

the developmental regularities of the body, which at the

age of 12–14 years are characterised by an increased rate

of the increase of speed and strength abilities [14, 15].

Out of the analysed coordination abilities, only reac-

tion time showed relations with the dependent variable.

Only on the third date of measurement did both rest and

post-effort reaction times show significant relations

with the sports level. This is confirmed to some extent

by observations of Kubaszczyk [38], who noted that the

relations between reaction time and special fitness,

which translated to a high degree into sports perfor-

mance, are strengthened over time.

Out of somatic build parameters, only height shows

a constant significant relation with the sports level on

subsequent dates of measurements. This seems obvious,

as basketball, apart from many other conditions, is

a game for tall individuals. Height is also one of the se-

lection criteria in this sport.

Correlation coefficients inform about the signifi-

cance of co-occurrence between features and cannot in-

dependently describe the degree to which individual

factors determine the sports level. That is why the multi-

ple regression analysis was used in order to find factors

which determine the sports level to a highest degree.

The regression analysis carried out in the group of

somatic parameters allowed us to identify a subset of

variables which to a largest extent determined the sports

level. At the beginning and at the end of the analysed

training cycle, these were the same variables: weight,

BMI, and the ectomorphic factor. However, the coeffi-

cient of determination of these parameters increased,

which suggests that analysed somatic parameters de-

scribe the sports level more and more.

Table 14. Results of multiple regression analysis: dependent variable (y) level, independent variables (x) all analysed parameters

First date Third date

R2 of all features 63.84% 73.22%

Five most important featuresWeight(x

2) BMI(x

3) Med. ball(x

17)

Slide(x22

) Shots(x23

)

Weight(x2) BMI(x

3) Ecto(x

7)

Reac. 1(x13

) Dribbl.(x20

)

Regression equation

y = 17.305 + 0.088(x2) – 0.379(x

3)

+ 0.501(x17

) – 0.497(x22

)

– 0.041(x23

)

y = 97.868 + 0.573(x2) – 4.134(x

3)

– 4.309(x7) – 0.035(x

13)

– 2.435(x20

)

R2 55.79% 56.03%

Four most important featuresBMI(x

3) Med. ball(x

17) Slide(x

22)

Shots(x23

)

Weight(x2) BMI(x

3) Reac. 1(x

13)

Dribbl.(x20

)


3) + 0.768(x

17)

– 0.519(x22

) – 0.040(x23

)

y = 36.440 + 0.192(x2) – 0.717(x

3)

– 0.041(x13

) – 2.475(x20

)

R2 53.08% 49.55%

Three most important featuresMed. ball(x

17) Slide(x

22)

Shots(x23

)Weight(x

2) BMI(x

3) Dribbl.(x

20)


17)

– 0.543(x22

) – 0.041(x23

)

y = 29.816 + 0.201(x2) – 0.705(x

3)

– 2.969(x20

)

R2 47.56% 39.10%

Two most important features Slide(x22

) Shots(x23

) Weight(x2) Dribbl.(x

20)


22)

– 0.042(x23

)y = 25.175 + 0.061(x

2) – 3.097(x

20)

R2 40.10% 25.85%

The most important feature Slide(x22

) Dribbl.(x20

)


) y = 26.132 – 2.728(x20

)

R2 27.83% 18.02%

R – coefficient of determination, BMI – body mass index, Med. ball – pick-up strength – a throw of a medicine ball,

Ecto – ectomorphy, Reac. 1 – the time of simple reaction to optical stimulus before work, Dribbl. – dribbling


HUMAN MOVEMENT

144


Determination coefficients of general fitness para-

meters on subsequent dates of measurements also show

constant increase, which means that the sports level is

more and more influenced by these variables. However,

the structure of this subset of factors, which best describe

the sports level, changes. The most diagnostic tests

on the first date of measurements were: the run on the

figure of eight, the throw of a medicine ball from be-

hind the head, and the rest reaction time. In this subset,

the test of run on the figure of eight gave the most infor-

mation about the sports level at the level of determina-

tion of 15.77%. The best subset of variables on the se-

cond date of measurements were: the 20m run, the

throw of a medicine ball from behind the head and the

rest reaction time. This time the sports level was deter-

mined to a highest extent by the 20m run test (22.28%).

On the third date of measurements, the subset of the

best variables included: the repeated run, 15 × 20 m, the

reach jump and the rest reaction time. In this subset the

most diagnostic parameter for sports level turned out to

be the reach jump (25.97%).

The multiple regression analysis carried out in the

group of special fitness parameters indicates that the

same variables (the two-handed pass from the chest,

moving in defence) determined the sports level on the

first and second dates of measurements.

In the subset of the most significant variables on the

third date of measurements, the test of shots from five

positions was replaced by dribbling in slalom. Neverthe-

less, on all dates of measurements it was found that the

ability to move in defence was most diagnostic for the

sports level. Constant lowering of the degree to which

the sports level was determined by the parameters of this

group should be noted. Owing to the constant increase

in the determination of the sports level by somatic fac-

tors and general fitness, it may be assumed that this re-

sults mainly from the rate of increases in individual pro-

perties on the basis of ontogenesis regularities.

The changes in the values of determination coeffi-

cients in individual groups of parameters discussed

above show their varying effect on the sports level on

subsequent dates of measurements. However, only the

introduction of all parameters into the regression equ-

ation allowed for stating to what extent they determined

the sports level and which were the most significant.

Coefficients of determination indicate that determi-

nation of the sports level by the parameters accepted for

analysis increased from 63.84% on the first date of me-

asurements to 73.22% on the third date of measure-

ments. It means that the impact of other, non-examined

factors decreased. In the subset of the best variables on

the first date of measurements there were: weight, BMI,

the throw of a medicine ball from behind the head, mo-

ving in defence and shots at the basket from five posi-

tions. Further elimination of the least significant varia-

bles proved that the ability to move in defence and shot

effectiveness determined the sports level in 40.10%.

The subset of the most significant variables on the third

date of measurements included: weight, BMI, the ecto-

morphic factor, the rest reaction time and dribbling in

slalom. It should be noted that the value of determina-

tion coefficients on the subsequent stage of elimination

was lowering very quickly. The most significant para-

meters for the sports level on this date of measurements

were weight and the ability to dribble in slalom, whose

determination coefficient was 28.85%.

It could be assumed that the sports level of young

male basketball players at the beginning of the analysed

cycle was determined mainly by technical abilities. Ho-

wever, on the third date of measurements, there was

a dispersion of influence which resulted in an increase

of the general value of determination coefficient.

Sports development takes place under the influence

of training understood as an organised process of deli-

berate mastering of body function and adaptation to the

requirements resulting from the champion model, which

is an imaginary system whose task is to imitate selec-

ted, most important features. Sports training of children

and youths in this system approach is an isolated phase

of a long-term process, resulting from the rules of biolo-

gical development and the principle of a gradual deve-

lopment of the champion level. It should create functio-

nal and methodical bases for the achievement of maxi-

mum performance at the age of the greatest natural

capabilities of the body. Irrespective of such a long-term

and systematic approach, still an opinion is frequently

formulated on the low effectiveness of children and

youths training as a function of strategic aims and pro-

grammes of training directed to early specialisation

(intensive training). This kind of training results in low

performance in the youngest age categories and the de-

celeration of sports development even before the achie-

vement of biological maturity. Training should always

be structured adequately not only to sports aims (per-

formance), but also to individual capabilities of a body

at a given stage of development. Hence the idea of “pro-

gressive training, optimising the way to full develop-

ment at the mature age” occurs [39].


HUMAN MOVEMENT

145


Progressive reaching of sports championship is rela-

ted to meeting stage objectives, whose formulation,

carrying out and verification should be based on the le-

vel of advancement of sports development and on the

rules resulting from the biological differentiation of the

body. The knowledge of the relations and dependencies

between the factors which determine the effectiveness

of sports training, presented in this paper, should be the

reason for constructing and carrying out training pro-

grammes for individual stages, with the overall objective

of sports championship at an adult age.

Conclusions

1. The knowledge relating to the conditions of sports

level in basketball indicates multiple factors stemming

from various areas of the human body structure and the

external environment. In the case of adults, identifying

these factors is not easy, and in reference to children

and youths it is even more difficult. The problems result

from the conditions of the progressive stage of ontoge-

netic development. Thus, the studies of this type are ra-

rely undertaken. The results of this discussion indicate

that not all factors accepted for analysis determine the

sports level of young basketball players aged 12.5–13.5

years who are at the beginning of the directed stage of

the training process. This relates to the level of body ef-

ficiency and eye and hand coordination.

2. The relations between the analysed factors are

subject to change over time. They result from the pro-

gressive transformation of the body, related to the onto-

genetic development and the adaptation to training sti-

muli. It was found that speed and strength abilities of

young basketball players were characterised by the lar-

gest number of relations with other factors. Also, lack

of relations was noted between coordination abilities

and other analysed factors or relations smaller than

expected.

3. The structure of interrelations between the analy-

sed factors indicates some regularities. Body build pa-

rameters and indicators determine the level of motor

abilities, and these, in particular speed and strength pre-

disposition, determine special fitness. In the duration of

the whole training cycle it was found that the general

structure of interrelations described above deepened,

and the significance of relations was maintained on the

same or higher level.

4. In the group of somatic parameters, height and

weight have the greatest impact on the sports level of

young basketball players. Out of fitness factors, sports

level is determined by speed and strength abilities of the

players. Moving in defence and shot effectiveness, in

turn, prove to be the most important of special fitness

parameters. It was found that out of all analysed factors

the sports level of young basketball players was to the

largest extent determined by the weight and height

structure and the level of special fitness, which, in turn,

are determined by speed and strength abilities of young

basketball players.

5. Identifying and establishing the relations between

the factors which determine the effectiveness of the

train ing process, and the degree to which the sports le-

vel is determined by these factors may be the basis for

training optimisation at individual stages in the system

of progressive striving for championship.

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Paper received by the Editors: January 16, 2006.



Krzysztof Karpowicz

Zakład Teorii Sportu, Katedra Teorii i Metodyki Sportu






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147

2006, vol. 7 (2), 147–152

Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak 1*, Grażyna Lutosławska1, Andrzej Kosmol2, Szymon Zuziak3

1 Department of Biochemistry, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland2 Department of Theory of Sport, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland3 Department of Biochemistry (intern), University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of training experience on arm muscle anaerobic performance in

wrestlers. Basic procedures. The subjects of the study were 13 senior wrestlers, members of the Polish national team, and 19 junior

wrestlers. All the participants performed a modified upper-body Wingate test, which consisted of five 30s stages of maximal arm

cranking against a resistance equal to 3.5% of the athlete’s total body mass. The peak and mean power of each effort was recorded

during the test. For lactate measurements, blood was taken from the earlobe 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 30 min after cessation of the

exercise. Main findings. It was shown that during each 30s stage senior wrestlers displayed a significantly higher relative (W/kg) peak

and mean power output than junior wrestlers. The peak power declined from the first to the fourth stage in seniors and to the third

stage in juniors. At the same time the decline in mean power output was similar (from the first to the fourth stage) in both groups of

wrestlers. The peak lactate concentration (Lamax) was significantly higher in senior wrestlers than in junior wrestlers (17.4 and 14.1 mmol/l,

respectively). However, the study results indicated that lactate clearance was faster in seniors (0.37 mmol · l–1 · min–1) than in juniors

(0.28 mmol · l–1 · min–1). Conclusions. It can be concluded that the wrestler’s training enhances arm muscle anaerobic performance,

and there are indications that it also contributes to an increase in aerobic capacity.

Key words: wrestlers, training experience, anaerobic performance

Introduction

Wrestling is a sport in which opponents of different

weight classes compete in two styles: Greco-Roman

and freestyle. The duration of a wrestling match varies,

and the match can be stopped before the designa ted

time, e.g. when a fall is awarded to one of the oppo-

nents, or can be decided overtime [1]. It is claimed that

during a wrestling match arm and leg muscles utilize

both anaerobic and aerobic energetic systems [2].

The anaerobic and aerobic ATP resynthesis is known

to be activated already at the onset of exercise [3]. The

aerobic and anaerobic muscle performance de pends on

a number of factors, such as training experien ce, avail-

ability of substrates (in the pre- or post-prandial state),

and exer cise duration and intensity. A very special type

of exer cise is intermittent exercise of high intensity [4].

Such exercises are typical of a number of professional

sports, including wrestling, and they represent impor-

tant com ponents of sport training.

A characteristic feature of intermittent exercise is

a decline in peak and mean power output in successive

stages of the exercise, due to decreasing phosphocreati ne

stores in the muscles, especially in fast-twitch fibres,

and increasing blood lactate accumulation [5]. During

intense intermittent exercise, aerobic metabolism also

plays a very important role. It determines phosphocre-

atine restoration and lactate oxidation in the muscle at

rest between successive stages of the exercise [4].

Elite wrestlers have been characterized by high

maximal power output of arm and leg muscles [6]. Bor-

kowski et al. [7] in their study on Polish elite wrestlers,

using a 30s Wingate test, recorded peak power output of

12.0 W/kg for leg muscles, and 9.8 W/kg for arm mu-

scles in Greco-Roman wrestlers; and 11.8 W/kg for leg

muscles and 9.8 W/kg for arm muscles in freestyle

wrestlers. Similar results (11.3 W/kg for leg muscles and

9.7 W/kg for arm muscles) were obtained by Lutosław-

ska et al. [8] in their study of 33 wrestlers of both styles.

A considerable contribution of anaerobic metabolism to

supplying ATP in the active muscle during a wrestling

match was confirmed by high post-exercise blood lac-

tate accumulation. Kraemer et al. [9] in their study of

THE EFFECT OF TRAINING EXPERIENCE ON ARM MUSCLE ANAEROBIC PERFORMANCE IN WRESTLERS

* Corresponding author.

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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E. Hübner-Woźniak et al., Training and anaerobic performance in wrestlers

American wrestlers noted that lactate con centration

amounted to about 20 mmol/l after a 5min match.

Lactate produced in a muscle is transported across

the muscle cell membrane into the blood, both by sim-

ple diffusion and by carrier-mediated transport. The ef-

flux rate of lactate together with H+ depends on their

gradient across sarcolemma, on the active muscle mass

and on the intensity of muscle work [10]. It was con-

firmed that the main part of the lactate/H+ flux across

muscle cell membrane was mediated on membrane-

-bound transporter proteins – MCT [11]. MCT1 proteins

exist mainly in slow-twitch fibres (ST) and are re-

sponsible for uptake from blood, whereas MCT4 pro-

teins were found in fast-twitch fibres and determined

the rate of lactate release from muscle [12]. It was

shown that the lactate transport capacity could be af-

fected by training intensity [13]. Evertsen et al. [12]

demonstrated that intense training increased MCT1 and

MCT4 content in muscle cell membrane in cross-coun-

try skiers.

A wrestling match is an intermittent physical exer-

cise of variable, or even maximal intensity, thus physi-

cal exer cise tests used for assessing wrestlers’ anaerobic

perfor mance should be as close as possible to the condi-

tions of a real match. Particularly recommended are up-

per-body tests making use of intermittent exercises, e.g.

8 × 15 s stages with 20s [14] or 30s rest breaks [15].

Callan et al. [16] have recently suggested a test consist-

ing of five-stage performance of 30s arm cranking with

30s breaks. They noted that a load amounting to 3.5%

of the athlete’s total body mass was high enough to pro-

duce the peak power output, and yet low enough to per-

mit the completion of the upper-body test. The authors

applied this in their study on American senior freestyle

wrestlers; there have been no data, however, confirming

its use in junior wrestles. The aim of the present work

was to examine changes of the peak and mean power

output in the upper-body muscles of senior and junior

wrestlers, utilizing intermittent exercises of high intensity

follo wing the guidelines established by Callan et al. [16].


The subjects of the study were senior wrestlers (n = 13)

of the Polish national team and junior wrestlers (n = 19),

representing both wrestling styles and all weight cate-

gories. The subjects’ physical characteristics are pre-

sented in Tab. 1. All sub jects were informed about the

course of the test and gave their informed consent to

participate in the rese arch. The study was approved by

the Ethics Committee of the University School of Physi-

cal Educa tion. The tests were carried out under labora-

tory conditions, at the beginning of the athletes’ compe-

tition period, between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m. The wrestlers

performed the exercise two hours after the last meal

(200 kcal). The day before the test was a non-training

day.

Body mass and height measurements were recorded,

and the BMI (body mass index, kg/m2) calculated. The

content of body fat was measu red with the NIR method

using the Futrex 6100/XL device (Futrex Inc., USA)

[17] and expressed in kg or % of the total body mass.

The subjects from both groups performed a modified

upper-body Wingate test, which consisted of five 30s

stages of maximal arm cranking against the resistance

of 3.5% of individual body mass, with 30s rest periods

between the stages [16]. The test was preceded by

a 5min warm-up, at a resistance of 1% of body mass,

performed on the electrically braked, computer-assisted

Angio ergo meter (Lode BV, Groningen, Ne therlands).

Peak and mean power output of each effort was record-

ed using the Operator Manual Wingate Software, ver-

sion 1.08.

For lactate (La) measurements, blood was drawn

from the earlobe 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 30 min post-test.

Individual maxi mal blood lactate concentration (Lamax)

was assessed considering the highest individual lactate

concentration during a 30min rest. Lactate concentra-

tion in whole blood was determined with the use of en-

zymatic-co lorometric Dr Lange assay sets (Germany).

Data were reported as mean valu es and standard de-

viations (SD). The normality of di stribution was as-

sessed with the Shapiro–Wilk’s test. Statistical analysis

was performed with non-parametric tests: Friedman’s

ANOVA, Wilcoxon’s matched pairs rank test and

Mann-Whitney’s U-test. The level of stati stical signifi-

cance was set at p < 0.05; all statistical cal culations

were made with STATISTICA 6.0 (StatSoft, USA).

Results

The results in Tab. 1 show that the senior wre stlers

were, on the average, 10 years older than the junior

ones. Body mass, body fat content (in kg and %) and the

BMI (body mass index) were significantly higher in

senior wrestlers than in juniors.

Peak power output (W/kg) in wrestlers from both

groups was highest during the first stage of the exercise


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and declined gradually during subsequent sta ges (Tab.

2). In senior wrestlers, the decline was observed until

the fourth stage, whereas peak power outputs in the

fourth and fifth stages of the exerci se were alike. In junior

wrestlers, the peak power declined until the third stage;

in the third, fourth and fifth stages, the differences were

non-si gnificant. Peak power output attained by senior

wrestlers in each subsequent stage was significantly

hi gher than in junior wrestlers.

Mean power output (W/kg) in senior and junior

wrestlers was highest in the first stage of the exerci se

and declined gradually until the fourth stage; in the

fourth and fifth stages, the differences were statistically

non-significant (Tab. 3). In each stage, the seniors at-

tained significantly higher mean power output than the

juniors.

Blood lactate con centration at every time point (3–30

min) was significantly higher in the senior wre stlers

than in juniors (Tab. 4). In both groups lactate concentra-

tion after the 5 min rest was significantly hi gher than

after the 3min rest post-exercise; the differences in

blood lactate concentrations between the 5th and 13th

minutes of recovery were non-significant.

Mean maximal blood lactate concentration (Lamax)

was significantly higher in the group of seniors as com-

pared with junior wre stlers (Tab. 5). The decrease in

blood lactate concentra tion was similar in both groups

of wrestlers when expressed in percentages of maximal

concentration (%Lamax). However, when expressed in

mmol/l (Lamax – La30min) and per minute of rest (mmol ·

l–1 · min–1), it was significantly higher in seniors than in

junior wrestlers.

Table 1. Physical characteristics of senior and junior

wrestlers (means ± SD)

Senior wrestlers

(n = 13)

Junior wrestlers

(n = 19)

Age (years) 28.1 ± 4.9 18.1 ± 1.2a

Body height (cm) 175.7 ± 10.5 173.8 ± 5.6

Body weight (kg) 85.4 ± 17.2 69.4 ± 10.4b

BMI (kg/m2) 27.3 ± 2.6 22.9 ± 2.9a

Body fat (%) 17.9 ± 4.3 10.5 ± 3.7a

Body fat (kg) 15.9 ± 6.9 7.6 ± 3.7a

Training experience

(years) 14.1 ± 5.2 5.2 ± 1.8a

a, b significantly lower than senior wrestlers (a p < 0.001, b p < 0.02)

Table 2. Peak power output (W/kg) in successive stages

of the test in the studied groups of wrestlers (± SD)

StageSenior wrestlers

(n = 13)

Junior wrestlers

(n = 19)

1 7.1 ± 0.3 5.9 ± 0.7c

2 4.9 ± 0.4a 4.2 ± 0.6a, c

3 4.3 ± 0.4a, b 3.6 ± 0.5a, b, c

4 4.0 ± 0.6a, b 3.4 ± 0.5a, c

5 4.0 ± 0.7a 3.5 ± 0.6a, c

a significantly lower than in stage 1 (p < 0.001), b signifi-

cantly lower than in the previous stage (p < 0.04), c significantly lower than in the group of senior wrestlers

(p < 0.006)

Table 3. Power output (W/kg) in successive stages

of the test in the studied groups of wrestlers (means ± SD)

StageSenior wrestlers

(n = 13)

Junior wrestlers

(n = 19)

1 5.6 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.4c

2 3.8 ± 0.3a 3.3 ± 0.5a, c

3 3.2 ± 0.4a, b 2.9 ± 0.4a, b, c

4 2.9 ± 0.3a, b 2.6 ± 0.4a, b, c

5 2.9 ± 0.3a 2.5 ± 0.3a, c

a significantly lower than in stage 1 in the groups of seniors

and juniors (p < 0.002), b significantly lower than in the

previous stage (p < 0.02), c significantly lower than in the

group of seniors (p < 0.04)

Table 4. Blood lactate concentration (mmol/l)

following intermittent exercise in the studied groups

of wrestlers (± SD)

Rest time

(min)

Seniors

(n = 13)

Juniors

(n = 19)

3 14.3 ± 1.9 9.5 ± 1.4c

5 15.9 ± 1.9a 12.3 ± 1.9a, c

7 16.6 ± 1.8a 13.2 ± 2.0a, c

9 16.9 ± 2.1a 13.7 ± 1.9a, c

11 16.8 ± 2.2a 13.8 ± 2.2a, c

13 16.3 ± 2.4a 13.2 ± 1.9a, c

30 9.9 ± 2.0a 8.6 ± 2.0b, c

a, b significantly different than blood lactate concentration

3 min following exercise (a p < 0.001, b p < 0.03), c signifi-

cantly lower than in the group of seniors (p < 0.004)


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tional team. It can be assumed that capacity to maintain

a high peak power output by senior wrestlers is due to

long-term training. McCartney et al. [5] noted that rest

periods up to 30 s between successive stages of the test

were suffi cient to restore muscle phosphocreatine up to

70%. Therefore, the initial phosphocreatine concentra-

tion in the muscle before each successive stage is con-

secutively decreased. They also observed that the peak

power output in a 4 × 30 s test (4min breaks) declined

until the third stage of the exercise, thus even such long

rest breaks failed to sustain a similar peak power output

in successive stages. Balsom et al. [19] showed that

a cause of decline in muscle power output during short

intermittent exercise of high intensity was insuffi cient

resynthesis of phosphocreatine and ATP in muscle cells.

On the other hand, Haseler et al. [20] observed that sus-

taining peak power output du ring an intermittent exer-

cise of maximal intensity was dependent on aerobic

performance and showed that muscle phosphocreatine

recovery was faster in subjects with higher VO2max.

Moreover, Balsom et al. [21] noted that under the condi-

tions of reduced oxygen availability (hypoxia) the re-

covery of phosphocreatine in the muscle was impaired

post-exercise. It should not be ruled out that sustaining

a high power output throughout a greater number of ex-

ercise stages in senior ath letes compared with the junior

ones was caused by differences in aerobic performance

between the two groups of wrestlers.

The present study showed that senior wrestlers at-

tained significantly higher mean power outputs in each

stage than the juniors, and their levels declined until the

fourth stage of the exercise test in both groups of ath-

letes. Simultaneously, the mean peak power achieved by

Polish senior wrestlers in the first stage of exercise was

significantly higher than that achie ved by the U.S. wres-

tlers (5.6 and 5.2 W/kg, respective ly). During the subse-

quent stages, however, the values of mean power output

were alike [16].

It has been widely accepted that mean power output

during intermittent exercise of high intensity de pends

on the production of lactic acid in the working muscle

[22], and, in consequence, on the accumulation of hy-

drogen ions and lowered intracellular pH [23]. Gratas-

Delamarche et al. [24] noted a significant corre lation

between blood lactate concentration and mean power

output during a 30s Wingate test. It was also shown that

the factor improving the capacity to perform short, in-

tense exercises was buffer capacity of muscle, which

increased the ability to produce a higher mean power

Table 5. Lactate clearance in the studied groups

of wrestlers (± SD)

Seniors

(n = 13)

Juniors

(n = 19)

Lamax 17.4 ± 2.0 14.1 ± 2.1a

Lamax – La30min

(mmol/l)* 7.5 ± 1.6 5.5 ± 1.3a

Lamax – La30min /min

(mmol · l-1 · min-1)** 0.37 ± 0.08 0.28 ± 0.08a

Decline

in La concentration

(%Lamax)***

43.2 ± 8.7 39.1 ± 8.6

La – lactate concentration, a significantly lower than in the

group of seniors (p < 0.004), * difference between the

highest lactate concentration and lactate concentration

after 30min rest, ** decline in lactate concentration per

minute of rest, *** difference between maximal lactate

concentration and lactate concentration after 30 min

of rest

Discussion

The obtained data show that during each stage of the

test, the senior wrestlers achieved better results than the

juniors. It can be concluded, with reference to data obta-

ined by Callan et al. [16] in an identical study, that in

each stage of the test senior wrestlers attained a hi gher

relative peak power output than the senior wre stlers of

the U.S. national team. It was noted that the maximal

power output depended on the concentration of phos-

phocreatine (PC) in the muscle and on the rate of its

degradation in ATP resynthesis catalyzed by creatine

kinase (CK) [3]. Rodas et al. [18] observed that a two-

-week in termittent training of high intensity significantly

incre ased PC concentration and CK activity in the mus-

cle, as well as peak power output during a 30s Wingate

test. These data suggest that increased peak po wer out-

put in each stage attained by senior wrestlers, as op-

posed to junior wrestlers, might have been brought by

higher phosphocreatine stores in the muscle due to ad-

aptation to long-term training.

The present study also revealed that the peak power

output was declining until the third stage in the group of

junior wrestlers, and until the fourth stage in the group

of senior wrestlers. The decrease in the relative peak

power (W/kg) until the fourth stage was also observed

by Callan et al. [16] in a 5 × 30 s upper-body exercise

test (30s breaks) performed by wrestlers of the U.S. na-


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151


output [25]. Sharp et al. [26] noted that the musc le buff-

er capacity in subjects undergoing eight-week sprint

training improved by about 38%, whereas endu rance

training had no effect. The results of the present study

show that the maximal blood lacta te concentration was

significantly higher in senior wre stlers than in juniors

(17.4 and 14.1 mmol/l, respective ly). Simultaneously,

the seniors achieved a higher mean power output during

the test, which could be an indication of higher muscle

tolerance to acidosis.

As mentioned before, aerobic metabolism also plays

a significant role in sustaining the mean po wer output

during intermittent exercise of high intensi ty. As Bal-

som et al. [21] observed, it induced faster recovery be-

tween particular stages of the exercise. Also, during in-

termittent exercise, the decrease in po wer output was

linked to the rate of ATP production during anaerobic

metabolism and intensified the participation of aerobic

metabolism [27]. Hamilton et al. [28] noted a hi gher de-

cline in power output during a 10 × 6 s intermit tent test

(30s breaks) in subjects with lower VO2max.

The higher lactate clearance in senior wrestlers (0.37

mmol · l–1 · min–1) than in juniors (0.28 mmol · l–1 ·

min–1) can be indicative of a better aerobic capacity of

the wrestlers of the Polish national team. It was demon-

strated that endurance training increased the number of

mitochondria in muscle cells and the activity of mito-

chondrial enzymes, and, in consequence, accelerated

the oxidation of energy substrates [29]. Thomas et al.

[30] showed that faster clearance of lactate and delayed

fatigue resulted from an increased muscle oxidative ca-

pacity, whereas Phillips et al. [31] noted that a 10-day

training had no effect on lactate production but incre-

ased its clearance.

In conclusion, a long-term wrestling training in-

creases the anaerobic per formance of upper body mus-

cles, as evidenced by a higher relative peak and mean

power outputs attained in each stage of the exercise test,

as well as by longer sustenance of maxi mal power in

senior athletes than in the juniors. More over, the meas-

urements of blood lactate concentration suggest that

athletes with longer training experience di splay higher

tolerance to muscle acidosis. The changes in the relative

peak power output in successive stages of the exercise

test, and the rate of lactate cle arance within 30 min

post-exercise in senior and junior athletes indicate that

long-term training also contributes to an increase in

aerobic capacity.

Acknowledgements

The study was supported by the Ministry of Education and

Science grants DS 66 and DS 77.

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Paper received by the Editors: June 2, 2005.

Paper accepted for publication: June 20, 2006.


Elżbieta Hübner-Woźniak

Zakład Biochemii


ul. Marymoncka 34

01-968 Warszawa 45, Poland, skr. 55



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153

2006, vol. 7 (2), 153–161

Elżbieta Kaluga1*, Elżbieta Rostkowska2

1 Department of Biology and Environmental Protection, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland2 Department of Swimming and Life Saving, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The aim of the study was to identify the relations between sports activity and threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes

practicing selected sports: team games, water sports, swimming, martial arts, track and field and soccer. Basic procedures. The study

was conducted between 2000 and 2002. 673 subjects took part in the study, including 346 men and 327 women. The age of the

subjects ranged from 19 to 23. Threshold tactile sensitivity was measured with the use of Touch-TestTM Sensory Evaluator (Semmes-

Weinstein Monofilaments) on the tip of the index finger of the dominant hand. Identifying the tactile threshold involved using an

aesthesiometer filament of the smallest pressure force that the subject was able to feel. The collected data was processed separately

for males and females. The following nonparametric tests were used in the statistical analysis: the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-

Whitney U test. Main findings. In general, athletes representing selected sports showed lower tactile sensitivity than subjects

practicing no competitive sports. A detailed comparative analysis of various sports yielded differences between groups of subjects in

terms of variability in the athletes’ tactile sensitivity. In the groups of athletes, as well as in the control groups, women displayed

a higher level of tactile sensitivity than men in the threshold pressure test. Conclusions. Physical activity, specific to individual sports,

is a reason for a variability of threshold tactile sensitivity. Among the studied athletes, swimmers displayed the highest tactile

sensitivity, and the lowest tactile sensitivity was observed in athletes practicing water sports, regardless of sex.

Key words: touch, sensory thresholds, sport, physical activity, perception

Introduction

Long-term sports training is conducive to an athlete’s

full adjustment to the requirements of his or her sport of

choice. The resulting functional and structural changes

in the athlete’s body constitute the physiological basis

for training. Apart from the athlete’s motor function,

kinesthetic sensations accompanying the body move-

ments, e.g. visual, aural, tactual sensations specific to

individual physical exercises, also become adapted.

A high level of kinesthetic sensations and perceptions

conditions the development of co-ordination motor abi-

lities necessary for each type of motor activity. To a great

extent, these abilities determine the effectiveness of the

athletes’ actions and patterns of motor behavior [1].

The skin is the largest sensory area of the body. The

structural basis for its tactile function is determined by

the activity of tactual receptors. The skin surface tactile

sense is complemented with deep sensibility (bathy-

esthesia). The surface and deep senses in terms of their

structure and function cannot, however, be clearly dis-

criminated. Almost all tactile sensations result from the

cooperation between the receptors of superficial and

deep sensibility. Deep sensibility and its significance

for sports activity have been subject to numerous stu-

dies [2–4]. Unfortunately, studies on athletes’ superfi-

cial sensibility cannot be found in professional literature.

It seems, therefore, necessary to attempt an analysis of

the relations between athletes’ superficial sensibility

and the type of sport practiced. Researchers studying

skin receptors distinguish various aspects of tactile sen-

sitivity; however, the number of studies on its functio-

ning, variability and adaptability is still not sufficient.

The aim of this study was to identify relations between

sports activity and threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes

in selected sports. The research hypothesis was that phy-

sical activity specific to a given sport is a cause of varia-

bility of the threshold tactile sensitivity in athletes.


The study was conducted between 2000 and 2002.

673 subjects participated in the study, including 346

men and 327 women, aged 19–23. The subjects were

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN TACTILE SENSITIVITY IN MEN AND WOMEN PRACTICING SELECTED SPORTS


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E. Kaluga, E. Rostkowska, Tactile sensitivity in athletes

students of the University School of Physical Education

in Poznań who practiced selected sports: team games,

water sports, swimming, martial arts, track and field

(running) and soccer. The control groups consisted of

students who did not practice competitive sports (Tab. 1).

The dependent variable in the study was the thres-

hold tactile sensitivity (TTS) measured on the tip of the

index finger of the subject’s dominant hand (1.04% of

subjects were left-handed).

The measurements were performed with the use of

Touch-TestTM Sensory Evaluator (Semmes-Weinstein

Monofilaments), being a set of 20 nylon filaments with

plastic grips. The filaments were of equal length and

different width; each filament featured a different value

of the least-bending pressure force (in grams and

grams/mm2). Owing to the differences in pressure force

of particular filaments and in order to normalize the di-

stribution of the dependent variable, the aesthesiometer’s

designer, Sidney Weinstein, found the logarithm for the

numerical value of pressure force as Log10 F(mg)

= Sem-

mes-Weinstein Monofilament (SWM). The obtained

numerical values from 1.65 to 6.65 were marked on the

plastic grips of the filaments [5]. For the purpose of the

present study these numerical values were accepted as

measurement units (SWMs) for statistical analysis.

The TTS was the aesthesiometer filament of the

least pressure force causing the least strain of the skin

by stimulating the subject’s tactual mechanoreceptors

and producing the sense of touch.

While measuring the TTS, the subject remained

sitting with his or her arms on the knees. Each subject

was instructed about the method of measurement and

undertook a pre-test to experience a supraliminal stimu-

lus (with a thick, easily perceptible filament) and subli-

minal stimulus (with a thin, imperceptible filament).

The subject was then asked to close his or her eyes and

exposed to the pressure of other aesthesiometer fila-

ments until the threshold filament was found. The test

was repeated to confirm the TTS value. The results

were recorded in a table along with the subject’s age and

practiced sport. All measurements were always taken

by the same person in the morning and in the afternoon.

The collected data was then processed for statistical

analysis with an Excel spreadsheet and STATISTICA

software. To assess the conformity of mean values di-

stribution of the dependent variable with the model di-

stribution, the Kolomogorov-Smirnov test was used.

The hypothesis about the conformity of distributions of

the dependent variable with the normal distribution was

rejected as the obtained distributions differed signifi-

cantly from the model distribution (Fig. 1). In the stati-

stical analysis two nonparametric tests were used: the

Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-Whitney U test. The

relations between the subjects’ age and the TTS were

evaluated using Spearman’s rank correlation coeffi-

cient.

Results

The sense of touch and subjects’ age

Having taken into consideration the results of other

studies indicating relations between the TTS and age

Table 1. Study groups and number of subjects

Group Number of subjects

men women

1. Team games players (basketball,

volleyball, team handball) 48 56

2. Water sports athletes (kayaking,

rowing)47 30

3. Swimmers 25 32

4. Martial arts competitors (judo,

taekwondo, karate)35 31

5. Track and field athletes (runners) 30 36

6. Soccer players 41 n.a.

7. Control group 120 142

Total 346 327

n.a. – not applicable

Figure 1. Distribution of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)

mean values on the tip of the index finger – men practicing

competitive sports (n = 226)

Expected value

1.5

Num

be

r of s

ub

ject

s

[SWM]

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Variable P2 SWM (Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament); distribution: normal

d Kolmogorov-Smirnov test = 0.2855960; p < 0.01

Chi-square: 628.2177; df = 11; p = 0.000000 (df correct)


HUMAN MOVEMENT

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[5–7], and a rather short age range of subjects of both

sexes (max. 5 years), age was excluded as a discrimina-

ting factor for the experimental groups. Tab. 2 shows

that the majority of subjects – 237 men (68%) and 239

women (73%) – were aged 20–21 at the time of the study.

With regard to the specific conditions of particular

sports practiced by the athletes under study, possible

relations between the subjects’ age and aesthesiometric

measurement results were sought. No statistically signi-

ficant correlations between the parameters under study

were observed in the men’s and women’s groups. For

example, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

between age and the TTS on the tip of the index finger

in the water sports male athletes amounted to R = –0.10.

The sense of touch and subjects’ sex

The statistical analyses were made separately for

men and women (Fig. 2, 3). Tab. 3 presents the results

obtained by the male and female subjects. The male

subjects displayed higher TTS than the female subjects.

In the groups of athletes and control groups sex was

a significant discriminating factor for TTS values. Fe-

male subjects displayed lower TTS than men in the

threshold pressure test.

Table 2. The subjects’ age range

Age range

(years)Accurate age range

Number of subjects

men women

19 18.50–19.49 49 51

20 19.50–20.49 141 135

21 20.50–21.49 96 104

22 21.50–22.49 43 28

23 22.50–23.49 17 9

Total 346 327

Figure 2. Comparison of TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)

values on the tip of the index finger in male and female

athletes practicing competitive sports (n = 427)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)

SWM – Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament

men women

3.0

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

�

�

± standard deviation

± standard error

mean


values on the tip of the index finger in male and female

athletes practicing no competitive sports (n = 262)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)


men women

2.7

2.6

2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0

1.9

�

�


± standard error

mean

Table 3. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)

variability on the tip of the index finger in men and women

practicing and not practicing competitive sports

Groups of subjects comparedMann-Whitney U test

results (Z)

Male athletes/female athletes Z = –3.73*

Men/women (control group) Z = –3.56*

* p = 0.01

The sense of touch and the type of competitive sport

In order to assess the effect of sport activity on tactile

sensitivity, the TTS values on the tip of the index finger

in the athletes and control groups (both sexes) were

compared. Higher TTS was observed as a result of

practicing competitive sports. The athletes displayed

Table 4. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity)

variability on the tip of the index finger in subjects

practicing and not practicing competitive sports:

comparison of sex groups

Groups of subjects comparedMann-Whitney U test

results (Z)

Male athletes/male subjects

(control group) Z = –2.83*

Female athletes/female subjects

(control group)Z = –2.85*

* p = 0.01


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lower tactile sensitivity than the non-athletes. The diffe-

rences observed were statistically significant (Tab. 4).

Fig. 4 and 5 present diagrams for the groups of men and

women, respectively.

In the male groups, the highest TTS was displayed

by water sports athletes followed by team games play-

ers, soccer players, track and field athletes, martial arts

competitors and swimmers (Fig. 6). The subjects from

the control group displayed lower tactile sensitivity than

the martial arts competitors and swimmers.

The differences between the groups with regard to

the TTS variability are the following (Tab. 5):

• water sports athletes displayed the lowest statistically

significant values of tactile sensitivity of all groups of

athletes under study; only in comparison with the

team sports players, the difference was statistically

insignificant;

• team sports players displayed lower statistically si-

gnificant tactile sensitivity than soccer players, mar-

tial arts competitors and swimmers; in comparison

with the track and field athletes, the difference was

statistically insignificant; team sports players

showed higher tactile sensitivity than water sports

athletes (statistically insignificant);

• soccer players featured higher statistically signifi-

cant tactile sensitivity than the water sports athletes

and team games players, and lower tactile sensitivity

than track and field athletes, martial arts competi-

tors and swimmers (statistically insignificant);

• track and field athletes displayed higher tactile sen-

sitivity than water sports athletes (statistically signi-

ficant), team games players, and soccer players (sta-

tistically insignificant), and lower tactile sensitivity

than martial arts competitors and swimmers (stati-

stically insignificant);

• martial arts competitors featured higher tactile sensi-

tivity than water sports athletes, team games players

(statistically significant), soccer players and track

and field athletes (statistically insignificant), and lo-

wer tactile sensitivity than swimmers (statistically

insignificant);

• swimmers displayed higher tactile sensitivity than

water sports athletes, team games players (statisti-

cally significant), soccer players, track and field ath-

letes, and martial arts competitors (statistically insi-

gnificant);

• the control group featured higher tactile sensitivity

than water sports athletes, team games players (stati-

stically significant), soccer players, and track and

field athletes (statistically insignificant), and lower

tactile sensitivity than martial arts competitors and

swimmers (statistically insignificant).


values on the tip of the index finger in male athletes

practicing and not practicing competitive sports (n = 346)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)


athletes control group

3.0

2.9

2.8

2.7

2.6

2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

�

�


± standard error

mean


values on the tip of the index finger in female athletes

practicing and not practicing competitive sports (n = 327)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)


athletes control group

2.8

2.7

2.6

2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0

1.9

��


± standard error

mean

The effect of the type of sport on the sense of touch

The effect of the type of sport on the TTS was asses-

sed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The obtained test re-

sults (H = 37.58 in men; H = 25.69 in women) allowed

us to reject the null hypothesis, suggesting no TTS dif-

ferences between the subject groups. The analysis re-

vealed statistically significant differences (p = 0.01) be-

tween athletes practicing selected sports, which led to

a more detailed comparative study between the groups,

with the use of Mann-Whitney U test.


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In the groups of female subjects, the highest TTS,

i.e. the lowest tactile sensitivity, was displayed by water

sports athletes, followed by track and field athletes,

team games players, martial arts competitors and swim-

mers (Fig. 7). The control group featured lower tactile

sensitivity than the group of swimmers.

The differences between groups in terms of their

threshold tactile sensitivity are as follows (Tab. 6):

• water sports athletes featured the lowest statistically

significant tactile sensitivity out of all groups of fe-

male athletes under study;

• track and field athletes displayed higher tactile sen-


ficant), and lower tactile sensitivity than team games

players, martial arts competitors (statistically insi-

gnificant) and swimmers (statistically significant);

• team games players featured lower tactile sensitivity

than water sports athletes (statistically significant),

and lower tactile sensitivity than martial arts compe-

titors (statistically insignificant) and swimmers (sta-

tistically significant);

• martial arts competitors displayed higher tactile sen-


ficant), track and field athletes, and team players

(statistically insignificant), and lower tactile sensivity

than swimmers (statistically insignificant);

• female swimmers featured higher tactile sensitivity

than water sports athletes, track and field athletes,

team games players (statistically significant) and

martial arts competitors (statistically insignificant);

• subjects from the control group displayed higher tac-

tile sensitivity than water sports athletes, track and

field athletes, team games players (statistically signi-

ficant) and martial arts competitors (statistically in-

significant), and lower tactile sensitivity than swim-

mers.

Table 5. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip

of the index finger between groups: men (n = 346)

Study groupTrack and field

athletes

Team games

players

Martial arts

competitors

Water sports

athletesSwimmers Soccer players

Team games

players Z = –1.02

Martial arts

competitors Z = 0.7 Z = 1.78*

Water sports

athletes Z = –2.51** Z = –1.6 Z = –3.22**

Swimmers Z = 1.36 Z = 1.89* Z = 1.06 Z = 2.28**

Soccer players Z = 0.58 Z = 1.76* Z = –0.16 Z = 3.15** Z = –1.22

Control group Z = –1.2 Z = –2.72** Z = –0.32 Z = –4.53** Z = 1.09 Z = –0.49

Z – Mann-Whitney U test result, * p = 0.05, ** p = 0.01

Table 6. Differences in TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip

of the index finger between groups: women (n = 327)

Study groupTrack and field

athletes

Team games

players

Martial arts

competitors

Water sports

athletesSwimmers

Team games players Z = –0.2

Martial arts competitors Z = 0.58 Z = 0.82

Water sports athletes Z = –1.71* Z = –1.7* Z = –1.97*

Swimmers Z = 2.18* Z = 2.58** Z = 1.54 Z = 2.94**

Control group Z = –2.2* Z = –2.91** Z = –1.31 Z = –2.99** Z = 0.72

Z – Mann-Whitney U test result, * p = 0.05, ** p = 0.01


HUMAN MOVEMENT

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Figure 7. TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip of the index finger in female athletes practicing selected sports

as compared with the control group (n = 327)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)


control grouptrack and field

3.2

3.0

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

�

�


± standard error

mean

team gamesmartial arts

water sportsswimming

Figure 6. TTS (threshold tactile sensitivity) variability on the tip of the index finger in male athletes practicing selected sports

as compared with the control group (n = 346)

tact

ile th

resh

old

(S

WM

)


control grouptrack and field

3.2

3.0

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

�

�


± standard error

mean

team gamesmartial arts

water sportsswimming

soccer


HUMAN MOVEMENT

159


Discussion

Since the study was merely an attempt to examine

relatively new issues, not all of its results can be compa-

red with those from other studies. Some results were

interpreted with reference to the general variability con-

ditions of tactile sensitivity.

Since the sense of touch is most significant in manu-

al location, handling and identification of objects, the

variability of tactile sensitivity as a function of age has

been an interesting research subject [8, 9]. Population

studies show that tactile sensitivity in subjects of both

sexes is weaker with age, beginning with pubescence

[10]. This is linked to several biological properties of

the skin, such as thickness of the epidermis or the quan-

tity of collagen and elastin, which can change with age.

Changes in morphology, quantity, density and loca-

tion of tactual receptors are also likely to appear [11].

The present study fails to confirm the effect of age on

tactile sensitivity, which is understandable taking into

account the subjects’ short age range.

Weinstein [12] studied different aspects of tactile

sensitivity as a function of body part, sex and laterality.

In the 1950s he designed the Semmes-Weinstein aesthe-

siometer, to examine war veterans and distinguish be-

tween those with damage to the peripheral nervous

system and those with damage to the central nervous

system. Weinstein’s calibrated nylon filaments replaced

the earlier Von Frey’s bristles (in the late 19th century

Von Frey developed a sensory measurement method

using calibrated human hairs and animal bristles). Since

the 1950s Weinstein’s aesthesiometer has been used by

a number of clinicians and researchers. It allowed for

a distinction of the various aspects of the sense of touch.

Weinstein examined 24 men and 24 women by measu-

ring their tactile threshold and assessing two-point di-

scrimination. In the tactile threshold examination he

noticed that the face was the most sensitive part of the

body in men and women, followed by the trunk, fingers

and upper extremities. The least sensitive were the lo-

wer extremities. In his evaluation of two-point sensory

discrimination, Weinstein noted the greatest density of

tactual receptors in men and women in the fingers, face

and feet. The more distal the body part is, the higher its

sensitivity. Weinstein also observed that women di-

splayed higher tactile sensitivity on individual body

parts than men, but only during examination of thre-

shold pressure. More recent population studies [10] also

show that sex significantly differentiates the sense of

touch. The results of threshold examination revealed

that women were indeed more sensitive than men. In all

groups of subjects in the present study, sex is a discri-

minating factor for TTS mean values. The female sub-

jects have all displayed generally higher tactile sensiti-

vity than men. Although male and female athletes fe-

ature higher TTS than the subjects from the control

groups, the intersexual differences between the measu-

ring points are similar in both the athletes’ and control

groups.

The TTS changes in the competitive athletes under

study were compared with the results obtained by the

subjects from control groups. It was observed that phy-

sical activity, specific to individual sports, affected the

athletes’ sense of touch. In some athletes sports training

can enhance the tactile neural basis, in others tactile

sensitivity may decrease.

Sports training is a specific, long-term process

aimed at developing the athlete’s physical skills neces-

sary for the sport being practiced. Already during the

first stage of sports training, guided exercises specific

to the athlete’s chosen sport are strongly emphasized

[13]. According to Czabański [14], specially selected

motor exercises can equip the athlete’s motor function

with kinesthetic sensations. While performing move-

ments, owing to the activation of skin and myo-arthral

receptors, potentials generated in tactile neurons provide

information about movement accuracy, range and force.

The mechanoreceptors affect motor orders for the hand

and finger muscles [15]. The hand’s tactile sensitivity is

the highest in the fingertips which feature high density

of tactual receptors. The fingertips are the most expo-

sed to the environmental impact and remain the prefer-

red spot for tactile examination [16–18]. In the present

study, the TTS was measured on the tip of the index

finger as a spot particularly stimulated during sports

activity.

The stimulus in team games (basketball, volleyball,

team handball) is the fingers’ contact with the ball. Du-

ring hitting or passing the ball the fingertips are most

susceptible to frictions, pressures and strokes. In kay-

aking or rowing, the stimulus is the contact with an oar.

For example, during rowing both rower’s hands are pla-

ced on the oar, and movements are performed with wrists

and fingers. Swimming requires physical activity in the

water environment, which is conducive to the body’s

adaptation to the physical features of this environment.

A swimmer receives stimuli from the water environ-

ment via his or her tactual receptors, which affects the


HUMAN MOVEMENT

160


propulsive movements and leads to an improvement of

the tactile analyzer. In martial arts, the stimulus is the

contact with the opponent’s body. Mastering sensory

skills in constantly changing situations is crucial to all

martial arts competitors. Soccer players and runners re-

present sports in which training and competitions gene-

rally lack factors explicitly affecting their tactile sensiti-

vity. However, these are athletes whose high level of

physical activity, due to intensive efficiency training

and development of motor traits, is very likely to affect

their general level of tactile sensitivity. Also the atmo-

spheric conditions which soccer players and runners are

exposed to during training and competitions can affect

their sense of touch.

The significance of the sense of touch in various

sports cannot be refuted. The tactual receptors, rece-

iving stimuli from contacts with the ground, outfit or

a sports apparatus, provide the athlete’s body with in-

formation about its immediate surroundings. While

handling an object, the pressure force between the fin-

gertips and the thumb is automatically balanced out to

prevent the object from breaking or slipping out. This

precise force control requires information from the tac-

tile units about the intensity of friction between the skin

and the object. It can be concluded that systematic tra-

ining enhances the tactile analyzer since it leads to cor-

rect identification of stimuli, i.e. athletes develop higher

tactile sensitivity to the outside stimuli and display

much greater abilities to discriminate their movements

in various conditions.

However, the results of the present study show that

in groups of male athletes only, swimmers and martial

arts competitors featured statistically insignificantly

higher tactile sensitivity than the control group. All

other athletes displayed lower tactile sensitivity, while

statistically significant differences were only noted be-

tween water sports athletes, team games players and

subjects from the control group.

The female subjects produced similar results. The

female swimmers and martial arts competitors showed

statistically insignificantly higher tactile sensitivity than

subjects from the control group. The other athletes fea-

tured lower tactile sensitivity, but statistically signifi-

cant differences were only observed between the water

sports athletes, track and field athletes, team games

players and the control group.

Tactile sensitivity is a genetically conditioned trait.

However, it can be greatly modified by different envi-

ronmental factors, among which are varied physical ac-

tivities characteristic of different sports. The outermost

layer of the epidermis, called stratum corneum, is com-

posed of dead, exfoliated cells. The number of layers of

these cells, determining the thickness of the cuticle, va-

ries (100 to 200 in thick skin; 2 to 5 in thin skin) and

depends on mechanical pressure forces and frictions the

skin is exposed to. Thus the type of sports activity can

modify the thickness of the epidermis. On the basis of

the results of the present study it can be concluded that

changes in the epidermis thickness can be a cause of

variability in threshold tactile sensitivity observed in

athletes practicing different sports. Moreover, Osiński

[19] puts emphasis on intentional actions in sports tra-

ining aimed at relieving the body of numerous unple-

asant sensations, primarily caused by mechanical fac-

tors such as feelings of touching, pressing, stroking,

scratching or tapping. Highly significant in effective

training are frequent showers, rubbing the body with

wet and dry towels and various massages.

Conclusions

1. Physical activity in various sports is a cause of

variability in athletes’ threshold tactile sensitivity.

2. The highest tactile sensitivity in the groups of

subjects under study, regardless of sex, was displayed

by swimmers, and the lowest by water sports athletes.

3. Athletes whose fingertips are constantly exposed

to mechanical pressures and frictions feature lower tac-

tile sensitivity than the subjects from the control group.

4. Swimmers show a tendency towards higher tactile

sensitivity than the subjects from the control group.

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aching sports technique). AWF, Wrocław 1991.

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Paper received by the Editors: December 22, 2005.

Paper accepted for publication: August 2, 2006.


Elżbieta Kaluga

Zakład Biologii i Ochrony Przyrody






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162

Marek Bolanowski1, 2*, Wojciech Pluskiewicz3, Anna Skrzek1, Piotr Adamczyk4,

Janusz Bolanowski1

1 Department of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland2 Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Isotope Therapy, Medical University, Wrocław, Poland3 Metabolic Bone Diseases Unit, Department of Internal Diseases, Diabetology and Nephrology, Medical University of Silesia,

Katowice, Poland4 Department and Clinic of Pediatrics, Pediatric Nephrology and Endocrinology, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The aim of the study was to assess the skeletal status in women exercising a Tai Chi programme. Basic procedures. A group

of 115 women at the mean age of 55.94 ± 10.23 years was compared with a control group of 1030 women with regard to the

quantitative ultrasound (QUS) measurements at hand phalanges. Main findings. Amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS) had

greater values in the whole group of exercising subjects than in controls (2012.7 ± 77.3 vs 1981.4 ± 81.8 m/s, p = 0.00009). The

Ad-SoS in premenopausal women did not differ from that in controls. The Ad-SoS in postmenopausal women differed from that in

controls (1946.0 ± 60.8 vs. 1975.0 ± 59.4 m/s). There was a correlation between Ad-SoS and exercise duration in the whole group

and in postmenopausal women (r = 0.24, p = 0.01 and r = 0.29, p = 0.01, respectively). The intensity of exercises did not influence

Ad-SoS values. Age affected Ad-SoS significantly less in exercising women than in controls (r = –0.64 and –0.74, respectively).

A stepwise multiple regression analysis of Ad-SoS regressed on age, duration of postmenopause, duration and intensity of exercises,

and body size showed that age had negative influence and duration of Tai Chi exercises remained a protective factor; regression

equation: Ad-SoS (m/s) = 2183 m/s – 0.43 × age (y) + 0.32 × duration of exercises (y) (r = 0.52, SEE = 51.5, p < 0.00001). Conclusions. Due to its beneficial effect on skeletal status, Tai Chi exercises may be recommended in the prevention of osteoporosis in the post-

menopause rather than earlier.

Key words: osteoporosis, phalanges, quantitative ultrasound, Tai Chi exercises, women

Introduction

Physical activity in the elderly is a very important

factor influencing the general efficiency and it can pre-

vent fractures by its antifalling properties. Exercises

have a positive impact on both muscle strength and the

maintenance of postural balance [1]. The advantageous

effect of physical exercises on bone mineral density

(BMD) has been proven [2, 3]. The Tai Chi exercise is

a low-weight-bearing exercise and the major regular

physical exercise practiced by elderly Chinese-origin

populations. There are some suggestions on the positive

effect of Tai Chi exercise on BMD in postmenopausal

women and osteoporotic fracture prevention [4, 5].

Osteoporosis is a major health problem in postmeno-

pausal women, associated with increased fracture risk

related to decreased bone density. The susceptibility to

falls is an independent fracture risk factor in the elderly

[6]. The osteoporosis risk can be indirectly estimated,

on the one hand, with clinical data, and on the other

with BMD measurements and bone quality assessment

making use of bone turnover markers or quantitative

ultrasound (QUS) at different skeletal sites [7–9].

Ultrasound measurement of skeletal properties gives

additional information on bone strength and resistance

to fractures. The technique is noninvasive, relatively

cheap and easily available by utilizing portable devices.

The phalangeal QUS measurement was introduced about

a decade ago and it has been validated in various clini-

cal studies. By measuring the amplitude-dependent

speed-of-sound, it may provide useful information not

only on bone mass but also on bone tissue architecture

and elasticity. There are reports on good correlation be-

tween ultrasound parameters and age, osteoporosis and

fracture risk [10, 11]. Several studies revealed changes

BONE PROPERTIES ASSESSED BY QUANTITATIVE ULTRASOUND AT THE HAND PHALANGES IN WOMEN EXERCISING TAI CHI


2006, vol. 7 (2), 162–167

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M. Bolanowski et al., Bones assessed by QUS in Tai Chi

in phalangeal ultrasound properties due to menopause,

aging and certain bone disorders [11–14].

The aim of the study was to assess whether there are

any changes in ultrasound properties of bone measured at

hand phalanges in the Polish Tai Chi female gymnasts.


Subjects

A group of 115 females exercising a Tai Chi pro-

gramme, aged 27–75 years was studied. All of them

were involved in the programme of regularly exercising

women on the base of Tai Chi clubs in Wrocław (Lower

Silesia, Poland). Among the exercising females, 74 were

postmenopausal (mean age 61.7 ± 6.6 years), the other

41 were premenopausal (mean age 44.6 ± 6.8 years).

The data of the subjects are shown in Tab. 1. The total

number of 15 fractures in the past were reported by 14 sub-

jects. All the fractures were results of a minimal trauma

(e.g. a fall from standing height or less). The fractures

occurred in the following skeletal sites: forearm (10),

clavicle (3), hip (1), spine (1) and were confirmed by ra-

diographs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) at any

time was reported by 44 women; out of them, 18 sub-

jects reported the duration of HRT longer than 5 years,

and the mean time of HRT was 1.8 ± 3.1 years. Five sub-

jects reported previous short-time antiresorptive treat-

ment (up to 6 months).

The control group (1030 non-exercising women) was

matched for age, body mass, height and time postmeno-

pause. 744 women were after menopause. All the

women were recruited from those undergoing bone mea-

sure ment for screening purposes in the Outpatient Medi-

cal Care Unit. All the subjects (exercising women and

cont rols) were interviewed by a physician applying

a special questionnaire in order to collect data on impor-

tant risk factors for osteoporosis. Subjects with factors

of potential influence on bone metabolism (prolonged

diseases of thyroid gland, liver or kidney, gastrointestinal

surgery, therapy with corticosteroids, anti convulsants,

thyroid hormone etc. or being treated with drugs other

than HRT for osteoporosis) were not included (either

among the exercising subjects or among controls). The

controls did not report any regular advanced physical

activity. Neither fractures nor HRT were reported by

them. The study protocol was approved by the Local

Ethics Committee.

Methods

Anthropometric measurements

In all subjects, body weight, height and body mass

index (BMI, kg/m2) were established. Body height was

measured in the standing position with a measuring

tape, weight – with commercial electronic scales; then,

BMI was calculated with the commonly accepted for-

mula.

Exercise scores

The exercise duration and intensity scores in the Tai

Chi exercising subjects were calculated as follows. Dura-

tion of exercise score: onset: 0 (19 subjects); < 6 months:

1 (23 subjects); 6–12 months: 2 (21 subjects); 12–24

months: 3 (18 subjects); more than 24 months: 4 (34

subjects). Intensity of exercise score: occasionally: 0 (13

subjects); once weekly: 1 (44 subjects); twice a week:

2 (32 subjects); three times a week: 3 (9 subjects); four

and more times a week: 4 (17 subjects).

QUS measurement

The skeletal status was assessed by QUS measure-

ments at proximal phalanges with the use of the DBM

Sonic 1200 device (IGEA, Carpi, Italy). The unit con-

sists of two probes mounted on an electronic caliper,

one emitter and one receiver. The latter records the ultra-

sound energy after it has crossed the phalanx. The am-

plitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS, m/s) was

determined in the distal metaphyses of the proximal

phalanges in the second through fifth fingers of the do-

Table 1. Clinical characteristics of the subjects exercising

with Tai Chi and the controls

VariableTai Chi

(n = 115)

Controls

(n = 1030)p-value

Age (years) 55.94 ± 10.23 55.92 ± 10.28 n.s.

Body mass (kg) 65.10 ± 9.9 65.12 ± 8.2 n.s.

Height (cm) 161.5 ± 5.9 160.6 ± 5.6 n.s.

BMI (kg/m2) 24.99 ± 3.7 25.27 ± 3.3 n.s.

YSM (y) 11.41 ± 7.02

(n = 74)

11.38 ± 7.25

(n = 744)n.s.

Duration of

exercise score 2.22 ± 1.5 –

Intensity of

exercise score 1.87 ± 1.1 –

BMI – body mass index, YSM – years since menopause,

n.s. – not significant


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minant hand. The SoS in bone tissue was calculated

considering the first signal with an amplitude at least

2 mV at the receiving probe; thus, the measured SoS is

amplitude-dependent. Acoustic coupling was achieved

with standard ultrasound gel. All measurements (in

subjects and controls) were carried out by one experien-

ced operator. The precision of QUS measurements,

expressed variation coefficient (CV%) was 0.64%.

CV% was established on the basis of 75 bone scans with

repositioning of the device caliper (five measurements

in each subject).

Statistics

All statistical analyses were carried out with Statisti-

ca for Windows 5.5 (2000). The mean values and SD

between the groups studied were compared on the basis

of Student’s t-test. The correlations between variables ana-

lyzed were calculated according to Pearson’s or Spear-

man’s tests when appropriate. Chi-square test was used

in order to compare the “scores” of exercises duration,

and coefficients of correlation between exercising wo-

men and controls were compared using Fisher test. The

differences were statistically significant at the value of

p < 0.05.

Results

Among the exercising females, 44 were HRT users

in the past. In order to verify whether the differences in

Ad-SoS values were not attributed to the influence of

Table 2. QUS measurements at hand phalanges in Tai Chi exercising women and in the control group regarding

their age and menopausal status

Age (years)Exercising women Control group

p-valuen Ad-SOS (m/s) n Ad-SOS (m/s)

< 41 6 2083.8 ± 32.5 53 2089.9 ± 52.8 n.s.

41–50 28 2084.6 ± 47.6 218 2068.1 ± 53.2 n.s.

51–60 46 2002.8 ± 75.3 393 1977.6 ± 58.5 0.008

61–70 27 1959.0 ± 47.7 304 1922.1 ± 53.3 0.0006

> 70 8 1946.1 ± 30.5 62 1897.6 ± 49.5 0.009

Premenopausal 41 2081.0 ± 56.5 286 2074.0 ± 56.2 n.s.

Postmenopausal 74 1975.0 ± 59.4 744 1946.0 ± 60.8 0.00009

Total 115 2012.7 ± 77.3 1030 1981.4 ± 81.8 0.00009

QUS – quantitative ultrasound, Ad-SoS – amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound, n.s. – not significant

Table 3. Correlations (Pearson or Spearman, accordingly) between Ad-SOS and other variables studied in the entire group of

subjects exercising Tai Chi (n = 115; except for YSM: n = 74) and in controls (n = 1030; except for YSM: n = 744)

Variable

Exercising women Control group Difference between

correlation

coefficientsCorrelation

coefficientp-value

Correlation

coefficientp-value

Age –0.64 0.0001 –0.74 < 0.0001 p = 0.03

Body mass –0.23 0.013 –0.23 0.0001 n.s.

Height +0.22 0.017 +0.17 0.0001 n.s.

BMI –0.35 0.0001 –0.31 0.0001 n.s.

YSM –0.38 0.001 –0.49 < 0.0001 n.s.

Exercise duration +0.24 0.01

Exercise intensity –0.06 n.s. (0.52)

Ad-SoS – amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound, YSM – years since menopause, BMI – body mass index, n.s. – not significant


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this therapy, a comparison between HRT users and

HRT non-users was also performed. Mean Ad-SoS va-

lues did not differ significantly (data not shown). There-

fore, further analyses were conducted in all exercising

females.

Ad-SoS at hand phalanges had greater values in the

whole group of exercising subjects than in controls

(2012.7 ± 77.3 vs 1981.4 ± 81.8 m/s, p = 0.00009) (Tab.

2). In subjects younger than 40 years, in those aged 41–

–50 years, and in all premenopausal ones, Ad-SoS did

not differ in comparison with controls, but, in postme-

nopausal subjects, Ad-SoS differed versus the value of

Ad-SoS in controls (1946.0 ± 60.8 vs 1975.0 ± 59.4 m/s).

The differences in Ad-SoS values between the exerci-

sing subjects and controls had a tendency to increase

with age; in the subgroup aged 51–60 years the diffe-

rence was 25.2 m/s; in the subgroup aged 61–70 years it

equalled 36.9 m/s; and, in the oldest females, aged over

70 years, it turned out to be 48.5 m/s. Therefore, the Tai

Chi programme, in regard to skeletal status, seems to be

efficient in the postmenopause rather than earlier. Corre-

lation analysis of age, years since menopause (YSM),

body size and duration and intensity of exercises is shown

in Tab. 3. A statistically significant correlation was shown

between Ad-SoS and exercise duration (r = 0.24,

p = 0.01) (Fig. 1) in all exercising females; in postmeno-

pausal women, the same analysis gave r = 0.29, p = 0.01;

and, in premenopausal women, the duration of exercises

did not affect Ad-SoS values. The intensity of exercises

had no influence. The duration of the exercises expres-

sed in the “score” did not differ with regard to age of the

exercising women. As shown by Fisher test, age affec-

ted exercising Ad-SoS significantly less in exercising

women than in controls (r = –0.64 and –0.74, respective-

ly). A stepwise multiple regression analysis performed

in postmenopausal exercising women (n = 74) of Ad-

-SoS regressed on age, duration of postmenopause, du-

ration and intensity of exercises and body size showed

that age had negative influence and duration of Tai Chi

exercises remained a protective factor; regression equa-

tion: Ad-SoS (m/s) = 2183 m/s – 0.43 × age (y) + 0.32 ×

duration of exercises (y) (r = 0.52, SEE = 51.5,

p < 0.00001).

Discussion

Osteoporosis followed by fractures is a major health

problem of the aging population and the evaluation of

possible procedures to prevent them is of great impor-

tance. Physical activity is one of them, since it leads to

better postural stability and lesser susceptibility for fal-

ling [1]. Moreover, there are some suggestions that phy-

sical activity performed on a regular basis in the elderly

could influence bone strength and density [2, 3]. This

might be due to some beneficial impact on bone turno-

ver by skeletal muscle activity [15, 16].

Tai Chi is a popular low-weight-bearing exercise re-

gularly practiced by the elderly Chinese population.

Fig. 1. Correlation between QUS results and exercise duration in the group of exercising women

2250

2200

2150

2100

2050

2000

1950

1900

1850

18000 1 2 3 4

Ad

-So

S (

m/s

)

r = +0.24; p = 0.01

Exercise duration score (explanation in the text)


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There are limited data on the influence of these exerci-

ses on BMD; they were carried out on Chinese popula-

tions [4, 5]. Tai Chi exercises are known to exert a bene-

ficial influence on cardiovascular risk factors [17]. To

our knowledge, the current study is the first one evalu-

ating QUS at hand phalanges in the Caucasian (Europe-

an) population.

QUS at hand phalanges allows indirect assessment

of bone properties using bone and soft tissue ultrasound

transmission, expressed in Ad-SoS values. There are

numerous reports on the decrease of Ad-SoS in subjects

with bone deterioration, as in the menopause, immobili-

zation, disease and hormonal dysfunctions [11–13, 18].

We have shown higher values of Ad-SoS, reflecting

ultrasound transmission in hand phalanges, in the entire

group and in the subgroups older than 50 years of our

Tai Chi exercising subjects as compared with controls.

The control group (1030 non-exercising women) was

matched for age, body mass and number of years since

menopause, which allowed us to perform reliable com-

parisons.

This could suggest a positive effect of the above-

-mentioned exercises on bone status and a potential anti-

fracture impact. One of the most important clinical fin-

dings of the study is the efficacy of Tai Chi exercises to

improve skeletal status only in postmenopausal females.

Moreover, improvement expressed as differences be-

tween exercising women and controls increased with

age, so Tai Chi should be recommended rather in older

postmenopausal females.

To our knowledge, the current study is the first one

describing the influence of Tai Chi exercises on ultra-

sound velocity at hand phalanges, especially regarding

premenopausal subjects. Moreover, there are no data in

the literature on the skeletal advantages of Tai Chi exer-

cises in premenopausal women. Current results inclined

us to start prospective observations with repeated me-

asurements in the future. On the other hand, our previo-

us study on young female handball players did not show

any deviation from the normal range in these sports-

women [19].

The values of Ad-SoS in our subjects correlated po-

sitively with the exercise duration, but not with exercise

intensity in the entire group. The mean value of exercise

duration score in our subjects was 2.22, reflecting about

1 year and three months of Tai Chi exercises, although

the most numerous group of exercising women was the

group with score 4 (longer than 24 months). This is

a strong evidence for a greater impact of the duration

than intensity of exercises on the bone status (strength).

Very recent study showed a significant, 2.6- to 3.6-fold

retardation of bone loss in both trabecular and cortical

compartments of the distal tibia assessed by pQCT in

postmenopausal women exercising Tai Chi [4]. Another

study, carried out using DXA and pQCT techniques,

showed significantly higher BMD (10.1–14.8%) in the

lumbar spine, proximal femur and ultradistal tibia in

postmenopausal Tai Chi gymnasts than in controls [5].

Positive correlations between Ad-SoS and body he-

ight in our group could be explained by the postural in-

fluences on bone mass; taller subjects have larger bone

mass. Negative correlations between Ad-SoS and age

and the year of the menopause reflects the natural age-

-dependent bone deterioration and the influence of the

menopause. This was shown in the previous studies

carried out in various populations [10–14]. The subjects

with greater BMI represented lower values of Ad-SoS.

Similar observations according to body mass and BMI

were noted by others [14, 20]. An important observation

given by the current study on age-related Ad-SoS chan-

ges concerns a significantly weaker negative influence

of age in exercising women than in controls.

The previous osteoporotic fractures in our group

were not numerous, and they were not related to the le-

vel of physical activity. The results of Ad-SoS values

were not attributed to the influence of previous HRT.

The study has several limitations: it represents

a case-control and not a longitudinal design; the anthropo-

metric parameters (body mass, BMI) could be lowered

by regular exercising followed with body mass reduc-

tion, but this hypothesis could not be proven, since body

mass changes during the exercises were not analyzed;

and the skeletal status was assessed in one measurement

site only. Despite these limitations, the study results are

promising and further longitudinal observations are in

progress.

In conclusion, owing to their beneficial effect on

skeletal status, Tai Chi exercises may be recommended

in the prevention of osteoporosis in the postmenopause

rather than earlier.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Ms. Ewa Derda and the authorities

of the local branch of Tai Chi Society in Wrocław for their

help in arranging and performing the study.

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Marek Bolanowski

Wydział Fizjoterapii


al. I.J. Paderewskiego 35

51-612 Wrocław, Poland



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Krzysztof Buśko1, 2, *, Radosław Rychlik3

1 Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Sport, Warszawa, Poland2 Department of the Theory of Sport, University School of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland3 Astanga Yoga Studio, Warszawa, Poland

ABSTRACT

Purpose. The aim of the study was to examine the changes of the maximal muscle torque in females during a six-month Power Yoga

(Astanga Vinyasa) training. It was assumed that Power Yoga training caused changes of the maximal muscle torque in females during

six months, but the topography of all muscle groups did not follow these changes. Basic procedures. Twelve untrained female

subjects took part in the study. They practiced Power Yoga twice a week for six months. Muscle torque measurements in static

conditions were performed on two dates: before the commencement of Power Yoga training and after its completion. Ten muscle

groups were studied: flexors and extensors of the trunk, as well as flexors and extensors of the shoulder, elbow, hip and knee. Main findings. The differences between muscle torque values for flexors and extensors of the shoulder, elbow and hip, as well as flexors of

the knee on the right side of the body were statistically significant between the 1st and 2nd measurement. On the left side of the body,

only the muscle torque of the elbow extensors increased significantly. For flexors and extensors of the trunk, the changes were not

significant. No changes of the flexors–extensors ratio for the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee joints and trunk were observed during the six

months of training, with the exception of left shoulder muscles and right knee muscles. Conclusions. Power Yoga training caused

changes of the maximal muscle torque in females after six months, but the changes in the muscle topography were also significant.

Key words: muscle torque, muscle topography, flexors–extensors ratio, Power Yoga (Astanga Vinyasa)

Introduction

The Hatha Yoga system descends from the philoso-

phical tradition of ancient India, which treats yoga exer-

cises as a preparation for higher meditation practices.

There are three types of yoga exercises: asana – static

body positions, vinyasa – dynamic sequences of asanas,

and pranayama – respiratory exercises [1]. Depending

on the training intensity and inclusion of individual

exercises in a training session, different Hatha Yoga

styles can be distinguished: Iyengara, Sivananda, Vi-

niyoga, Pranayama and Astanga Vinyasa (commonly

known as Power Yoga). Power Yoga is one of the most

dynamic yoga varieties. It was popularized by an Ame-

rican instructor, Beryl Bendere Birch. Power Yoga

features smooth and quick changes of body positions

(vinyasa), combined with deep breaths (ujjayi) and

various concentration techniques. The intensity of exer-

cises is adjusted to the practitioners’ individual needs

and skills.

Hatha Yoga training affects the four main systems of

human body: musculoskeletal, cardiopulmonary, nervous

and endocrine [2]. Practicing different yoga systems

enhances muscle and joint flexibility, improves muscle

strength (static force, in particular) [2], and affects the

lean body mass [3] and body composition [3, 4]. Yoga

training was also observed to significantly increase

muscle aerobic power [5–7] and to significantly decre-

ase muscle anaerobic power [5].

The aim of the study was to observe the changes of

the maximal muscle torque during a six-month Power

Yoga training. The initial hypothesis was that a six-

-month Power Yoga training cycle caused a significant

increase in the maximal muscle torque, whereas the to-

pography of muscle torques remained unchanged.


The study was granted the approval of the Research

Ethics Committee of the Institute of Sport in Warsaw.

The group of subjects consisted of 24 untrained women;

12 of them resigned during the experiment. Only the

results of the subjects who had obtained all measure-

CHANGES OF THE MAXIMAL MUSCLE TORQUE IN WOMEN TRAINING POWER YOGA (ASTANGA VINYASA)


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K. Buśko, R. Rychlik, Changes of the maximal muscle torque in females

Figure 1. An example set of exercises for the classical training series

The First Series (Yoga Chikitsa)Standing positions

Sitting positions

return to samasthiti

vinyasa

chakrasana

Finishing sequence

5×5 breaths

3×5 breaths 10–15 breaths

10 breaths each25 breaths

25 breaths 10 breaths 10–25 breaths 10–25 breaths

Rest in savasana for

10–15 minutes

Bridges as indicated by the instructor

Basic finishing sequence


HUMAN MOVEMENT

170


Figure 2. Example exercise sequences in the Suryanamaskara positions (Sun Salutation)

bre

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ments (n = 12) were taken into account. The subjects’

profile included the following characteristics: age (24.8 ±

± 6.1 years), body height (168.4 ± 6.2 cm), body mass

(60.1 ± 7.1 kg before the training, 59.4 ± 6.4 kg after the

training), and BMI (21.242 ± 2.683 before the training,

21.013 ± 2.661 after the training). The body mass did

not change significantly between the 1st and 2nd measu-

rement periods.

The yoga training sessions were conducted by a Po-

wer Yoga instructor, twice a week for six months. Each

subject performed the traditional sequence of exercises

at their own pace, following their own respiratory rate.

During the six months the subjects mastered about one

half of the First Series exercises, i.e. Mysore classes

(Fig. 1). The subjects’ mean attendance amounted to

30 ± 7 out of 50 completed classes (60%).

A typical Astanga Yoga session during the six-

-month training cycle included the following elements:

1. Sun Salutation – two dynamic cycles of strengthe-

ning and extension exercises, during which an exer-

ciser moves from one pose to another, following

their own respiratory rate. During each cycle there is

a break in one of the poses to take five deep breaths.

Each cycle (A and B) is repeated five times. The Sun

Salutation pose is aimed to warm up the body and

prepare it to perform the subsequent exercises (Fig.

2). Duration: 12 minutes.

2. Standing Poses – series of stretching exercises which

strengthen, first of all, leg muscles. The exerciser

remains in each static pose for the duration of five

breaths. The transitions between the poses are made

through dynamic but short moves and jumps. Each

asana together with its vinyasa (entry into and exit

from the pose) begins and ends in the position of at-

tention (Samasthiti). The exercise intensity and the

body warming up increase gradually throughout this

entire stage. Duration: 15 minutes.

3. Seated Poses – series of various static poses promo-

ting, first of all, muscle flexibility, assumed in a sit-

ting position (Dandasana). An exerciser remains in

each pose for the duration of five deep breaths. In

order to maintain the warming up of the body, cycli-

cal Sun Salutation elements are used as vinyasa be-

tween the asanas. In the cycle of the Seated Poses,

the exercises are performed at a high and stable le-

vel. Duration: about 30 minutes.

4. Finishing Poses – cycles of static poses maintained

for a longer time (from 10 to 25 breaths) aimed to

calm down the body and gently conclude the exerci-

ses. The cycle starts with a deep forward bend

(Paścimottanasana), followed by a shoulderstand

(Sarvangasana), headstand (Shirshasana), and a se-

ries of Lotus Poses with crossed legs. Duration: about

15 minutes.

5. Scale Pose (Tolasana) – the last of the finishing po-

ses. An exerciser lifts the hips and legs in the Lotus

Pose away from the floor and remains suspended on

the palms on the floor for the longest time possible

(25 deep breaths, or 100 breaths in advanced practi-

tioners). During this pose, the pulse and pulmonary

ventilation increase rapidly. It is the last intensive

exercise before the final relaxation. The whole body

is flexed and then easily and quickly relaxed in the

next stage. Duration: up to 1 minute.

6. Corpse Pose (Śavasana), i.e. lying and relaxing on

one’s back – used as final relaxation. Duration: from

5 to 10 minutes.

The classic Astanga Yoga training session described

above was the final objective of the six-month training

cycle. For the first three months, the exercises were mo-

dified according to the following pattern:

1. Soft warm-up exercises. In a classic yoga training

session, the warm-up consists of Sun Salutation and

Standing Poses, which require some muscle flexibi-

lity and strength. For the beginners, a softer warm-

-up might be more suitable, such as simple static and

dynamic exercises aimed at warming up the wrists

and arms, spinal elongation, preparation of the body

for forward bends and stretching of leg muscles.

2. Standing Poses – like during a classic session. Ini-

tially, many exercises were preceded with easier

preparatory exercises.

3. Modified finishing sequence – a few calming exerci-

ses. At the beginning of the training, headstands and

shoulderstands were not exercised.

4. Lying on one’s back as final relaxation.

After the first three months, the subjects were able

to perform most exercises from the classic First Series

of Astanga Yoga, with the exception of a few most diffi-

cult exercises from the Seated Poses, requiring great

muscle flexibility.

During the second three months, the exercises were

customized for each subject. The subjects performed

exercises following their own respiratory rate, while the

instructor provided them with manual corrections, gu-

idance and help in completing more difficult exercises.


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172


After that, each subject learned and performed exer-

cises individually: the individual sets were different.

This type of yoga training, called Mysore, is the basic

form of Astanga Yoga practiced in India and in traditio-

nal yoga schools worldwide.

The measurements of maximal muscle torques were

taken in ten muscle groups on the sagittal plane: flexors

and extensors of the trunk, shoulder, elbow, hip and

knee, using stations for measurement of muscle torque

in static conditions [8, 9].

The torque measurement of elbow flexors and exten-

sors was performed in the sitting position, with the arm

lying on a rest. The angle in the shoulder joint equalled

90 degrees. The forearm was situated perpendicularly

to the shoulder; the trunk was stabilized.

The measurement of the torque of shoulder flexors

and extensors was taken in the sitting position. The an-

gle in the shoulder joint during extension equalled 70

degrees, and during flexion 50 degrees. The trunk was

leaning against the station and became stabilized with

the chest pressed against the backrest by the assistant.

The torques of knee and trunk flexors and extensors

were measured in the sitting position. The angle in hip

and knee joints equalled 90 degrees. A subject was stabi-

lized at the level of anterior iliac spines and the distal

parts of the thigh. The arms rested on the chest.

The torque of hip extensors was measured in the

prone position, and the torque of hip flexors – in the su-

pine position. The angle in the hip joint equalled 90 de-

grees. The subject’s trunk was stabilized.

The maximal extension of the extremity in the el-

bow, knee and hip joint was accepted as 0 degrees. For

the shoulder joint, the situation of the arm along the

trunk was accepted as 0 degrees. The trunk in the prone

position was accepted as 0 degrees. The rotation axis of

the examined joint corresponded to the rotation axis of

the torquemeter. The measurements were taken on both

upper and lower extremities, separately on the right and

left extremity, always in the flexion-extension sequence.

Before the measurements, the subjects got acquainted

with the measurement equipment and protocols and

performed warm-up exercises involving the measured

muscle groups. Each subject was to produce the maxi-

mal power output.

The total error in the measurement of the maximal

muscle torque did not exceed 4% [9]. The maximal error

Table 1. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the maximal muscle torque (N·m) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and knee flexors

(F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the leg (TMTL),

of the trunk (TMTT) and of ten muscle groups (TOTAL) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle

JointRight extremity

R (%)Left extremity

R (%)1 2 1 2

ElbowF 35.7 ± 5.6 36.9 ± 5.0 4.0 35.1 ± 6.2 35.4 ± 6.4 1.1

E 22.6 ± 3.6 25.6 ± 5.3a 13.5 23.3 ± 3.7 26.7 ± 4.7a 14.7

ShoulderF 30.9 ± 5.8 40.1 ± 7.6a 31.0 30.4 ± 7.3 33.7 ± 6.5 14.5

E 39.2 ± 7.3 46.1 ± 7.1a 19.6 39.6 ± 4.8 41.8 ± 7.7 5.6

KneeF 79.4 ± 15.9 86.4 ± 14.5a 10.1 77.6 ± 17.5 80.9 ± 15.7 6.5

E 174.2 ± 36.7 173.3 ± 31.2 0.5 177.9 ± 37.6 181.6 ± 34.8 3.2

HipF 68.4 ± 11.8 71.0 ± 11.8a 4.2 68.9 ± 11.7 68.3 ± 12.3 –0.9

E 289.6 ± 47.1 309.2 ± 45.1a 7.3 299.8 ± 47.4 297.8 ± 44.1 0.0

TrunkF 95.8 ± 28.5 99.8 ± 19.6 7.7

E 312.2 ± 56.5 329.9 ± 50.9 7.1

TMTA 128.3 ± 17.6 148.8 ± 20.5a 16.2 128.3 ± 17.1 137.6 ± 21.9a 7.1

TMTL 611.6 ± 94.2 639.8 ± 91.9a 4.9 624.2 ± 96.7 628.6 ± 89.2 1.1

TMTT 408.0 ± 72.7 429.7 ± 62.4 6.4

TOTAL 1900.4 ± 270.3 1984.4 ± 256.9a 4.7

1 – measurement before the commencement of the training, 2 – measurement after the completion of the training, a – the mean

values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05, R – percentage change between the two measurement

periods


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173


of repeatability, expressed by the coefficient of variabili-

ty, was 4.2%; for particular muscle groups it amounted

to 1.8% for knee extensors, 2.1% for hip extensors, 4.9%

for hip flexors and 6.3% for shoulder extensors [8].

The flexors–extensors ratios were calculated from the

measured maximal muscle torque values for elbow, sho-

ulder, hip, knee and trunk flexors and extensors [9, 10].

The maximal muscle torque values of particular mu-

scle groups were also represented as constituents of the

total muscle torque, i.e. muscle topography.

In the statistical analysis, ANOVA variance analysis

was used. The statistical significance between the mean

values was estimated with Scheffe’s post-hoc test. The

correlation between the muscle torques and body mass

was calculated using Pearson’s coefficient or correla-

tion. The level of statistical significance was set at p <

0.05. All statistical calculations were performed with

STATISTICA (v. 5.5, StatSoft) software.

Results

Tab. 1 and 2 show the obtained maximal muscle

torque values (Mm) and relative muscle torque values in

subjects under study. A significant increase in the maxi-

mal muscle torque was observed between the two me-

asurement periods in right elbow, shoulder and hip

extensors and in knee flexors. As for the left side of the

body, only the muscle torque of left elbow extensors in-

creased significantly. The total value of the maximal

torque of both arms and the right leg, as well as the total

value of the torque of the ten examined muscle groups

increased significantly between the 1st and 2nd measure-

ment periods.

Tab. 3 presents mean constituent contributions of

particular muscle groups to the total torque value. A si-

gnificant change of the topography of muscle torques

was observed in the group of left elbow extensors and

right shoulder flexors and extensors. The contribution

of the total torque value of the right arm muscles incre-

ased significantly, whereas the total torque value of the

left leg decreased, in the total torque value of all ten

examined muscle groups.

The calculated flexors–extensors ratios for the elbow,

shoulder, hip and trunk muscles were not changed in the

six-month training cycle, with the exception of the right

knee and the left shoulder muscles (Tab. 4).

Table 2. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the maximal relative muscle torque (N·m·kg-1) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and

knee flexors (F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the

leg (TMTL), of the trunk (TMTT) and of ten muscle groups (TOTAL) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle

JointRight extremity

R (%)Left extremity

R (%)1 2 1 2

ElbowF 0.60 ± 0.09 0.63 ± 0.09a 5.1 0.59 ± 0.10 0.60 ± 0.09 2.3

E 0.38 ± 0.06 0.43 ± 0.09a 14.7 0.39 ± 0.07 0.45 ± 0.08a 15.9

ShoulderF 0.52 ± 0.11 0.68 ± 0.14a 32.6 0.51 ± 0.12 0.57 ± 0.12 15.9

E 0.66 ± 0.15 0.79 ± 0.16a 21.1 0.67 ± 0.11 0.71 ± 0.14 6.7

KneeF 1.33 ± 0.28 1.46 ± 0.23a 11.3 1.30 ± 0.32 1.37 ± 0.28 7.8

E 2.90 ± 0.50 2.92 ± 0.40 1.5 2.97 ± 0.54 3.06 ± 0.50 4.3

HipF 1.14 ± 0.18 1.20 ± 0.17a 5.3 1.15 ± 0.17 1.15 ± 0.19 0.1

E 4.87 ± 0.89 5.25 ± 0.83a 8.5 5.04 ± 0.86 5.04 ± 0.76 1.1

TrunkF 1.60 ± 0.42 1.68 ± 0.28 8.8

E 5.21 ± 0.81 5.55 ± 0.60 8.2

TMTA 2.16 ± 0.35 2.53 ± 0.41a 17.6 2.15 ± 0.32 2.33 ± 0.38a 8.3

TMTL 10.25 ± 1.54 10.82 ± 1.44a 6.1 10.46 ± 1.59 10.63 ± 1.42 2.2

TMTT 6.80 ± 0.96 7.24 ± 0.73 7.5

TOTAL 31.82 ± 4.29 33.55 ± 3.89a 5.8


values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05, R – percentage change between the two measurement

periods


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174


No correlation was observed between the body mass

and muscle torque in static conditions in the six-month

training cycle, with the exception of the right knee

extensors (r = 0.58) and trunk extensors (r = 0.69).

Discussion

In the diagnosis of the training condition of athletes’

motor function, changes in the maximal muscle torque

can be indicative of the effects of applied training loads.

Most frequently, the maximal muscle torque values of the

arm, leg and trunk flexors and extensors are used in sta-

tic and dynamic conditions [9, 11–14]. The muscle torques

can also be presented as contributions to the total muscle

torque value, i.e. muscle topography [9, 12, 13, 15].

The obtained results failed to definitely confirm the

assumed hypothesis that a six-month Power Yoga tra-

ining cycle would increase the maximal muscle torque

in all ten examined muscle groups, and that the topogra-

phy of the muscles would remain unchanged. The me-

asurements revealed a significant increase in the maxi-

mal muscle torque in the muscles of the right extremi-

ties, and in their total torque values between the

commencement of training (1) and after its completion

Table 3. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of topography of the muscle torque (%) of the elbow, shoulder, hip and knee flexors

(F) and extensors (E), and the trunk flexors and extensors, and the total muscle torque of the arm (TMTA), of the leg (TMTL)

and of the trunk (TMTT) during a six-month Power Yoga training cycle

JointRight extremity Left extremity

1 2 1 2

ElbowF 1.88 ± 0.21 1.87 ± 0.18 1.85 ± 0.28 1.78 ± 0.21

E 1.20 ± 0.20 1.29 ± 0.18 1.24 ± 0.19 1.35 ± 0.21a

ShoulderF 1.64 ± 0.30 2.02 ± 0.28a 1.60 ± 0.33 1.70 ± 0.23

E 2.08 ± 0.37 2.34 ± 0.29a 2.10 ± 0.27 2.11 ± 0.27

KneeF 3.60 ± 0.43 3.57 ± 0.30 3.62 ± 0.38 3.43 ± 0.36

E 15.23 ± 1.13 15.57 ± 1.06 15.79 ± 1.24 15.02 ± 1.25

HipF 4.18 ± 0.68 4.35 ± 0.50 4.10 ± 0.79 4.07 ± 0.61

E 9.13 ± 1.01 8.71 ± 0.84 9.32 ± 1.02 9.13 ± 1.07

TrunkF 4.99 ± 1.08 5.02 ± 0.71

E 16.44 ± 1.84 16.68 ± 01.97

TMTA 6.80 ± 0.84 7.51 ± 0.58a 6.80 ± 0.74 6.93 ± 0.66

TMTL 32.14 ± 01.21 32.20 ± 1.31 32.83 ± 01.39 31.66 ± 1.37a

TMTT 21.43 ± 01.61 21.70 ± 2.00


values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05

Table 4. Changes in the mean values (± SD) of the flexors–extensors ratio (FER) after a six-month Power Yoga training cycle

RatioRight extremity Left extremity

1 2 1 2

Elbow FER 1.596 ± 0.245 1.471 ± 0.219 1.524 ± 0.287 1.348 ± 0.286

Shoulder FER 0.797 ± 0.106 0.874 ± 0.140 0.774 ± 0.186 0.808 ± 0.083a

Hip FER 0.238 ± 0.039 0.230 ± 0.026 0.232 ± 0.038 0.229 ± 0.028

Knee FER 0.465 ± 0.099 0.506 ± 0.094a 0.446 ± 0.104 0.457 ± 0.114

Trunk FER 0.311 ± 0.100 0.305 ± 0.061


values are significantly different from the first measurement, p < 0.05


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175


(2). As for the left side of the body, a significant increase

in the relative maximal muscle torque was noted in the

elbow extensors. In all other groups of flexors and

extensors of the left extremities, the maximal muscle

torque remained unchanged. Also the increase in the

maximal muscle torque of trunk extensors and flexors

(8.2% and 8.8%, respectively) was not statistically si-

gnificant. The observed percentage changes after the

first measurement were higher than those reported by

Trzaskoma [9] in a study of competitive athletes after

a two-year training cycle. Trzaskoma et al. [16], in their

study of female judokas after a six-month training cycle,

observed changes from 4.3% to 0.8%. So far, there has

been no research on the maximal muscle torque during

practicing different yoga systems. The available studies

report on significant changes in grip strength: 4.1–6.5%

after a ten-day training [17], 21.0% after a twelve-week

training [18], and 15.4% after an eight-week training

[19]. The changes for particular muscle groups noted in

this study ranged from 5.1% to 32.6%. The topography

of the maximal muscle torques, however, remained un-

changed, with the exception of the right shoulder flexors

and extensors and the left elbow extensors. An intere-

sting fact is that in the case of the left extremities, al-

most two-time lower, non-significant changes were ob-

served, with the exception of the left elbow extensors.

We are not able to provide any rational explanation of

this observation. Individual asanas appear to be “sym-

metric” exercises, thus the changes in the muscle torque

should be similar on both sides of the body.

The obtained muscle torque values for the arm mu-

scles and the topography of the muscle torques indicate

a beneficial influence of Power Yoga training on the

development of these muscle groups. It is an important

observation in view of the current tendencies in sports

to “neglect” the development of these muscle groups,

and of a decline in the muscle torque of the arm in, e.g.

male basketball players [20] and female judokas [9].

A number of studies focus on calculating the so-cal-

led flexors–extensors ratio on the basis of the maximal

muscle torque measurements in static conditions [9, 10,

15, 21, 22]. In Bober and Hay [15], the flexors–extensors

ratios in untrained subjects amounted to 0.46 in the

knee joint and 0.47 in the hip joint. In Jaszczuk et al.

[22], the ratio in athletes representing nine sports disci-

plines ranged from 0.39 to 0.57 in the knee joint and

from 0.18 to 0.25 in the hip joint; however, the ratio of

the knee joint changed within a narrow scope from 0.49

to 0.54 for athletes representing six sports. In the study

of female judokas by Trzaskoma [9], the flexors–exten-

sors ratios for the elbow, shoulder, knee, and hip joints

and for the trunk amounted to 1.375 ± 0.262, 0.855 ±

± 0.137, 0.501 ± 0.109, 0.200 ± 0.034 and 0.327 ± 0.060,

respectively. In the study of Trzaskoma and Trzaskoma

[23], the flexors-extensors ratios in the hip and knee

joints, in seventy athletes representing different sports

disciplines, equaled 0.20 and 0.43, respectively. The fle-

xors-extensors ratios for the knee and hip joints calcula-

ted in the present work correspond to the results of

Buśko [12], Jaszczuk et al. [22] and Trzaskoma [9], ob-

tained in their studies of untrained and trained subjects.

Contrary to the values of the flexors–extensors ratio

obtained by Shealy et al. [24] in their study of human

torque velocity adaptations to sprint following an eight-

-week sprint training, no significant changes of this ra-

tio were observed in the present study for any examined

joints, except for the right knee and the left shoulder

joint, after a six-month training cycle.

The correlation between muscle force and body

mass has been discussed in several studies [21, 25]. Le

Chevalier et al. [25] showed that the mass of the thigh

quadriceps muscle was significantly correlated with the

isokinetic torque measured in the knee joint (r = 0.78),

but they found no significant correlation between the

body mass and the isometric muscle torque (r = 0.33).

Dworak et al. [21] observed a significant correlation be-

tween the body mass and muscle torque of the hip and

knee flexors and extensors.

Different results were obtained by Pietraszewski et

al. [26], who did not observe any significant correlation

between the body mass, the lean body mass and the to-

tal muscle torque of flexors and total muscle torque of

extensors in both knee joints. Also Trzaskoma [9] found

no relationship between the body mass and muscle

torque in women in a three-year training cycle. In a study

of junior and senior female basketball players, a statisti-

cally significant correlation between the body mass and

muscle torque was only found for the total torque of ele-

ven muscle groups [12]. In individual muscle groups the

correlation was not significant. Similarly, Janiak et al.

[27] found no correlation between the body mass and

muscle torque of the right and left knee and hip exten-

sors, with the exception of the left knee extensors in

untrained subjects. In trained subjects, this correlation

was significant in all muscle groups under examination.

No significant correlation was found in the present

study between the body mass and muscle torque in par-

ticular muscle groups in a six-month training cycle,


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176


except for the torque values of the right knee extensors

and the trunk extensors. These results correspond to the

earlier results obtained by Buśko [12], Janiak et al. [27],

and Pietraszewski et al. [26].

Conclusions

1. During the six-month training cycle, an increase

was observed in the maximal muscle torque in indivi-

dual muscle groups in the right arm and the right leg.

2. A significant increase in the maximal muscle

torque on the left side of the body was only noted in the

elbow extensors.

3. A significant increase in the total value of the ma-

ximal muscle torque for the right leg muscles, both arms

and all the ten examined muscle groups was observed

after the six-month Power Yoga training cycle.

4. The percent contributions of the maximal muscle

torque values for the left elbow extensors and right

shoulder flexors and extensors, the total torque of the

right arm muscles and left arm muscles, and the total

torque values of both legs and both arms, to the total

torque value of all the ten examined muscle groups were

significantly changed.

5. The flexors–extensors ratios remained unchanged

after the six-month Power Yoga training cycle, with the

exception of the left shoulder and the right knee musc-

les.

6. A significant correlation between the body mass

and maximal muscle torque was only found in the case

of the right knee extensors and the trunk extensors. In

all other cases, the muscle torque values were not signi-

ficantly correlated with the body mass during the six-

month Power Yoga training cycle.

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A., Body composition and muscle torques of lower limbs [in

Polish]. Biol Sport, 1997, 14 (Suppl. 7), 104–107.

27. Janiak J., Eliasz J., Gajewski J., Maximal static strength of lo-

wer limbs and the parameters of the vertical jump [in Polish].

Biol Sport, 1997, 14 (Suppl. 7), 65–69.

Paper received by the Editors: July 19, 2005.

Paper accepted for publication: August 2, 2006.


Krzysztof Buśko

Zakład Biomechaniki

Instytut Sportu

ul. Trylogii 2/16

01-982 Warszawa, Poland



HUMAN MOVEMENT

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PRAKSEOLOGIA GIER SPORTOWYCH (PRAXEOLOGY OF SPORTS GAMES)

Ryszard Panfil is one of the most

tireless theorists and researchers of

sports games in Europe. His most re-

cent book, Prakseologia gier sporto-

wych, undoubtedly turns out a time-

less publication. On the one hand,

Panfil’s book constitutes a compre-

hensive summary of his life’s scholar-

ly achievements, as well as a conscien-

tious survey of the Polish literature on

the subject matter (in particular, of

works that have grown out of Tadeusz

Kotarbiński’s praxeological tradition).

On the other hand, it is an extremely

solid and original synthesis of the the-

ory of play, and therefore a compre-

hensive and readable academic text-

book on this complex subject. This

monograph will be definitely very useful in academic

and coaching practice. Panfil’s book is indisputably both

a scholarly and practical publication.

The main advantage of the book is its shift from the

hitherto amateur and popular treatment of the subject

matter to the methodologically well-founded grounds,

formed on the basis of the renowned Lvov–Warsaw me-

thodological tradition, featuring terminological preci-

sion, logical correctness in theory construction and cla-

rity of argumentation. This approach is not only about

maintaining good reporting and order, which itself is

not an easy task, but also about making proper synthe-

ses and overviews of data and using a proper scientific

language. If Kotarbiński’s praxeology was once consi-

dered a unique and pioneering, philosophically groun-

ded theory of effective action (in the material world as

the only existing reality), Ryszard Panfil’s monograph

turns out the first so comprehensive study on the pra-

xelogical principles of sports play in the Polish and

European literature of the subject.

Panfil’s conception is not merely an application of

Kotarbiński’s ideas included in his monumental Traktat

o dobrej robocie (Treaty on effective

work). Such partial applications have

been made in Poland several times

before, with different results. For

Panfil, praxeology is in fact the most

important out of his three sources of

inspiration. The two other sources

are the general theory of play, with

its considerations of strategies, struc-

tures, processes, effects and synergy

of play, and the ontology of collective

beings, which is quite a novelty in

the studies on the theory of sport. All

the three: praxeology, theory of play

and ontology of collective beings

have been great achievements of the

Polish science and philosophy within

a larger context of modern European

thought (positivism, analytical philosophy, phenomeno-

logy and structuralism). Panfil’s study, therefore, remains

an important component of the mainstream contempo-

rary knowledge.

The third, ontological dimension appears in Panfil

usually indirectly, in his descriptions of sports teams in

competition (fight), although the author also mentions it

directly, in reference to respective philosophical and

phenomenological literature, in a realist, post-Ingarden

version. Thus, Panfil’s work definitely extends the

bounds of classical praxeology, often marked with ana-

chronistic nominalism, that rejects collective beings

and treats the team as a metaphor (it is like writing about

Ronaldinho’s, Eto’o’s and Deco’s victory without credi-

ting it to the Barcelona team, as the team is supposedly

only an imagined aggregate of individual subjects). The

author’s explicit standpoint, therefore, deserves utmost

consideration. It is also close to my existential and

structural concept of social systems, including sports

teams.

In this way, Prakseologia gier sportowych plays an

important role in a two-fold verification. First of all, it is

BOOK REVIEWS

2006, vol. 7 (2), 178–181

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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Review of Ryszard Panfil’s Prakseologia gier sportowych (Praxeology of sports games)

capable of verifying the legitimacy of general praxeolo-

gical principles in a specific case. If the general as-

sumptions of the theory of effective action are correct,

they should also apply in the field of sport, which can be

compared to a “productive play” in the context of purpose-

ful human actions. The other verification is based on an

entirely opposite assumption. An analysis of concrete

sports actions is the starting point, whereas the theoreti-

cal considerations should be useful in the verification or

modification of the general theory, i.e. praxeology. Ry-

szard Panfil gives credit to both sides of this historical,

methodological argument. The traditional deduction

method can also be effectively used, as it confirms sport

to constitute an exemplification of the universal truths

about life. The induction method also turns out effective,

as the truth about man and being can be learnt from the

exotic knowledge of sport.

To put it simply: the knowledge of effective action in

sport affirms the truth about effective action in general.

With this view in mind, it is certain that the book by the

outstanding Wrocław scholar will be of interest not only

to sports experts, but also to philosophers, sociologists,

psychologists, as well as theorists of management and

organization in general, and general praxeologists in

particular. In all the circumsport areas, the advantages

and possible limitations of praxeology become excep-

tionally noticeable. Sport, in turn, seems to be a rewar-

ding exemplification field, not less than business, mili-

tary, organizations or political institutions. Prakseolo-

gia gier sportowych is a strong argument supporting the

legitimacy of general principles of praxeology as

a science, and it should be classified as one of the most

significant philosophical achievements of the recent

years. Sport, and sports games in particular, have been

known for a long time as a cognitively interesting area

for model implementation of system theories, theory of

play, pragmatics and axiology (ethics and aesthetics in

particular).

The extensive subject matter of Prakseologia gier

sportowych has been divided into five chapters. The

first, introductory chapter is concerned with different

aspects of games, considering their various functions:

pragmatic, ludic, educational, social, health-related,

economic, etc. With extensive references to literature

(from Roger Caillois’ classic texts to works by modern

scholars of sports games, e.g. Naglak, Dziąsko and the

author himself), Panfil makes important distinctions

between the “real” competition (as a radical way of con-

trolling aggression and relieving interpersonal tensions)

and play as a regulated method of attaining conclusive

outcome in a competition between rival subjects (with-

out the need of total annihilation of the adversary).

Sports play is autotelic, i.e. aimed at holding an advan-

tage of one subject over others without the necessity of

appeal to other objectives and values, e.g. economic,

political or social benefits.

According to Panfil, a special place in the typology

of sport games is held by team ball games. A large part

of the first chapter is devoted to their definition, typology

and classification. Panfil is not interested in ball games

as sports games in general, and not all ball games are of

concern to him: for instance, tennis, table tennis, polo,

gymnastic exercises with a ball or water polo are barely

mentioned. Panfil concentrates on the most popular

team ball games using a “big ball” and “hard ground”,

e.g. football, team handball, basketball and volleyball.

Panfil’s references and analogies to other sports are oc-

casional, constituting the background rather than the

foreground for his considerations. By no means should

this be regarded as a form of criticism, but as the defini-

tion of the scope of the study, especially of the set of

examples. Panfil’s book should not be regarded as a ma-

nual for specific types of ball games.

The second chapter, “Synergy in team sports games”,

is extremely interesting. The author discusses the gene-

ral theory of synergism as a form of enhancement

achieved by proper cooperation between subjects. Re-

ferring to the works by Tadeusz Pszczołowski (one of

Kotarbiński’s students and collaborators) and by a Kra-

ków physicist Jerzy Hubert (who postulated creating

synergist studies as a separate branch of science), Ry-

szard Panfil analyses, in a competent and meticulous

manner, different types of synergy in organization the-

ory, psychology, physiology, medicine and physics, to

finally focus on a careful consideration of synergy in

sport. Sports synergies either are psycho-organic, pre-

sent at the level of the individual, or display a multitude

of complex forms, at the level of sport teams. The latter

are given particular attention in the second part of the

chapter.

The third chapter, discussing sports play as a “situ-

ational system of interrelated actions”, is pivotal in the

book structure. Here, the author skilfully combines the

classic theory of multi-subject action, derived from Leś-

niewski’s and Kotarbiński’s set theory, with the concept

of real collective subjects formed by way of interrela-

tions, feedbacks, material foundations and the system of

mutual senses, i.e. my own ontology, derived from Ro-


HUMAN MOVEMENT

180


man Ingarden’s phenomenology. Panfil’s detailed analy-

sis of a team structure is accompanied by a description

of situational variables and of concrete task solutions in

a sports play. The sports team appears in Panfil’s view

not only as a durable, synergic structure, composed of

particular units, but also as a dynamic system, alterna-

ting in time and depending on challenges and its own

variable capabilities (strengthening and weakening di-

spositions in attack and defence).

The fourth chapter is devoted to the criteria of action

in a sports play. By offering a broad definition of “ac-

tion”, including physical and mental factors, Ryszard

Panfil reflects on the most significant types of play eva-

luation, from ethical and aesthetic to health-related, fit-

ness-oriented and innovative. Particularly noticeable is

Panfil’s application of “stylistic” evaluation criteria (sur-

prise factor, intuitiveness, rationality of choice, diversi-

ty) next to the praxeological mainstream indices (econo-

mic, outcome-oriented). It turns out that a logically and

artistically spectacular sports game can be effective, i.e.

can lead to gaining strategic advantage and, in consequ-

ence, to victory.

The fifth chapter is called “Praxeological models of

sports play.” In the reconstructive and training dimen-

sion, this chapter constitutes a logical conclusion to the

author’s considerations by “moving from theory to prac-

tice.” Panfil distinguishes purely “cognitive” models

(reflecting or projecting ideal models) from “practical”

(those performing control functions) and “promotional”

ones. His distinction is based on empirical research car-

ried out earlier by himself and other Polish scholars.

The models are certainly directly related to practical

kinds of actions on a sports field, including, for instance,

various types of dribbling in football. The chapter abo-

unds in diagrams, tables and registers.

The main criterion of praxeological evaluation of

sports teams is efficiency. This concept frequently ap-

pears in the monograph and constitutes the central fra-

me of reference for the meaning and qualities of partici-

pation in a sports action. Such a point of view is also

explicitly expressed by the author in the conclusion. It is

a well-known fact that a victorious and attractive game

can only be played by a well-coordinated team of effi-

cient individuals. This conclusion, however, has a much

deeper sense, pointing to a new synergic enhancement

of a “teamed-up man”, i.e. a man “teamed up” in structure

and purpose, who contributes with his individuality to

the entire team and each team member at the same time.

This apparently obvious phenomenon requires, howe-

ver, firm theoretical foundations, and Panfil’s book cer-

tainly provides them.

The enclosed bibliographical references reflect the

author’s extensive range of interest. The monograph in

its content and form is a work in sports sciences (or in

the broader realm of physical culture sciences), and it

will definitely find ardent readers among sports activists,

coaches, instructors and athletes. However, sports jour-

nalists and scholars of allied sciences should also be

strongly encouraged to read it. At the same time, howe-

ver, Professor Panfil’s work in its methodology and

contents reaches far beyond the traditional scope of

sports literature and concepts. It ambitiously aims at the

domain of pure praxeology (understood as a philosophi-

cal theory), but also looks into the spheres of organiza-

tion and management theory, sociology, psychology, or

economics. It can serve as a useful guide to sports pra-

xis (training practice), but also be read for pleasure, for

purely cognitive purposes, in order to understand the

principles of action in sports teams as special task

structures.

In my praise of Panfil’s work, I should, however,

also point out to a few shortcomings and deficiencies.

Some may complain about a somewhat limited corpus

of examples. The inclusion of more cases of real teams

would definitely enliven the narration of the book. The

author prefers diagrams and models, which often makes

the reading wearisome. Some readers may be dissatis-

fied with incomplete definitions of terminological, pri-

marily ontological, issues. Some may miss reflections

on selected axiological aspects, e.g. the ludic dimension

of a sports play, where winning is not as important as

playing the game itself. The question of risk in a sports

play is also treated rather marginally, whereas for some

the risk factor remains the essence and real taste of

a sports play.

The above shortcomings, however, by no means un-

dermine the tremendous value of Ryszard Panfil’s book.

They rather suggest some study areas that may require

other than praxeological research tools. The author’s

main contribution is his ability to provoke new que-

stions and set new theoretical tasks. Perhaps it is neces-

sary to get to know the world of a real game in its multi-

ple varieties, cultures, times, strategies, with multiple

types of participants featuring different characters and

abilities. It is not out of the question that future “model”

research should be intensified in order to bring theory

closer to practice. Some hypotheses have been suffi-

ciently confirmed, others need further solid examina-


HUMAN MOVEMENT

181


tion. It is all true but one should also realize that such

reflections are evoked only after, and thanks to, careful

reading of the 180 pages of Panfil’s Prakseologia gier

sportowych.

Ryszard Panfil’s book is one of the most outstanding

publications of the recent years. It should stimulate

a wide-ranging debate and enter the reality of sport,

both popular and professional. This well-written and

well-constructed monograph can definitely contribute

to the development of modern studies into sports team

games and raise general interest into the theory of team

sports, comparable to the level of emotions evoked at

sports fields worldwide. One more comment should be

added in conclusion. The monograph’s unquestionable

value lies in its discrete wisdom. Sport, like the entire

human life, can be regarded in terms of a game. It should

be considered beneficial that there are books that teach

us to understand, control and constantly refine the

game.

Kraków, April 29, 2006

Prof. Dr. Józef LipiecThe Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland

COMPETITION OF RESEARCH PAPERS

onPHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING

for Prof. Bogdan Czabański’s Award

Submission requirements:

• Only papers published in the year prior to the date of competition may be submitted

• Papers (offprints) must be sent before the end of March of each year to the Organizers’ address:


Katedra Dydaktyki Wychowania Fizycznego

ul. Witelona 25, 51-617 Wrocław, Poland

tel. 0 (prefix) 71 347-31-69, fax 348-25-27

www.awf.wroc.pl/czabanski


• Independent academics must not partake in the competition

• Former award winners must not partake in the com-petition

• A research paper can be a team work effort, but the team of authors must not include an independent academic

Evaluation criteria:

• Submitted papers must be research papers • All papers must be on the subject of physical educa-

tion teaching

Jury:

Three independent academics, Professors of the Univer-sity School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Poland:

• Prorector for Research• Head of Chair of Physical Education Didactics • Head of Chair of Swimming

The jury convenes annually on April 24. The jury’s final decision will be made available to all participants. Only one paper is awarded with the prize (diploma of merit and 1.000 PLN). The award is presented each year during the inaugura-tion ceremony of the academic year at the University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Poland.


HUMAN MOVEMENT

182

RESOLUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE “AGING AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: APPLICATION TO FITNESS, SPORT AND HEALTH”, RYDZYNA, POLAND, September 15–17, 2006

The participants of the International Scientific Con-

ference organized under the auspices of the Internatio-

nal Association of Sport Kinetics and with the support

of the Committee of Rehabilitation, Physical Culture

and Social Integration of the Polish Academy of Scien-

ces adopt this resolution with a deep conviction about

the growing medical, economic, and social challenges

associated with the aging of the population in Poland

and throughout the world.

It is estimated that until 2025, the total number of

people over 60 years of age will reach 1.2 billion, whe-

reas in 2000 it equalled 605 million. Today, in many

developed and developing countries, there are more pe-

ople aged 60-years and older than children below 15

years of age. The Polish society is also growing older

rapidly. According to the forecasts of demographers, by

the year 2020 there will be approximately 2 million ad-

ditional retired persons (women over 60 years, men over

65 years of age). By 2030, every fourth Polish citizen

will be a pensioner.

An increasing number of older people will almost

inevitably lead to a rise in expenses associated with

social security and health care. Many countries through-

out Western Europe are already experiencing the

economic and social challenges of the aging popula-

tion. It is clear that there is a need to focus our attention

on the preservation of health and independence in old

age. The promotion of regular physical activity will

play an important role in the development of a healthy

aging strategy.

People want not only to live longer, but also to main-

tain independence and high quality of life as long as

possible. Many scientific studies have demonstrated the

influence that physical activity exerts upon the preven-

tion of chronic diseases and preservation of functional

independence. There is now strong evidence that regu-

lar physical activity can help to increase life expectancy.

Physical activity has been shown to be associated with a

reduction in the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases,

obesity, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, depres-

sion, falls and various injuries. Physical activity also

improves muscular strength and endurance, which is

especially important for older persons, who face limita-

tions in their ability to perform the activities of daily li-

ving due to declines in fitness. In addition, physical ac-

tivity has an impact on a number of variables related to

the overall quality of life, including cognitive and emo-

tional function, life satisfaction and feelings of well-being,

sexual function, social function, recreation and econo-

mic status. Promoting physical activity among seniors

may also help to give more meaning to life in old age.

It is estimated that if our society were physically ac-

tive at or above the recommended level (30 minutes of

moderate activity on most days of the week), the num-

ber of premature deaths could be lowered by at least

25%. Sedentary living among older adults is thought to

be as dangerous as hypertension, smoking, obesity or

elevated cholesterol concentration. Importantly, rese-

arch suggests that physical activity is also cost-effec-

tive, with savings in health and social care considerably

exceeding the expenses incurred providing activity pro-

grammes.

Increasing the physical activity of older persons is

likely to bring significant societal benefits. Older people

have much to contribute to the society. Physically active

lifestyles help them to maintain their independence and

to optimise the degree of their capability to participate

in work and social events. Promoting healthy and active

lifestyles will enable the society to benefit more from

the wealth of experience and wisdom possessed by the

seniors.

Conclusions and recommendations

1. The aging of the society mandates a continuing

commitment to scientific research related to aging and

older people. There is a particular need for increased

research on topics regarding the role of physical activity

in promoting health and well-being in old age.

CONFERENCES

2006, vol. 7 (2), 182–183

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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International Scientific Conference: Resolution

2. There is a need for more research referring to the

specific type, intensity and volume of physical activity

necessary to ensure health, functional independence,

and quality of life in old age.

3. Government officials and local authorities should

be educated about the key role that physical activity

plays in maintaining health and independence of older

adults.

4. Local communities have a responsibility to assist ol-

der people to be physically active. In addition to providing

access to physical activity programmes, it is also impor-

tant to ensure that older people have many opportunities

to build physical activity into their everyday lives.

5. Universities and colleges should put a greater em-

phasis on educating students about the significance of

physical activity in older people’s lives. Particular atten-

tion should be paid to preparing future generations of

researchers and health professionals to help meet the

needs of older persons.

6. Physical educators, health professionals, and other

specialists with expertise in healthy aging will need to

cooperate to develop a cohesive national strategy of ac-

tive aging promotion.

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HUMAN MOVEMENT

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Redakcja półrocznika Human Movement przyjmuje do

publikacji oryginalne prace empiryczne oraz przeglądowe

dotyczące ruchu człowieka z różnych dziedzin nauki (m.in.

medycyny sportu, fizjologii wysiłku fizycznego, biome-

chaniki, antropomotoryki, socjologii, psychologii, pedago-

giki) w zakresie wychowania fizycznego, zdrowotnego, re-

kreacji i turystyki, rehabilitacji, fizjoterapii. Przyjmowane

są również listy do Redakcji, sprawozdania z konferencji

naukowych i recenzje książek. Prace mogą być napisane

w języku polskim lub angielskim. Teksty polskie po uzy-

skaniu pozytywnej recenzji są tłumaczone na język angiel-

ski przez Redakcję. Autorzy nie otrzymują honorarium.

Warunkiem rozpoczęcia prac redakcyjnych nad artyku-

łem jest dostarczenie do Redakcji trzech kopii maszynopisu

(wydruku komputerowego) przygotowanego zgodnie z ni-

niejszym regulaminem oraz dyskietki (3 1/2” w formacie

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łów. Na etykiecie dyskietki (CD-ROM-u) należy podać ty-

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mów graficznych. Praca może być wysłana pocztą elektro-

niczną (por. Poczta elektroniczna).

List przewodni i oświadczenie

Do maszynopisu (wydruku komputerowego) autor po-

winien dołączyć list przewodni oraz oświadczenie, że treść

artykułu nie była i nie będzie publikowana w tej formie

w innych wydawnictwach bez zgody Redakcji czasopisma

Human Movement oraz że zgadza się na ogłoszenie jej

w tym półroczniku. W przypadku prac zespołowych

oświadczenie może złożyć w imieniu wszystkich współau-

torów autor główny.

Ocena pracy (recenzja)

Praca jest recenzowana przez dwie osoby. Autor może

podać nazwiska potencjalnych recenzentów, lecz Redakcja

zastrzega sobie prawo decyzji o ich doborze. Recenzenci

nie znają nazwiska autora ani autor nie zna nazwisk recen-

zentów, dlatego do artykułu należy dołączyć tzw. ślepą

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osób oceniających Redakcja podejmuje decyzję o dalszym

losie pracy. Decyzja Redakcji jest ostateczna.

Maszynopis (wydruk komputerowy)

Tekst prac empirycznych wraz ze streszczeniem, rycina-

mi i tabelami nie powinien przekraczać 20 stron, a prac prze-

glądowych – 30 stron znormalizowanych formatu A4 (ok.

1800 znaków na stronie, złożonych 12-punktowym pismem

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przyjmuje teksty przygotowane wyłącznie w edytorze tekstu

Microsoft Word. Strony powinny być ponumerowane.

The Human Movement journal, issued semi-annually,

accepts for publication original papers and review papers in

various aspects of human movement (e.g., sociology, psycho-

logy, pedagogy, exercise physiology, biomechanics, motor

control, sport medicine) in a broad sense of the term: physi-

cal education, recreation, physiotherapy, health and fitness,

and sport science. Authors are not paid for their articles.

Letters to the Editor, reports from scientific meetings and

book reviews are also welcome. Articles written in Polish

and English will be accepted. After acceptance, articles in

Polish will be translated into English by the Editorial Office.

Three copies of the manuscript and figures should be

sent to the Editorial Office. If you send the printed version

by e-mail, a floppy disk should be submitted containing the

whole text of the paper. The label of the disk should include

the name of the first author, paper title, as well as the ver-

sion numbers of the word processor and graphics programs

used. IBM 3 1/2’’ disks and CD-ROMs are acceptable. It is

advisable to use Microsoft Word. Electronic manuscripts

are preferred.

Cover letter

Authors must submit a cover letter with the manuscript.

Each submission packet should include a statement signed

by the first author that the work has not been published pre-

viously or submitted elsewhere for review. It should also

contain Author’s acceptance of Publisher’s terms. The pa-

per should be accompanied with the correspondence ad-

dress of the Author, the telephone number, fax number and

e-mail address.

Review process

Received manuscripts are first examined by the editors

of Human Movement. Incomplete packages or manuscripts

not prepared in the required style will be sent back to au-

thors without scientific review. Authors are encouraged to

suggest the names of possible reviewers, but Human Move-

ment reserves the right of final selection. Manuscripts will

be sent anonymously to two reviewers. As soon as possible

after the review process is concluded, you will be notified

by e-mail of the acceptance or rejection of your contribu-

tion for publication, our decision is ultimate.

Preparation of the manuscript

Experimental papers should be divided into the follo-

wing parts: title page, blind title page, abstract with key

words, introduction, materials and methods, results, discus-

sion, conclusions, acknowledgements, references. In papers

of a different type, sections and their titles should refer to

the described issues.

REGULAMIN PUBLIKOWANIA PRAC

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

2006, vol. 7 (2)

AWF_7_2_13_regulamin_03_DRUK.indd 184 12/15/2006, 11:51:36 AM

HUMAN MOVEMENT

185

Regulamin publikowania prac – Instructions for Authors

STRONA TYTUŁOWA

Na stronie tytułowej należy podać:

1. Tytuł pracy w języku polskim i angielskim. 2. Skró-

cony tytuł artykułu w języku angielskim (nie dłuższy niż

40 znaków), który będzie umieszczony w żywej paginie. 3.

Nazwiska autorów z afiliacją. 4. Imię i nazwisko autora

(autorów) wraz z adresem do korespondencji, numerem te-

lefonu, faksu i koniecznie e-mailem.

Kontakt z autorem będzie utrzymywany wyłącznie za

pomocą poczty elektronicznej.

STRESZCZENIE

Przed tekstem głównym należy umieścić streszczenie

w języku angielskim, zawierające około 250 wyrazów i 3–6

słów kluczowych (ze słownika i w stylu MeSH). Powinno

się ono składać z następujących części: Purpose, Basic pro-

cedures, Main findings, Conclusions.

TEKST GŁÓWNY

Tekst główny pracy empirycznej powinien zawierać

następujące części: wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki, dys-

kusja (omówienie wyników), wnioski, podziękowania (je-

żeli potrzebne), przypisy (jeżeli występują), piśmiennictwo

(zawarte tylko w bazach danych, np. SPORTDiscus, Med-

line). W pracach innego typu należy zachować logiczną

ciągłość tekstu, a tytuły poszczególnych jego części po-

winny odzwierciedlać omawiane w nich zagadnienia.

Wstęp. Należy wprowadzić czytelnika w tematykę arty-

kułu, opisać cel pracy oraz podać hipotezy oparte na prze-

glądzie literatury.

Materiał i metody. Należy dokładnie przedstawić mate-

riał badawczy (w przypadku osób biorących udział w eks-

perymencie podać ich liczebność, wiek, płeć oraz inne cha-

rakterystyczne cechy), omówić warunki, czas i metody

prowadzenia badań oraz opisać wykorzystaną do nich apa-

raturę (z podaniem nazwy wytwórni i jej adresu). Sposób

wykonywania pomiarów musi być przedstawiony na tyle

dokładnie, aby inne osoby mogły je powtórzyć. Jeżeli me-

toda jest zastosowana pierwszy raz, należy ją opisać szcze-

gólnie precyzyjnie, potwierdzając jej trafność i rzetelność

(powtarzalność). Modyfikując uznane już metody, trzeba

omówić, na czym polegają zmiany oraz uzasadnić koniecz-

ność ich wprowadzenia. Gdy w eksperymencie biorą udział

ludzie, konieczne jest uzyskanie zgody komisji etycznej na

wykorzystanie w nim zaproponowanych przez autora me-

tod (do maszynopisu należy dołączyć kopię odpowiedniego

dokumentu). Metody statystyczne powinny być tak opisa-

ne, aby można było bez problemu stwierdzić, czy są one

poprawne. Autor pracy przeglądowej powinien również po-

dać metody poszukiwania materiałów, metody selekcji itp.

Wyniki. Przedstawienie wyników powinno być logiczne

i spójne oraz powiązane z danymi zamieszczonymi w tabe-

lach i na rycinach.

Dyskusja (omówienie wyników). Autor powinien od-

nieść uzyskane wyniki do danych z literatury (innych niż

omówione we wstępie), podkreślając nowe i znaczące

aspekty swojej pracy.

Papers should be submitted in three printed copies or

sent via e-mail. An experimental paper, together with the

figures, tables and abstract, should not exceed 20 pages (30

pages for a review paper). A normal page is considered to

be an A4 sheet, of 30 lines and 60 characters per line, with

12-point Times New Roman font, one and half-spaced text,

with margins of 25 mm at the sides and at the top and bot-

tom. Type or print on only one side of the paper. Use one

and half spacing throughout, including the title page, abs-

tract, text, acknowledgments, references, tables, and le-

gends. Number pages consecutively, beginning with the ti-

tle page. Put the page number in the upper-right corner of

each page.

TITLE PAGE

The title page should contain: title of the article, name

and surnames of author(s) and their affiliations, name and

address of the author responsible for correspondence about

the manuscript with fax, phone, and e-mail address; and

a short running head of no more than 40 characters (count

letters and spaces).

BLIND TITLE PAGE. Because reviews are blind, include

a blind title page with only the title.

ABSTRACT

The second page should contain the abstract (ca. 250

words). The abstract should be divided into: Purpose, Basic

procedures, Main findings and Conclusions. It should em-

phasize any new and important aspects of the study.

Below the abstract, authors should provide (and identify

as such) 3 to 6 key words that will assist indexers to cross-

index the article. If suitable MeSH terms are not yet availa-

ble for recently introduced terms, present terms may be

used.

TEXT should contain the following sections: Introduc-

tion, Material and methods, Results, Discussion, Conclu-

sions, Acknowledgements (if necessary), References.

Introduction. State the purpose of the article and sum-

marize the rationale for the study. Give only strictly perti-

nent references and do not include data or conclusions from

the work being reported.

Material and methods. Clearly describe selection of the

experimental subjects. Identify their age, sex, and other

important characteristics. Identify the methods, apparatus

(give the manufacturer’s name and address in parentheses),

and procedures in sufficient detail to allow other workers to

reproduce the results. Give references to established me-

thods, including statistical methods (see below); provide

references and brief descriptions for methods that have

been published but are not well known; describe new or

substantially modified methods, give reasons for using

them, and evaluate their limitations. When reporting expe-

riments on human subjects, indicate whether the procedu-

res followed were in accordance with the ethical standards

of the responsible committee on human experimentation

(institutional or regional). The Editors reserve the right to


HUMAN MOVEMENT

186


Wnioski. Przedstawiając wnioski, należy pamiętać

o celu pracy oraz postawionych hipotezach, a także unikać

stwierdzeń ogólnikowych i niepopartych wynikami wła-

snych badań. Stawiając nowe hipotezy, trzeba to wyraźnie

zaznaczyć.

Podziękowania. Można wymienić osoby lub instytucje,

które pomogły autorowi w przygotowaniu pracy bądź

wsparły go finansowo lub technicznie.

Piśmiennictwo. Piśmiennictwo należy uporządkować

według kolejności cytowania w tekście, w którym dla

oznaczenia odwołania do piśmiennictwa należy posługi-

wać się numerami ujętymi w nawiasy kwadratowe, np.

Bouchard et al. [23]. Piśmiennictwo (zawarte tylko w ba-

zach danych, np. SPORTDiscus, Medline) powinno się

składać z nie więcej niż 30 pozycji, z wyjątkiem prac prze-

glądowych. Niewskazane jest cytowanie prac nieopubliko-

wanych.

Przykłady zapisu piśmiennictwa

Powołanie na artykuł z czasopisma [nazwisko autora

(autorów), inicjał imienia, tytuł artykułu, tytuł czasopisma

w przyjętym skrócie, rok wydania, tom lub numer, strony]:

Shinohara M., Li S., Kang N., Zatsiorsky V.M., Latash

M.L., Effects of age and gender on finger coordination in

MVC and submaximal force-matching tasks. J Appl Phy-

siol, 2003, 94, 259–270.

Gdy autorami artykułu jest sześć lub mniej osób, należy

wymienić wszystkie nazwiska, jeżeli jest ich siedem i wię-

cej, należy podać sześć pierwszych, a następnie zastosować

skrót „et al.”

Tytuł artykułu w języku innym niż angielski autor po-

winien przetłumaczyć na język angielski, a w nawiasie

kwadratowym podać język oryginału. Tytuł czasopisma

należy zostawić w oryginale. W pracy powinny być

uwzględnianie tylko artykuły publikowane ze streszcze-

niem angielskim: Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R.,

Jaskólski A., Mechanisms, symptoms and after-effects of

delayed muscle soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sporti-

va, 2002, 4, 189–201.

Powołanie na książkę [nazwisko autora(ów) lub redak-

tora(ów), inicjał imienia, tytuł pracy przetłumaczony na

język angielski, wydawca, miejsce i rok wydania]: Osiń-

ski W., Anthropomotoric [in Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001.

Powołanie na rozdział w książce [nazwisko autora(ów),

inicjał imienia, tytuł rozdziału, nazwisko autora(ów) lub

redaktora(ów), tytuł pracy, wydawca, miejsce i rok wyda-

nia, strony]: McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F., General prin-

ciples of exercise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.), Exercise te-

sting and exercise prescription for special cases. 2nd Ed.

Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1993, 3–28.

Powołanie na materiały zjazdowe tylko umieszczane

w międzynarodowych bazach danych, np. SPORTDiscus:

Racz L., Tihanyi J., Hortobagyi T., Muscle fatigue during

concentric and eccentric contraction. In: Avela J., Komi

P.V., Komulainen J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Annual

reject papers if there is doubt whether suitable procedures

were used. Describe statistical methods with enough detail

to enable a knowledgeable reader with access to the origi-

nal data to verify the reported results. When possible,

quantify findings and present them with appropriate indi-

cators of measurement error or uncertainty (such as confi-

dence intervals). Authors submitting a review manuscript

should include a section describing the methods used for

locating, selecting, extracting, and synthesizing data. These

methods should also be summarized in the abstract.

Results. Present results in a logical sequence in the text,

tables, and figures. Do not repeat in the text all the data

presented in the tables or illustrations; emphasize or sum-

marize only important observations.

Discussion. Emphasize the new and important aspects of

the study and the conclusions that follow from them. Do not

repeat in detail data or other material given in the Introduc-

tion or the Results section. Include implications of the fin-

dings and their limitations, including implications for future

research. Relate observations to other relevant studies.

Conclusions. Link the conclusions with the goals of the

study but avoid unqualified statements and conclusions not

completely supported by the data. Avoid claiming priority

and alluding to work that has not been completed. State

new hypotheses when warranted, but clearly label them as

such.

Acknowledgments. List all contributors who do not

meet the criteria for authorship (e.g., a person who provided

purely technical help or writing assistance). Financial and

material support should also be acknowledged.

References. References (only the ones included in inter-

national data bases, e.g. SPORTDiscus, Medline etc.) sho-

uld be submitted on a separate sheet of paper and in the or-

der of appearance in the text. References should be numbe-

red consecutively in the order in which they are first

mentioned in the text. Identify references in text, tables,

and legends by Arabic numerals in parentheses, e.g. Bo-

uchard et al. [23]. Except in the case of review articles, the

total number of references should not exceed 30.

A journal article should include: surname of the au-

thor(s); first name (only initials); title of the paper; title of

the journal in the accepted abbreviation; year, volume (num-

ber), and pages. List all authors when six or less; when seven

or more, list first six and add et al. Example: Shinohara M.,

Li S., Kang N., Zatsiorsky V.M., Latash M.L., Effects of age

and gender on finger coordination in MVC and submaximal

force-matching tasks. J Appl Physiol, 2003, 94, 259–270.

Articles not in English: Authors should translate the ti-

tle into English and enclose the language of translation in

square brackets. Do not translate the title of the journal.

Only papers with English abstracts should be cited. Exam-

ple: Jaskólska A., Bogucka M., Świstak R., Jaskólski A.,

Mechanisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed musc-

le soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sportiva, 2002, 4,

189–201.


HUMAN MOVEMENT

187


Congress of the European College of Sport Science. July

19–23, 2000, Jyvaskyla Finland, 600.

Powołanie na artykuły w formie elektronicznej:

Donsmark M., Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevold-

sen L.H., Stallknech B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase

(HSL) expression and regulation by epinephrine and

exercise in skeletal muscle. Eur J Sport Sci, Volume 2,

Issue 6 (December 2002). Available from: URL: http://

www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues.cfm/

Przypisy. Przypisy, objaśniające lub uzupełniające

tekst, powinny być numerowane z zachowaniem ciągłości

w całej pracy i umieszczone na końcu tekstu głównego.

Tabele i ryciny. Tabele i ryciny wraz z numeracją, pod-

pisami oraz opisami należy umieścić na osobnych stronach,

na których odwrocie trzeba podać tylko tytuł pracy, bez

nazwiska autora. Jeżeli w tekście nie ma powołania na ta-

belę lub rycinę, należy zaznaczyć miejsce jej umieszczenia.

Ryciny muszą być czarno-białe lub w odcieniach szarości.

Symbole, np. strzałki, gwiazdki, lub skróty należy dokład-

nie objaśnić w legendzie. Wykresy powinny być wykonane

w programach Excel lub Statistica 5.0 i dołączone jako

osobne pliki w formacie *.xls lub *.stg. Pozostałe ryciny

(np. schematy) należy przygotować w programie Corel

Draw (wersja 8 lub niższa) i dołączyć jako osobne pliki

w formacie *.cdr. Fotografie lub inne materiały ilustracyjne

można dostarczyć w formie elektronicznej (*.tif, *.jpg – gę-

stość punktów obrazu 300 lub 600 dpi) bądź w postaci na-

dającej się do ostatecznego opracowania przez Redakcję.

Nie można powtarzać tych samych wyników w tabe-

lach i na rycinach.

Praca, w której tabele i ryciny będą przygotowane nie-

zgodnie z podanymi wymogami, zostanie odesłana do au-

tora.

Korekta autorska

Artykuł po opracowaniu redakcyjnym zostanie przeka-

zany do autora w celu naniesienia przez niego korekty au-

torskiej. Obowiązkiem autora jest odesłanie korekty w cią-

gu jednego tygodnia. Kosztami poprawek innych niż dru-

karskie będzie obciążony autor.

Poczta elektroniczna

Zachęcamy autorów do przesyłania prac w postaci elek-

tronicznej (jako załączniki). Każda część pracy powinna

być przesłana jako oddzielny załącznik: plik tekstowy, plik

z rycinami, plik z tabelami, plik fotograficzny itd. Aby

przyspieszyć przesyłkę, pliki należy skompresować w po-

staci *.arj lub *.zip. Komplet plików powinien być przesła-

ny na adres [email protected]

Prawa Redakcji

Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo poprawiania usterek

stylistycznych oraz dokonywania skrótów. Prace przygoto-

wane niezgodnie z regulaminem będą odsyłane autorom do

poprawy.

A book should include: the author’s or editor’s surname

(authors’ or editors’ surnames), first name initials, the title

of the book in English, publisher’s name, place and year of

publication. Example: Osiński W., Anthropomotoric [in

Polish]. AWF, Poznań 2001.

Chapter in a book: McKirnan M.D., Froelicher V.F.,

General principles of exercise testing. In: Skinner J.S. (ed.),

Exercise testing and exercise prescription for special cases,

2nd Ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1993, 3–28.

Conference proceedings and papers can only be refer-

red to in the text if they are included in international data

bases, e.g. SPORTDiscus. Example: Racz L., Tihanyi J.,

Hortobagyi T., Muscle fatigue during concentric and ec-

centric contraction. In: Avela J., Komi P.V., Komulainen J.

(eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Annual Congress of the Euro-

pean College of Sport Science. July 19–23 2000, Jyvaskyla

Finland, 600.

Article in electronic form. Example: Donsmark M.,

Langfort J., Ploug T., Holm C., Enevoldsen L.H., Stallknech

B. et al., Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) expression and

regulation by epinephrine and exercise in skeletal muscle.

Eur J Sport Sci, Volume 2, Issue 6 (December 2002). Ava-

ilable from: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/

bissues.cfm/

Tables and figures. Each table together with its number,

title, and annotations, should be submitted on a separate

sheet of paper. Authors should identify the places where ta-

bles and figures are to be included within the text. Figures

should be prepared in black and white and marked on the

back with the title of paper only (do not include the name of

the author). Legends for the figures should be submitted on

a separate sheet of paper and should be self-explanatory.

When symbols, arrows, numbers, or letters are used to

identify parts of the illustrations, identify and explain each

one clearly in the legend. Only Figures prepared in Excel,

Statistica 5.0 or Corel Chart (version 8 or lower) will be ac-

cepted. The recommended file formats for figures are:

*.jpg, *.tif, with an image resolution of 300 or 600 dpi.

Figures and tables should be numbered consecutively ac-

cording to the order in which they have been first cited in the

text. Data should not be repeated in tables and figures.

Photographs must be black and white glossy prints.

Proofs

The corresponding author will receive one proof. Only

minor corrections can be made at this time. Corrections

other than printing errors may be charged to the author. It is

the author’s responsibility to return the corrected proofs

within 1 week.

Sending via e-mail

Authors who have an access to Internet are encouraged

to send their work-files electronically using standard

e-mail software. The e-mail software must have an option

to send data files attached to the e-mail message. In such


HUMAN MOVEMENT

188


Prawa autorskie

Publikacje podlegają prawu autorskiemu wynikającemu

z Konwencji Berneńskiej i z Międzynarodowej Konwencji

Praw Autorskich, poza wyjątkami dopuszczanymi przez

prawo krajowe. Żadna część publikacji nie może być repro-

dukowana, archiwizowana ani przekazywana w jakiejkol-

wiek formie ani żadnymi środkami bez pozwolenia właści-

ciela praw autorskich.

Płatna reklama

Redakcja przyjmuje zamówienia na reklamy, które

mogą być umieszczane na 2. i 3. stronie okładki lub na do-

datkowych kartach sąsiadujących z okładką. Ceny reklam

będą negocjowane indywidualnie.

cases, all parts of the work should be sent as a separate

files: text file, picture file(s), table file(s), photo

file(s). To speed up the data transfer, files should be com-

pressed (if possible) using *.arj or *.zip formats before

transmission. Complete packages of manuscripts are to be

sent to the following address: [email protected]

Reprints

Each Author will receive 1 copy of the issue in which

his/her work appears.

Advertising

The Editorial Board accepts advertising orders. Adver-

tisements can be published on the second and third page of

the cover or on the pages next to the cover. Advertisement

prices will be negotiated individually.

ZASADY PRENUMERATY CZASOPISMA HUMAN MOVEMENTTHE RULES OF SUBSCRIBING THE HUMAN MOVEMENT JOURNAL

Cena rocznej prenumeraty (dwa numery) dla odbiorców indy-

widualnych w kraju wynosi 27 zł, dla instytucji 55 zł. Dla od-

biorców indywidualnych za granicą wynosi 27 eu, dla instytucji

55 eu.

Numery czasopisma wysyłamy pocztą po otrzymaniu odpo-

wiedniej wpłaty na konto:

BPH PBK S.A. O/Wrocław

18 1060 0076 0000 3200 0040 0409


al. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław,

z dopiskiem: Prenumerata Human Movement.

Prosimy zamawiających o bardzo wyraźne podawanie adresów,

pod które należy wysyłać zamawiane egzemplarze czasopisma.

Pojedyncze egzemplarze można zamówić, wpłacając 16 zł (od-

biorca indywidualny) i 30 zł (instytucja) na podane konto i wpi-

sując numer oraz liczbę zamawianych egzemplarzy na odwrocie

blankietu wpłaty (odcinek dla posiadacza rachunku).

Pojedyncze numery można zakupić w cenie 16 zł w punktach

sprzedaży książek w AWF we Wrocławiu oraz AWF w Warsza-

wie.

Dla odbiorców z Europy Wschodniej zachowujemy taką samą

cenę jak dla odbiorców w Polsce, przeliczając złote na walutę

kraju docelowego po kursie w dniu zamawiania.

The price of annual subscription (two issues) for individual fo-

reign subscribers is Euro 27 and Euro 55 for foreign institu-

tions.

The issues of the journal are sent by post after receiving the ap-

propriate transfer to the account:

BPH PBK S.A. O/Wrocław

18 1060 0076 0000 3200 0040 0409


al. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland,

with the note: Human Movement subscription.

We ask the subscribers to give correct and clearly written ad-

dresses to which the journal is to be sent.

Single copies can be ordered by transferring Euro 16 (individual

foreign subscribers) and Euro 30 (foreign institutions) to the

above mentioned account and writing in the number and the

amount of issues ordered at the back side of the form.

Single copies of the journal outlets are available at the Universi-

ty School of Physical Education in Wrocław and Warszaw.

For the recipients from Eastern Europe the price is the same as

for Poland, and the price is converted to the currency of a given

country on the day of ordering.


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