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CHAPTER- XI . ,i .r- 215
HERETI CAL VI EWS I N EARLY BUDDHI ST LI TERATURE.
Li ke many ot her r el i gi ous precept s, t he pr ecept s of
Buddha were handed down oral l y f or a number of year s. The
Buddhi st monks used t o keep t he t eachi ngs of Buddha on t heSoTa.
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The samgha therefore thought that it was time to assemble
for the purpose of recitation, verification and collection of
the Buddhas teachings. Consequently, three councils were held.
The first council was held at Rajagijha in 483 B. C. (Four months
after the Mahaparinibbana of the Buddha); the second at Yaisali
in 383 B. C. and the third at Pataliputra in 247 B. C. The
first one was presided over by the elder Mahakassapa$ the second
by thevelder Revata? and the third, by Moggaliputta Tissa.
When the third council was held, Asoka was the ruler.
In his kingdom, there were many heretics (tirthikas), i. e.
teachers of other faiths, who sought honour and patronage by
entering the Buddhist order, but they were so far denied this
privilege. The result was that they now claimed their own
heresies to be the real doctrines and teachings of the Buddha.
In order to weed out these heretics, A.loka convened a meeting
and sending for each group in turn asked what really the
doctrine of the Enlightened one was. Since each of these
groups held its own doctrine to be that of the Buddha, Asoka,
with the help of Tissa Moggalioutta (who was the president
of this Council), threw these heretics out of the order.
Only the FibhaJ^avadins were found to be the real followers
of the Buddha. When this task was over, Elder Tissa, Moggalis
1. cf. The History of Buddhist Thought, pp. 27-37.
By Edward J. Thomas
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son, composed the Kathavatthu, In which * five hundred theses,
put forward by various schools, in opposition to the doctrine
of the Pitakas, are set out and refuted.
The canonical texts of the Buddhists, are known as
Pi|akas. In the first and second Councils, they were only
recited. It was in the third Council that they were actually
compiled. It may, nevertheless, be noted that the whole
KatHffvatthu, In i t . present f o, is not the sae as itoriginally was because many later additions appear to have
been made therein.
The Buddhist Canon gives a detailed account of the
religious doctrines and the disciplinary rules of the Buddhists.
In the Canon, we find at places, an exposition of the views
of rival schools, possibly meant for the better appreciation
and understanding of the Buddha*s own views. An exposition
thereof is given here, as it might help us in understanding
the Pravaduka-dystis, discussed in the Nyaya-Sutras. 4.1.11-43.
Before we proceed to examine the presentation and refu
tation of such ? heresies, we may first give a brief account
of the sacred texts of the Buddhists.
The Buddhist canon Is classified In three main divisions
known as Pitakas. They are s
1. cf. ** Buddhism *% p, 226 by T. . Rhys Davids.
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(A) Vinaya Pitaka;
(B) Sutta Pitaka;
(C) Abhidhamma Pitaka.
(A) The lnaya Pitaka comprises
(i) Sutta Yibhaiiga,
(ii) The Khandhakas which consist of the Mahavagga
and the Culavagga, .
(iii) Parivara.
(B) The Sutta Pitaka comprises five Nikayas s
(i) Digha Nikaya,
(ii) Majjhima Nikaya,
(iii) Samyutta Nikaya,
(iv) Anguttara Nikaya,
(v) Khuddaka Nikaya.
The Khuddaka Nikaya, in its turn,
minor works which are as under :
(1) Khuddaka Patha,
(2) D hammapada,
(3) lid ana,
(4) Itivuttaka,
(5) Sutta pfiLpata,
(6) imanavatthu,
(?) Petaratthu,
(8) Ther^gatha,
consists of some
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' (9) Therigatha,
(10) Jitaka,
(11) Niddesa,
(12) Patisambhidamagga,
(13) Apadana,
(14) Buddhavamsa,
(15) Cariyipitaka.
(C) In the Abhidhamma Pitaka, we find seven Independent
works x
(1) Dhammasangani,
(2) Vibhanga,
(3) Dhatukatha,
(4) Puggalapannatti,
(5) Kathavatthu,
(6) Yamaka,
(7) PatthSna.
sKenMIt m e t be noted that this is the Abhidhamma of the
h-
Theravadins and the Sarvastivadins have an Abhidhannapitaka
in Sanskrit; the books of which, even though also seven in
number, differ entirely from those of the Pali Abhidhamma
1Pitaka.
l.See A History of Indian Literature,1 p. 173
by M. Wlnternitz;
also f* The History of Buddhist Thought,'* pp. 274-275
by B. J. Thomas
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I l l t h i s c o n c e r n s t h e c a n o n i c a l t e x t s o f t h e B u d d h i s t s
B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t w a s l a t e r d i v i d e d i n s e v e r a l s c h o o l s a m o n g
w h i c h f o u r a r e p r e m i n e n t . T h e s e a r e :
d( 1 ) B a h y a p r a t y a k s a v a d i n s o r V a i b h a s i k a B a u d d h a s ( D i r e d t R e a l i s t s ) #
R.( 2 ) B a h y a n u m e y a v a d i n s o r S a u t r a n t i k a b a u d d h a s ( C r i t i c a l R e a l i s t s ) ,
( 4 ) T h e S u n y a v a d i n s o r M a d h y n u k a B a u d d h a s ( N i h i l i s t s ) .
W e n e e d n o t e n t e r i n t o a n y d e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e v i e w s .
W e s h a l l o n l y r e f e r t o a f e w o f t h e t r e a t i s e s o f t h e s e s c h o o l s
w h i c h a r e a s u n d e r :
( a n d f l o u r i s h e d a t a b o u t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e s e c o n d
a n d t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . )
( 3 ) Y o g a e a r a b h u m i o f A s a n g a ( w h o l i v e d i n t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y A . D .)
( 4 ) J a t a k a m a l a o f A r y a s u r a ( 4 t h C e n t u r y A . D . ) ;
( 5 ) L a r i k a v a t a r a S u t r a k n o w n a s S a d d h a r m a - L a n k a v a t a r a s u t r a a l s o
( o f t h e 4 t h C e n t u r y A . D . I t s f i r s t C h i n e s e t r a n s l a t i o n
i s o f 4 4 3 A . D . ) ,
1 . T h e d a t e s o f t h e s e w o r k s a r e a c c o r d i n g t o w i n t e r n i t z * s
vol-X-'*& H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n L i t e r a t u r e p p . 3 4 2 , 3 5 0 , 3 5 5 ,
2 7 6 a n d 3 3 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
( 3 ) V l j n a n a v a d i n s o r Y o g a c a r a B a u d d h a s
( 1 ) T h e M l d h y a m a k a S a s t r a o f N a g a r j u n a ( 2 n d C e n t u r y A . D . ) ;
( 2 ) S a t a s a s t r a o f A r y a d e v a w h o w a s t h e d i s c i p l e o f N a g a r j u n a
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' i,
(6) Upayahrdayam - this is a book of which the original Sanskrit
text is lost.^ It is a very ancient work according to
Giuseppe Tucci, who has translated it from the Chinese
l into Sanskrit again. This book is ascribed to Nagarjuna,
but no such name is found in the list of books generally
regarded as composed by NSgarjuna; and as Tucci observes,2
it must be the work of some other Nagarjuna.
Besides the buddhist canonical texts, a non canonical
3treatise namely Milindapanho (first cdntury A. D.) and the
books noted above which are of quite an early date, refer to
several heretical views of their time; which were traditionally
handed down. We cannot pronounce any opinion whether some of
them as actually presented were prior to the Nyaya Sutras but
we are confident that their exposition will help us in under
standing the Pravaduka drstis in the Nyaya Sutras.
We shall first discuss the main heretical doctrines,
found in the Canonical buddhist texts. These views are as
under s
1. cf. Pre-Dinnaga Buddhist texts of logic from Chinese
Sources,by Tucci, Introduction, page XI.
2. cf. Ibid, p. XII.
3. cf. A. History of Indian Literature JL
p. 175, by Winternitz
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* (1) Akriyavada
(2) Ahetuka Suddhivada,(3) tJ cchedavada,
(4) Sa/vatavada,
(6) Akrtavada,
( 6) Anis cayavada,
(7) Theory of eight ineaplicable problems,
(8) Sasvata - asasvatav'ada,
(9) Santa-anantavada,
(10) Isvaravada.
(1) AKRTYAVAPA s
An exposition of th is theory is found a t length
in the Samannaphala su tta of the Digha Nikaya. Prince AJatasatru
approaches Buddha in order to know the immediate f ru it which the
li fe of a recluse can y ie ld , such a f ru it as is visib le in thi s
very world. Buddha asks him whether he, (A jatasatru), had put
the same question to other teachers as w ell. And AJatas'atru,
admitting that he had put the question to some others, relates
the answer which Purana Kassapa had given to him as under t -
'* To him, who acts, 0 king, or causes another to act,
to him who mutilates or causes another to mutilate,to him who
punishes or causes another to punish, to him who causes grief
or torment, to him who trembles or causes another to tumble,
to him who k i l ls a liv ing crea ture, who breaks into houses,
who commits dacoity, or robbery, or highway robery, or adultery,
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or who speaks lies, to him thus acting, there is no (|Uilt.
If with a discus, with an edge as shaWp as a razors, heshould make all the living creatures on the earth one heap,
one mass of flesh, there would be no guilt thence resulting,
no increase of
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In the Majjhima Nikiya, this same theory is stated1
in the same words, and then a view/guite opposite to it qs> i$
4WreJ : " T , wku err $/^causes another to act, ..... or who tells lies, to him thus
acting there does occur quilt. If with a discus.....Increase
of guilt does ensue, Were he to go along the south hank......
increase of guilt does ensue. Were he to go along the north
bank giving alms.... ..there is the increase of merit. In
generosity, in self-mastery, in control of the senses, in
speaking truth, there is merit and the increase of merit.1
tkes^v
From tha* Buddha seems to be inclined to support
the theory of Kriyavada, hence he says, ** the view that there2
is action is the right view .
In the Samyutta Nikaya, after describing the AkriyS-
vada in these very words, Buddha says that such a view arises
because there is rapa (matter), Yedana (feeling), Sam^na
(ideation), Samskara (conformation) and Vljnana (consciousness).
And then he explained that the r u p a....... etc. are all momen
tary and non-eternal and one who knows this, is finally emanci
pated and is not born again.
There is another passage in the Samyutta Nikaya
where different heretical views are stated by Patali and one
of them is the Akriyavada of Purana. In the same breath, a
.. - 4 H - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- :---------
2. See Majjhima NikSya, (2.10
3. See Samyutta Nikaya, Karoto sutta, 24.6.
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yiew quite opposite to it, is stated. Then patali, asks the
t
Btiddha which of these the Sramana or the Brahmana was right.
Buddha tells him that even if the view that to
one who acts or causes another to act.... there is no sin..
..... there is no increase of merit1* is right, an Aryasrivaka
is not affected thereby as he never causes any evil to any
one. So also even if the view that '* To one who acts or causes
another to act.....
there is sin.....
there does ensure the
increase of merit1* be right, an Aryasravaka is not affected.
And at the very thought that he is not affected even if either
one or the other view be right, he feels a sense of great iy.
Prom this, it is clear that for Puranas doctrine,
the name Akriyavada seems quite proper and this is the name
given to it in the Samannaphala sutta. His is the theory of
non-action, according to which one is not affected by acts,
either good or sinful. In other words, the soul according to
him does not act, it is passive ( ). We must however
note at thismjuncture that the Akriyavada of Purana Kassapa is
confounded sometimes with the Ahetuvada of Gosala Mahkhaliputra.
This gives rise to a confusion regarding their teachers also.
Goslala in fact, held that * there is no cause,
either ultimate or remote for the depravity of beings, they
become depraved without reason and without cause. There is
1. Samyutta Nikaya (42.13)
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no cause; for the rectitude of beings they become pure without
reason and cause.
In Safcyutta Nikaya (22.60), Liechavi Mahal1 comes
to Buddha; and te l ls him,* Lord l) Pura^a Kassapa says that
no cause, ultimate or remote, is there fo r the depravity of
beings, they become depraved without reason and without cause.
There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the rectitude
of beings, they become pure, without reason and without cause.'*
Here we see that the theory of $osala, with the
same terminology, is ascribed to Purana . Eventhen it is
difficult to come to any conclusion, whether both of these
views can result in a single theory or they are quite
complementary.
It seems that in both the views, there is a lot
of difference in the way of laying stress on a particular
view point. Puraija first refers to action and then explains
in respect of action that any kind of action, either good or
bad, cannot bring any f r u i t , either good or bad. While Golala,
refers to the fruit either good or evil first, and then in
respect of tha t f ru it , says tha t i t is not brought forth by
any action, previously existing.
Thus the problem of the relationship of action and
fru it is the same, which is faced by both of them from diffe rent
point of viewjjby the former from the viewpoint of action, by
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the latter from the viewpoint of fruit. jAnd it is this treatment
given by each of them, that differentiates their views. It
dhould nevertheless be noted that both of them, any how accept
no relationship of cause and effect between the actions and
the fruits. Could it be that it is only because of this simila
rity that their views are often confounded ?
^ilatika, while commenting upon a passage in the
Sutrakrtahga, I. 1.1.13, says that Aklrakavada is here descri
bed. The view therein set out is this* * When a man acts or
causes another to act, it is not his soul (Stman) which acts
or causes to act. Thus they (i. e. the holders of their view)1
boldly proclaim.
j So also, in the Sutrakrtahga 11.14, we have aHvA. Tntory
^Pancamahabhutavadins. We shall examine it in detail in the
next chapter. At this stage, we only refer to the last portion
dam
of that description from which it may be clearly inferred that
it is quite similar to the theory of Purana Kassapa. It is
as follows :
'* A man buys and causes to buy, kills and causes to
kill, cooks and causes to cook, he may even sell and kill a
man - know that even in this case, he does not do any wrong*.
csr =* fcpyst# j
ep*rr
3 TxpTf|w 11
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This can be interpreted to mean that the soul does
not act but it is the five elemental substances that do so.
Thus there is a striking similarity between the views of the
Pancamahabhutavadin and Purana Kassapa and the description in
the Mghanlkaya, is rather detailed, though not exaggerated.
The line of thought in the Dighanikaya, is almost the same asOrs -t-
th at in the Sutrakrtariga, and expressions are also^ at both
the places, the same.
We can therefore conclude th at (i) Purana recognises
no action on the part of soul; (i i) he holds that no act resul ts
ei th er in sin or in merit; that is to say, there is no Punya
and plpa, ( i i i ) in his view, there can be no otherworld
(Paraloka) (as the other-world is the resu lt of ac tion, but
Purana does not recognise any result of any action.
J
Ahetuka Suddhlvada :
Relating the answer which he got from Gosala, Ajatasatru
thus describes the view of Gosala. Gosala said to him : * There
is, 0 Kin^, no cause, either ultimate or remote, for the depravity
of beings, they become degraved^without reason and without cause.There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the rectitude
of beings, they become pure without reason and without cause.
The attainment of any given condition, of any character, does
not depend either on ones own acts or on the acts of another,
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259
o r o n h u m a n e f f o r t . T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s p o w e r o r e n e r g y ,
o r h u m a n s t r e n g t h o r v i g o u r . A l l a n i m a l s , a l l c r e a t u r e s ,
( w i t h one,, t w o o r m o r e s e n s e s ) , a l l b e i n g s ( p r o du c e d) f r o m
e g g s o r i n a w o m b , a l l s o u l s ( i n p l a n t s ) a r e w i t h o u t ..force a n d
p o w e r a n d e n e r g y o f t h e i r o w n . T h e y a r e b e n t t h i s w a y a n d t h a t
b y t h e i r f a t e , b y t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c l a s s t o w h i c h
t h e y b e l o n g , b y t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l . n a t u r e s a n d it i s a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e s i x c l a s s e s , t h a t
t h e y e x p e r i e n c e e a s e o r p a i n . .. .. . . T h e r e a r e e i g h t y - f o u r
h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d p e r i o d s , d u r i n g w h i c h b o t h f o o l s a n d w i s e
a l i k e w a n d e r i n g i n t r a n s m i g r a t i o n , s h a l l a t l a st m a k e a n e n d
o f p a i n . T h o u g h t h e w i s e s h o u l d h o p e s b y t h i s v i r t u e o r
p e r f o r m a n c e o f d u t y , o r t h i s p e n a n c e , o r t h i s r i g h t e o u s n e s s ,
# i l l I f m a k e t h e K a r m a , (I h a v e I n h e r i t e d ) t h a t i s n o t y e t
m a t u r e , m a t u r e - t h o u g h t h e f o o l s h o u l d h o p e b y t h e s a m e m e a n s
t o g e t g r a d u a l l y r i d o f K a r m a , t h a t h a s m a t u r e d - n e i t h e r o f
t h e m c a n d o i t . T h e e a s e a n d p a i n , m e a s u r e d o u t as i t w e r e
w i t h a m e a s u r e , c a n n o t b e a l t e r e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t r a n s m i g
r a t i o n , t h e r e c a n b e n e i t h e r i n c r e a s e n o r d e c r e a s e t h e r e o f ,
\
n e i t h e r e x c e s s n o r d e f i c i e n c y . J u s t a s a b a l l o f s t r i n g i s
c a s t f o r t h , i t w i l l s p r e a d o u t j u s t . a s f a r , a n d n o f a r t h e r ^
t h a n i t c a n u n w i n d , j ust , s o b o t h , f o o l s a n d w i s e a l i k e , w a n d e
r i n g i n t r a n s m i g r a t i o n , e x a c t l y f o r t h e a l l o t t e d t e r m , s h a l l
t h e n , a n d o n l y t h e n , m a k e a n e n d o f pa in .* *
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2
" Thus, Lord, did Makkhali of the cow pen, when
asked what was the immediate advantage in the life of a
recluse expound his theory of purification through transmig-
1ration.
2The same description occurs in Majjhima, HikSya*
and the Buddha, after describing this theory; and a theory
quite opposite to it, says that those, who do not accept
cause and reason for the depravity and rectitude of beings
are wrong and those who accept it, are, right. j
To see the Buddha's own opinion in this matter
would be quite interesting. He obviously believes that there
does exist a reason and a cause for the depravity and rectitude
of beings.
If rupa were only to create misery and if it were
completely devoid of happiness, then nobody.would be interested
in it. Because there is a lot of pleasure in rupa and no misery,
beings are interested in it, hence their contact with it follows,
due to which they are depraved. The same is the case with
Vedana, Samj^, Samskara and Vijnana.
And also, if rupa were to create pleasure only va
and were completely, devoid of misery, nobody would have a
1. cf. Digha Nik ay a, Samannaphala Sutta.
2. 2.10.1.
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dislike for it. But Mahali, there is much misery in rupa and
little happiness, hence beings have a dislike for it, and then
being unattached to rupa, they become pure and this is the
cause of the rectitude of beings . The same is the case withGt
Vedna, Samjna, Samskara and VijnSna*
UCCHEPAVADA
In the Samannaphala Sutta, AjataSatru tells the
Buddha what Ajita, with the garment of hair (Ajita Kesakambali)
had said s ** There is no such thing, 0 kinj, as alms, or
sacrifice or offering. There is neither fruit nor result of
good or evil deeds. There is no such thing as this world or
the next. There is neither father, nor mother, nor beings
springing into life without them. There are In this world/
no recluses or Brahmanas who have reached the highest point,
who walk perfectly and who, having understood and realised by
themselves alone, both - this world and the next make their
wisdom known to others M .
** A human being is built up of the four elements .
When he dies, the earth in him returns and relapses to the
earth, the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire, the
windy to the air and his faculties pass to the space. The
four bearers on the bier as a fifth, take his dead body away
*till they reach the burhing ground, men utter enlogies, but
his bones are bleached and his offerings end In ashes. It is
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a doctrine of fools, this talk of gifts. It is an empty, lie,
mere idle talk, -when men say there is profit therein. Fools
and wise alike, on the dissolution of the body, are cut off;
annihilated, and after death, they are not
Thus, Lord, did Ajita, of the garment of hair,
when asked what was the Immediate advantage in the life of1
a recluse, expound his theory of annihilation**.
Part of this passage occurs in the Ma.jjhima
Nikaya also, in almost the same words. And along with it
a view quite opposite to it is also described there, according
to which, there does exist something like alms and sacrifices
and offerings. A thing like the fruit or result of good or
evil deeds does exist. This world is there and so also the
other world. There is the father and the mother and so also
the beings springing into life, (aupapatikah sattvah).
There do exist in the world, recluses (Sramanas) and Brahmanas;
who have reached the highest point and who, having understood
and realised by themselves alone, both this world and the next,
make their wisdom known to others.
The Buddha after stating the views, thus explains
to his followers that those who believe that there is no such
thing as alms or sacrifices or offerings, would give up the
1. cf. Digha Nikaya, Samahnaphala Sutta.
(Dialogues of the Buddha. Vol. I. p. 70-74.)
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.263
- go od d e e d s o f s p e e c h , m i n d a n d b o d y a n d a d o p t t h e e v i l o n e s .
T h e y d o s o , b e c a u s e t h e y d o no t s ee a n y s i n i n t h e e v i l d e e d s
a n d a n y v i r t u e i n g o o d d e e d s . E v e n i f t h e r e is t h e o t h e r w o r l d ,
t h e y a r e o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e r e is n o o t h e r w o r l d . A n d t h i s
v i e w o f t h e i r s i s a w r o n g b e l i e f , i t is a f a l s e v i e w , a f a l s e
t h e s i s . S u c h a v i e w i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e s a y i n g s o f t h e
A r h a t s w h o h a v e k n o w n t h e o t h e r w o r l d .
A n d o n e w h o b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g l i k e
a l m s a n d s a c r i f i c e s a n d o f f e rl n g s^ a n d a b a n d o n s e v i l d e e d s o f
m i n d , b o d y a n d s p e e c h a n d a d o p t s t h e g o o d o n e s ; w h e n h e s a y s
t h a t t h e r e i s t h e o t h e r w o r l d , h e i s r i g h t a n d h i s v i e w i s t h e
r i g h t v i e w . H e i s p r a i s e d b y t h e w i s e p e o p l e i n t h i s v e r y
b i r t h a s b e i n g o n e w h o h a s r i g h t c o n d u c t a n d f a i t h a n d a s a
b e l i e v e r ( a s t l k a v a d l n ) , a n d t h e f o r m e r i s b l a m e d a s b e i n g
o n e w h o h a s a b a d c o n d u c t a n d w r o n g f a i t h a n d a s a n o n - b e l i e v e r
( n a s t i k a v a d i n ) .
T h e A s t i k a v a d i n , a f t e r l e a v i n g t h i s b o d y , i s b o r n
i n h e a v e n a n d i s t h u s r e w a r d e d i n b o t h t h e w a y s ( i . e . i n th i s
w o r l d , h e g e t s t h e w o r d s o f p r a i s e f r o m t h e w i s e a n d i n t h e
o t h e r w o r l d h e g e t s t h e J o y s o f h e a v e n ) . W h i l e t h e o t h e r o n e,
i. e. t h e N a s t i k a v a d i n is n o t p r a i s e d b u t i s b l a m e d i n t h i s
w o r l d , a n d a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e b o d y a l s o , h e is b o r n i n h e l l .
S o h e i s a l o s e r e v e r y w h e r e a n d d o e s n o t g a i n a n y t h i n g b y
a d o p t i n g t h e f a l s e v i e w t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g l i k e a l m s a n d
s a c r i f i c e s a n d a l s o . . . . . . . n o o t h e r w o r l d .
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In the Jamyutta Nikaya; (24.5) , .there is a Natthi
Dinna Sutta, where the Buddha speaks about the same view in
the same words and in the end concludes that such a wrong
view arises because of the existence of rupa, because of
v ^the existence of Vedana, Samina, Samskara and Vij nina.
But all the rupa etc. are momentary and non
eternal and one whd knows this is freed from doubts and
hence does not adopt any such view. Gradually, by knowing
the four truths, he becomes emancipated and is not born
again.
From the Samyutta Nikaya (42.13), it becomes
dear that the Buddha himself does not come to a final
conclusion anywhere; he merely says that even if the view
that * alms and sacrifice etc. are there **- be right, a
religious person ( irya Sravaka) is not affected thereby
and even if the view that '* alms and sacrifices etc. are
not there1* - be right, in that case also, he is equally
unaffected, because he causes no evil and performs no evil.
He gives up the false view and by adopting the right attitude,
he experiences bliss and happiness.
But the Buddha does say that the view that there
is no other world is a false view. In fact, the Buddha
considered some problems as Inexplicable (avyakata)- whether
the Tathagata exists after death, or not, or both exists as
well does not exist or neither exists nor does not exist -
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is am instance in point. Thus, many a time, he says in respect
of problems regarding this world, heaven, hell etc., that
these are avylkata problems, to which, it is not possible
to give an answer. Prom this, one may jump to the conclusion
that he was an agnostic. Or we can also say that he did not
answer such questions simply because their answers, in no
way, promote the good of man. We have seen above that he
admits the existence of paraloka. Could he have thought
that belief in Paraloka is more in the interest of mankind
than disbelief in it ?
The Anguttara Nikaya (Pol. I. p. 349 and the
Dhammasarlgani (p. 267) also refer to this view (ditthi).
The words in which they refer to it are the same and the
view set out therein is obviously that of Ajita.
It is interesting to note the Buddha*q remarkt
in the Anguttara Nikaya ( Vol. I. p. 266). Just as of all
kinds of woven robes, a hair garment is known to be the
least desirable, cold in cold weather, hot in hot, unpleasant
to the touch, so of all maty assertions by recluses, the
Makkhali theory is the most undesirable.**
The question here arises is that could the Buddha
have confounded^ Ajita Kesakamball with Makkhali Gosala ?
Or is he just giving a simile ? Or could he be suggesting
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that Goslla* s theory is even more dangerous than Ajita Kesakam-
balin*s, though the latter*s garment was the most undesirable
of all ?
The Buddha, then stating the view of Makkhali,
says that according to Makkhali, there is no Karma and no
action, so also no power, nor energy, nor strength, nor vigour.
Eventhough all the Arhats and Samadisambuddhas (the enlightened
ones) who flourished before, were believers in Karma, action
and energy, yet Makkhali rejects this view? that is to say
he does not believe in these. All those that will flourish in
future, will also be believers in Karma, action and energy.
Even I myself, am a believer in Karma, action and energy. But
Makkhali rejects this view of mine, saying that there is no
Karma, no action, no energy**.
The Buddha thus seems to be a believer in Karma
and this is quite a fact. Even though he establishes the
non-existenc^ of the soul,he does explain the origin of suffe
ring in the light of the theory of dependent.origination; where
due to the impressions of the past, a man is presently involved
in thirst (tpSna) and clinging (upMSna), which become the
cause of rebirth and old age and death etc.
In the Simannaphala Sutta, Ajita*s view is called
TJcehedavada (the doctrine of annihilation). It is obvious
from the above details that, he regards the body and the soul
to be one and the same and that soul is not something different
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from the body. He speaks of the annihilation.of the soul.
No soul remains after death, because all the four elements
viz, earth, water, fire, and air of which the body consists,
finally return to the earth, water, fire and air and nothing
remains, nothing is left. So when nothing remains, the talk
of gifts aid alms is a fools talk, all the offerings end in
ashes. No other world is there and not even this world. This
is his view and in the Sutrak^tanga, we find exactly the same
description, the only distinguishing point being that the
name given to this view there is Tajjlvatacchariravada.
What was then the view of the Buddha ? If he did
not believe in the theory of annihilation (Ncchedevada), then
did he believe in eternalism ( Sasvatavada) ? No, not the
least. The Buddha in fact, held the doctrine of the Middle
Path, There is a dialogue in the Samyutta Nikaya, where he
tries to establish his own view as against nihilism and eter
nalism. There Acela Kasyapa asks the Buddha.
* Is sorrow Gautama due to oneself ? (Sayamkatam ? 5
* Not so, 0 Kalyapa, said the lord, nIs it then, 0 Gautama,
due to another ? (parakatam ?) * Not so, 0 Kasyapa , replied
the Lord. *Is it then due to oneself as well as due to another ?'*
That is not the case, said the Buddha. Is it, 0 Gautama,
neither due to oneself, nor due to another ?'* This also is not
the case, said Gautama.
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K a s y a p a t h e n a s k s t he B u d d h a w h e t h e r s o r r o w is
e x i s t e n t o r n o t. G a u t a m a s a ys t h a t s o r r o w d o e s e x i s t . A n d
jo
w h e n E a S y a p a b e i n g s to d o u b t t he v e r y k n o w l e d g e o f G a u t a m a
r e g a r d i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d c a u s e o f s o r r o w , G a u t a m a t e l l s
h i m t h a t K a s y a p a s h o u l d n o t d o u b t t h u s b e c a u s e h e ( th e B u d d ha )
r i g h t l y k n o w s t h e t r u t h . H e t h us e x p l a i n s i t t o K a l y a p a .
** If he, wh o suf fer s is the same as he wh o does,
t h e n 0 K a s y a p a , i t i s a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e s o r r o w i s d u e t o
o n e w h o w a s e x i s t e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a ge n t i s a d m i t t e d
/ /
as et er na l (Sasvata)**.
* If, again, someone does and someone else suffers,
then, 0 Kas yap a, it is admi tted that one suffers due to the
a c t s d o n e b y a n o t h e r a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e ag e n t is a d m i t t e d
as ext inc t (TTechedam etam) Th e Ta th ag at a avoids bot h the
e n d s a n d p r e a c h e s t h e l a w b y a d o pt i n g t h e m i d d l e c o u r s e . A v i d y l
c a u s e s s a m s k a r a , s a m s k a r a c a u s e s V i j n a n a a n d s o o n . T h u s
o r i g i n a t e s t h i s S k a n d h a ^ a g g r e g a t e) o f a b s o l u t e s o r r o w . B y
the to ta l ce ssa tio n of Sams kar as , (ten den cies) , Yi jn an a
( C o n s c i o u s n e s s ) c e a s e s a n d s o o n. T h u s t he s k h a n d h a o f
abs olu te s orrow ceases . (ef. Sam yut ta Nik iya 12.17).
I n t h e A n a m d a s u t t a o f t h e S a m y u t t a N i k ay a , V a t s a -
got ra asks Gau tam a ifi As ti ta is existe nt. But the Bud dh a
g i v e s n o a n s w e r . H e a g a i n a s k s i f N a s t i t a is e x i s t e n t an d
1 . 4 4 . 1
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the Buddha still does not answer.- When Vatsagotra goes away,
Inanda asks Buddha why he gave no answer to Va^tsagotra.
The Buddha, then, explains to him that if he had told him
that there is Astita, that would be eternallsm. If he had
told him that there is lastita, that would be nihilism. ** In
accepting the former,** says the Buddha* ** I would not have
been able to teach that all dharmas are devoid of soul (i. e.
Anatma). If I told him that Nastita is there, he would be
more misled as he would be inclined to think that I had a soul
before, which, now, is not there.
Thusy to avoid both the extreme views, the
Buddha thought it proper to preach the middle path, which
was devoid of these two extremes. This will be even clearer
to us when we examine the Buddha* s attitude towards the eight
inexplicable problems (avyakata panha).
A jit a expounded TJccheda^da, and he taught the
extinction of soul, of the world and of acts He denied the
eternity of all these three things. Soul, according to him,
lasts as long as the body does and not thereafter, and, when
there is no soul after death, there would be no world also.
And since according to Ajita, there are no alms or sacrifices
or offerings in the true sense of the term, he also can be
called an Akriyivadin.
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We now come to the Taj jiv ata echarira vid a, the
Nastikavada, and the Sasvatavada, which are closely connected
with the TJechedavada of A jl ta .
TAJJIVATACCHARIRAVADA :
Whether the sonl and the body are one and the same
or the sonl is different from the body is an important problem
in the fie ld of philosophy. Buddha is always found in a mood
to avoid giving an answer to th is question. He brushes i t aside
as an inexplicable problem and believes that such questions are
not at all useful for the final good.
Moreover, he says, " I f one, 0 Bhikkhu, were to
maintain that self is identical with the body, then there would
be no use of endeavouring for release. And i f one were to
maintain that the self is different and the body is different,
then also , 0 Bhikkhu, there would be no use of endeavouring
fo r re lease . Having avoided 0 Bhikkhu, both these extremes,
the Tathigata preaches the law by adopting the middle course. n
(Samyutta Hlkaya, IS.12).
The Buddha has thus evaded any definite answer to
th is question. But the Tajjlvatacehariravadins held that the
soul is id entical with the body. This was a very famous here-
t ic a l doctrine? and i t could possibly have been the view of
the Carvakas, who held th at af te r the body, no soul p ers is ts .
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In the Jaliy a su tta in the Bigha Nikaya, Ja liya goes to the
Buddha? ana asks him whether the soul and the body we*e
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A J i t a 1 s v i e w c o m e s t o m e a n t h a t t h e r e i s n o t t h e
o t h e r w o r l d , n o r a r e t h e r e b e i n g s r e b o r n o t h e r w i s e t h a n f r o m
p a r e n t s , n o r i s t h e r e t h e f r u i t o r r e s u l t o f d e e d s w e l l d o n e
o r i l l d o n e . A n i t a ' s v i e w i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e v i e w o f
P a y a s l . P l y a s i w a s t h u s a m a t e r i a l i s t i c t h i n k e r l i k e t h e
C i r v a k a s a n d t h e B u d d h i s t a s w e l l a s t h e J a i n a S c r i p t u r e s
g i v e , i n d e t a i l , t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h h e p u t f o r t h t o p r o v e
h i s v i e w . P l y a s i h e l d t h a t t h e s o u l i s n o t a n e n t i t y d i s t i n c t
f r o m t h e b o d y . A s a m a n , d r a w i n g a s w o r d f r o m t h e s c a b b a r d ,
c a n s a y, ** t h i s i s t h e s w o r d a n d t h i s i s t h e s c a b b a r d , * s o,
w e a r e n o t a b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e s o u l f r o m t h e b o d y . T h e
S u t r a k r t a n g a , a s w e s h a l l s e e , d e s c r i b e s t h i s a t l e n g t h , g i v i n g
a s e r i e s o f e x a m p l e s . W e c a n s a y t h a t A j i t a a n d P a y a s i , o r
t h e T J e e h e d a v a d i n s , t h e N a s t i k a v a d i n s a n d t h e " fa j j I v a t a c c h a r l r e t -
a v a d i n s w e r e a l l r e g a r d e d a s A k r i y a v a d i n s b y M a h a v l r a , a s t h e y
u p h e l d t h e d o c t r i n e o f n o n - a c t i o n .
In the Brahmajala Jutta the view of some recluses
a n d B r a h m a n a s i s d e s c r i b e d , w h o i n s e v e n w a y s , m a i n t a i n t h e
c u t t i n g o f f , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n , t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n o f a l i v i n g
being. They held th at, n Since th is so ul has form, i s b uil t
u p o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s , a n d is t h e o f f s p r i n g o f f a t h e r a n d
c $m o t h e r , i t i s
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Some hold that * the whole soul is not then completely
annihilated for there is a further soul, divine, having form,
belonging to the sensuous plane, feeding on solid food. That
you neither know, nor pereceive. But I ( i. e. the Buddha)
know and have experiended it. And since this soul, on the
dissolution of the body, is cut off, and destroyed, does
not continue after death,then it is, that the soul is completely
annihilated.'
Five more views are also described according to
which the whole soul is not then annihilated. But according
to the first view, a soul made of mind, remains. According
to the second view, there remains a soul, which reaches up
to the plane of infinity of space. According to the third,
there remains a soul which reaches up to the plane of infinity
of Consciousness. According to the fourth, a soul,v remains
that passing quite beyond the plane of infinity of consciousness,
knowing that there is nothing, reaches up to the plane of
no-obstruction. And according to the fifth view, there remains
a soul passing quite beyond the plane of no-obstruction. And
when this remaining soul is annihilated, only then, one can
say that the soul is completely annihilated and not before
that. All these views are undoubtedly the views of the TJcche-
davadins. As these TJcchedava3ins preach the complete annihil
ation of the soul, they maintain that the soul and the world
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are produced without a cause. According to them, no cause
persists as everything results in complete annihilation. The
holder of such views are called Fortuitous Originists in the
Brahmajala sutta and the Buddha describes them thus :
** There are brethren certain gods called Unconscious
Beings. As soon as an idea occurs to them, they fall from that
state. Now, it may well be, brethren, that a being, falling
from that state* should come hither and having come Either, he
might go forth from the household life into the h&meless state.
And having thus become a recluse, he, by reason of ardour
civ
and so on , (as in the other cases) reabees up to such rapture
of heart that rapt in heart, he calls to mind how that idea
occurred tbohim but not more than that. He says to himself
'* Fortuitous in origin are the soul and the world. And why
so ? Because formely I was not, but now a m . Habing not been,
I have come to be.*6
This, is the first state of things, on account of
which, starting out from which, some recluses and Brahmanas
become t Fortuitous Originists and maintain that the soul and
the world arise without cause.
In the second case, some recluse or Brahmaija is
addicted to logic and reasoning. He gives utterance to the
following conclusion of his own, beaten out by his argumentations
and based on his Sophistry : f* The soul and the world arose
without a cause.*
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2/o
We can see that the fundamental problem here. Is
' Is there any cause of the world ? And If there is one,
what is it ? n
Many admit that the effect is produced only when
there is a cause. But s t i l l , there are some who think that
there is no particula r cause, to which we could ascribe the
production of the world. Sim ilarly, according to them, the
destruction of things is also without any cause.
I t may be noted, that the Buddha opposed TJccheda-
vada as strongly as he opposed ^asvatavada. * Such views,
as he observes , * aris e , because there i s rupa, because there
is saffijna, because there is samskara, and also vedana and
Vijhana.* w But a true Xryasravaka, says the Buddha, is
never inclined to such fals e views, because he sees and knows
that rupa is momentary, samjha is momentary and so also are
samskara, Vedana, and vijnana. And because he sees and knows
i t , he is not affected thereby and is f in ally emancipated.*
S A S V A T A V A D A s-
In the Brahmajala Sutta, the Buddha describes the
view of the E te rn alists (Sasvatavadins) in these words :
" There are recluses and Brahmanas,> brethren, who reconstruct
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276
the Ultimate beginnings of th ings, whose speculations are
connected with the ultim ate pas t; and who on eighteen grounds,put forward, various assertions regarding the past. And
about what, with reference to what, do these venerable ones
do so ? "
There are, bretheren., recluses and Brahmanas,
who are e te rn a lis ts (Sassatavadji); and who on four grounds,
proclaim that both the soul and the world are eternal. And
about what, with reference to what, do these venerable
ones do so ?
In the f i r s t place , brethren , some recluse or
Brahmana, by means of ardour, of exertion, of application,
of earnestness, of care ful thought reaches up to such rapture
of heart that rapt in hea rt, he ca lls to mind, his various
dwelling plaees in times gone by, in one b ir th or in two, or
in th ree , or in four, or in five, or ten , or twenty, or
th ir ty , or fo rty , or f if ty , or a hundred, or a thousand,
or in several hundreds or thousands or lakhs of births to the
effect that **There I had such and such a name, was of such
and such a lineage and caste, lived on such and such food and
experienced such and such pains and pleasu res, had such and
such a span of years. And when I f e l l from thence, I was
reborn in such and such a name, in such and such lineage.and
caste , living on such and sudh good, experiencing such and
such pains and pleasures, with sueh and such a span of years.
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IT,Fi7 ry
j U t t
And when I fell from thence, I was reborn here . '* Thus does
he recollect, in full detail, both of conditio n and of
custom, his various dwe lling places in times gone by. And.
he says to himself; * Et ern al is the soul, and the world,
giving bir th to nothing new, is steadfast as a mounta in-
peak, as a pillar firmly fixed, and though these living
creatures t ransmigrate and pass away, fall from one state of
existenc e and spring up i n another, yet they are for ever and
ever. And why must that be so ? Becau se I, by means of ardour,
of exertion, of appl icat ion , of earnestne ss, of careful
thought, can reach up to such rapture of heart, that rapt in
heart, I can call to mind in full detail, both of condition
and of custom, my various places in times gone * by, by that
is it, that I kn ow this, that the soul is eternal; and that
the world , giving birth to nothing new, is stead-fast as a
Amountain peak, as a pillar firmly fixed and that though these
living crealjires transmigra te and pass away, fall from one
state of existence^ and spring up i n another yet they are for
ever and ever.**
This, brethren, is the first state of things on
account of which, starting from which, some recluses and
Brahmanas are eternalists and maintai n that both the soul
and the world are eternal.'
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In the second case, he calls to mind the previous
births which extend over a still longer period up to ten worldt
aeons and in the third case, such a period as extends up to
forty world aeons.
And in the fourth case, as the Buddha describes,
** some r ecluse or Brahmana is addicted to logic and reasoning.
He gives utter ance to the following conclusion, bea ten out ,
by his argumentations and based on his sophistry : - '* Eternal
is the soul and the worl d, giving birt h to nothing new, is
steadfast as a mou nta in peak, as a pill ar firmly fixed; and
these living creatures, though they transmig rate and pass
away, fall from one state of existence and spring up in
another. Ye t they are fo r eve r and ever**.
16This brethren , is the fourth state of things on
er r
the ground of which, stpating from which , some recluses and
Brahm anas are /eternalists and mai nta in that the soul and the
wo rld are etern al.1*
These, brethren,, are those recluses and Brahmanas'*
says the Bud dha, * wh o are ete rn al is ts , and In fou r ways
maintain that both the soul and the world are eternal. For
whos oever of the recluses and Brahmanas are such and maintain
this, they do so in these four ways, or in one, or in the
oth er of the same, and outside the^e, there is no wa y in
which this opinion is arrived at'*.
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' Th e above is the descriptio n, whic h occurs in the
Brahmajala Sutta of the Di gh a Niklya.
It is stated i n the Maj jhima Niklya (I. 2.1) that
the self (atta) accord ing to the Eter nali sts (Sass atavadi ns),
is the speaker, the feel er and the enjoy er of the fruits of
good and evil actions, is permanent (nic ca), steady (dhru va),
ete rna l (sassata) and is unchangab le (aparinamadhamma) and is
stead- fast like the so-called eterna l objects, vizs the Sun,
Moon, ocean, earth and mountain**.
Besi des this, wher ever the inexplicable questions
are discuss ed, the view of the eterna lists, is referred to.
But as we have seen, the Budd ha , not only disagrees with this
view, but he also refuses to give an answ er to the question,
** Are the wo rld and the soul eternal or non-eterna l ?**
W h e n in the Samyetta Nikaya, Vatsagotra comes to
( '3lfcV
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280The former then asks why the holders of the other views descri-
bed the world to be eternal. Moggalana explains i '* Yatsa,
those heretics C HftlWWFT ) thinks,
n The eye is mine, I am the eyes, the eyes are myself; the
ears are mine, I am the ears, the ears are myself* And the1 o
same is the case with the organs of ^dour, ta ste and with
the body. And so, on being asked, he answer that The
world is permanent.
But the Buddha does not hold that eye is the soul
........ e tc . so when asked, he gives absolutely no reply to
the question.
Yatsa , then goes to the Buddha and asks the same
question why he regards it as an unanswerable question and
why the other heret ics hold the world to be ete rn al. The
Buddha says that those people recognise rupa as the self,
or know the se lf as having form or know the self in rupa,
and th ink sim ilarly of Vedana, Samj9na, ^Tamskara and
Vijnana. So, on being asked, they say th at the world is
permanent.
In the Jamyutta Nikaya, 24.9, there is a Sassata ,
Di$thi Sutta where the Buddha explains that because there is
rupa, because there is Yedana, because there is samjna and
so also , Samskara and * YijUana, a fa lse view is created ,
that the world is eternal.
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, - ],
But he, who knows, -that in fact, rupa is
anitya, Vedana is anitya and the same is the case with
samjna, samskara and vijnlna, is not affected thereby and
is finally emancipated.
This same is stated by the Buddha in Sainyutta
Niklya 22.15 (Etam Mama Sutta) in the form of an answer
to the question as to how this false view is created that
some think in this way5
that which is soul, the same is
the Loka, ** so after leaving the body, I will be permanent
fixed, eternal, unehangable" ?
The Buddha upholds the doctrine of Ksanikavada.f f
Therefore ^asvatavlda is a doctrine, quite unacceptable& to
him. Yet he never says/ that the world is non-eternal'.
Because that would result in TJcchedavada, which is also
quite an extreme view* and so unacceptable. Consequently,
he adopted the Middle Path. In a dialogue with Kasyapa,f
he, in answer to the question of Kasyapa 1 what is Dukkha ?
says that if he who suffers is the same as he who does one
may hold s * the sorrow is due to one who was existent
(before) then the agent is admitted as eternal, hence
follows eternalism. Similarly, if that he who does and
he who suffers are quite distinct, one may hold, ** Someone
else does it and another one experiences^, it; hence sorrow
is not due to ones ownself, (which was existent before);
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but due to another. ** Here follows $nnihilationalism. But
TathSgata, avoiding both these ends, preaches the law by
adopting the middle path. Because of Avidya, arise saftsktras
........... and thus all the Dukkha is created. And by the
SecwiSKeorfiJ _cessation of tend=@e4e -(Samsfea^aa), Vijnana ceases and so
, on, finally the whole aggregate of absolute sorrow ceases.
In the Tripitakas, Baka Brahma is described as
an Upholder of Sasvatavada. In the Majjhima Nikaya (1.49.1-3)
(Brahma Nimantanika Sutta), the Buddha relates that once,
when he was in the Subhagavana of tlkattha; a Brahma, named
Baka, was inclined to the view that brahmaloka is permanent,
3
fixed , eternal, pure and unchaning. It is liable neither
to birth, nor to death there is no further going out to it.
The Buddha told Baka Brahma that he was plunged
in ignorance as he regarded what is impermanent as permanent,
what, is changing as fixed, what is non-eternal as eternal,
what is impure as pure. Even if there was a further going
out, he said that there was no further going out w .
Thus, it is quite clear that the Buddha was not
'-s '_in favour of the Sasvatavada. The Samyutta Nikaya, giving
the same view of Baka Brahma, adds that Baka Brahma holds
that the BrahmaHloka is neither destroyed, nor is it produced
again, and this only is the final release. The Buddha calls
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i t a s i n fu l v ie w , p a p a d i t th l ; and s ay s t h a t t h i s ( i . e .
th e Brahma Loka) i s n ot th e f i n a l r e l e a s e b a t i t i s
n o n -e t e rn a l and so l i a b l e t o d e s t ru c t i o n ; and t h e f i n a l
r e l e a s e i s q u i te d i f f e r e n t from i t .
I t i s however, very in te re s t i n g to compare
the view of Baka Brahma with that of the Pancamahabhutavadins
whieh i s desc r ibed in th e Su t rakrtar iga (chap te r 14 th) .
The Pancamahabhutavadins ho ld th a t : 'Th ere are
f i v e e l e me n t s ................ everything down to a blade of grass
co n s is ts of them. These f iv e e lements are not c re a te d f
d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , n o r made, th e y a r e n ot e f f e c t s ,
nor pr od uc ts , they are w i thou t beginning and end.............
are Independent of a d i re c t in g cause or everything e ls e , u
th e y a r e e t e rn a l .
They thu s rega rd them as permanent, e te rn a l and
devoid of produ ct ion or d es t ru c t io n . The Loka, aec joding
to them, co n s is ts of them and hence is e te rn a l . Gould i t
be t h a t Baka Brahma i s h ere meant to S ig n ify some acary a ,
from among th e Pancam ahabhutavadins ? The views ar e
s t ri k i n g l y s im i la r .
A K B T A Y A D A j -
Akrtavada is the view held by Pakuda Kaccayana .
I t Is d escr ibe d by A ja tsa t r j j in the Samannaphala S u t ta as
f o l l o w s : -
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nThe foil-swing seven things are neither made nor .
commanded to he made, neither created nor caused to he created,
they are barren, (so that nothing is produced out of them),
steadfast as a mountain peak, as a pillar firmly fixed.
They move not'neither do they vary, they trench
not one upon another? nor avail ought as to ease or pain
or both. And what are the seven ? The four elements - earth,
water , fire and air - and ease and pain and the soul as a
seventh. So there is neither slayer nor causer of slaying,
hearer or speaker, knower or explainer. When one with a
sharp sword cleaves a head in twain, no one thereby deprives
any one of life . a sword has only penetrated into the interval
between seven elementary^ substances**.
** Thus did Pakuda KacdSyana, when asked what was
the immediate advantage in the life of a recluse, expound the
matter by expounding something else**.
* The Samyutta Nikaya 94.8 $ depicts the same view
in these very words. Then it describes how Pakuda held that
"Even if one may think that *r'by this virtue or this perfor
mance of duty, or this penance, or this rightousness,will
I make the Karma ( I have inherited), that is not yet
mature, mature- or one may hope by the same means to get rid
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of Karma th a t has m atured, n e ith e r of them can do i t . The
ease an d 'pa in , a re not measured out w i th a measure , therei s n e i t h e r i n c re a s e , n o r d e c re as e t h e re o f? n e i th e r e x c e s s ,
n o r d e f i c i e n c y . J u s t a s when a h a l l o f s t r i n g i s c a s t f o r t h ,
i t w i l l s p re ad ou t j u s t a s f a r and no f a r t h e r , t h a n i t ca n
unwind, ju s t so , both fo o ls and w ise , a l ik e , wandering
i n t ra n s m i g r a ti o n , e x a c t ly f o r th e a l l o t t e d te rm , s h a l l
then make an end of pain
According to the Buddha such a view arises because
th ere is rupa , because th er e is vedana , because the re are
Sam jna, Samskgra and Y ijn an a. An Ary asravak a knows them to
be im permanent and hence i s not a ffe c te d th e re b y , t i l l he
f i n a l l y g e t s e ma n c ip a t e d .
V
The name give n to t h is ph ilosophy of Pakuda, is
Ak rtavada or S a tta Kaya Vada. He regarded seven th in g s, v iz .
e a r t h , W a te r, f i r e , a i r , e a s e , p a in and s o u l a s e t e r n a l ,
imp erishable and immutable by th e i r very na tu re . In th is
r e s p e c t , Pakuda sounds t o be a n g t e rn a l i s t . The E t e rn a l i s t s ,
as we have seen above, Regarded the world and the soul as
e t e r n a l .
A W I S C A Y A 7 A P A j -
This i s the view of San jaya B e la t th ip u t ta , who
can be said to be a sc e p tic or an A gn os tic. In the Samaiffiaphala
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286
"Sutta, Ijutasatru describes what -ganjaya told him when asked
about the immediate fruit fof the life of a recluse. He
thus replied :
1,1 If you ask me whether there is another world -
well, if I thought there were, I would say so. But I
dont say so. And I dont thirik it is thus or thus. And
I dont deny it. And I dont say there neither is, n6r is
not another world. And if you ask me about the beings
produced by chance, or whether there is any fruit, any
result, of good and bad actions, or whether a man who has
won the truth, continues or not after death - to each or
any of these questions, do I give the same reply. Thus
Lord, did Sanjaya of the Belattha clan, ,when asked what
ftwas the immediate advantage in the' life .4f:a recluse, show
j
his manner of prevarication.
Buddha.in the Brahmajala Sutta, uses the expre
ssion Eel wrigglers (vaca vikkhepika^O for the people
who hold such a view . He there describes it thus : There
are, brethern, some recluses or brahmaiias, who wriggle
like eels and when a question is put to them on this or that,
they resort to equivocation, to eel-wriggling and this in
four ways.
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J n In the first place, some recluse or br&hmana does
not understand the good in its real nature, nor the evil.
And he thinks: ** I neither know the good, as It really is,
nor the evil. That being so, were I to pronounce this to
be good or that to be evil, I might be influenced therein
by my feelings or desires, by ill will or resentment. And
under these circumstandes, I might be wrong, and my having
been wrong might cause me the pain of remorse, might become
a hindrance to me. Thus fearing and abhorring being wrong
in an expressed opinion, he will neither declare anything
to be good nor to be bad, but on a question being put to
him on this or that, he resorts to eel wriggling, to
equivocation and says, " I don't take it thus, I dont take
It the other way. But I advance no opinion. And I don't
deny your position. And I don't say it is neither the one,
1nor the other."
This is the first case, and what is the second ?
He, thinking that I neither know ......or resentment".'* Under
these circumstances, I might fall into that grasping condition
of heart which causes rebirth and the sense of remorse might
become a hindrance to me". Thus fearing and abhorring the
falling into that state, he will neither declare anything to
be good and so on, as above.
1. Digha Nikaya, BrahmajTla Sutta
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288
I n t h e t h i r d c a s e , o w i n g t o t h e s a me k i n d o f
t h o u g h t , h e t h i n k s t h a t I n e i t h e r k n o w t h e g o o d , a s i t
r e a l l y i s , n o r t h e e v i l . N o w t h e r e a r e r e c l u s e s a n d
b r a h m a n a s w h o are cl eve r, subtle, e x p e r i e n c e d i n co ntr ov e r y,
hai r split ters , wh o go about, methiriks, break ing to pieces
b y t h e i r w i s d o m , the sp e cu l a t i o n s of ot h e rs . W e r e I t o
p r o n o u n c e | h i s to be g o o d o r t ha t t o be e v i l , t h e s e m e n
m i g h t j o i n is sue w i t h m e, c a l l u p o n f o r m y reasons; po in t
o u t m y e r r o r s . A n d o n t h e i r d o i n g so , I m i g h t be u n a b l e
t o e x p l a i n . A n d t h a t m i g h t c a u se m e t h e p a i n o f r e m o r s e , a nd
the sense of remorse mig ht b ecome a hind ranc e to me *.
T h u s f e a r i n g a n d a b h o r i n g t h e j o i n d e r o f is s u e ,
h e w i l l n e i t h e r d e c l a r e a n y t h i n g t o b e g o o d a n d s o o n.
I n t he f o u r t h c a s e, s o m e r e c l u s e o r b r a h m a n a i s
d u l l , s t u p i d . A n d i t i s b y r e a s o n o f h i s d u l l n e s s , h i s
s t u p i d i t y , t h a t w h e n a q u e s t i o n o n t h i s o r t h a t is pu t
t o h i m , h e r e s o r t s t o e q u i v o c a t i o n , t o w r i g g l i n g li k e a n
eel and says ,** If you a sk me wh et her there is ano the r
w o r l d - w e l l , i f I t h o u g h t i t w e r e , I w o u l d s a y s o b u t I
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'* There is not another world. There are ehanee
beings. There are no such beings. There both are and are
not such beings. There ne ither are nor are not such beings.
There is f ru i t , or re su lt of good and bad actions. There
is no such f ru it . There both is and is not such f ru i t.
There neith er is nor is not such f ru i t . A man who has
penetrated the tru th , continues to exist offer death.
He does not continue , he both continues and does not
continue, he neither continues nor not continues'*.
'* These are those recluses and brahmanas who
wriggle like eels and when a question is put to them, on
th is or th a t, resort to equivocation, to eel-wriggling
and that in four ways. For wh^scTfvr do so they do so
in these four ways, or in one or the other wa$, in
which they do soMr.
Jacobi is rig ht when he says( th at " I t is
evident th at the Agnostics examined a l l modes of expression
of the existence or non-existence of a thing and if it
were anything transcendental or beyond human experience,2
they negated a l l these modes of expression.12*
1. Digha Nikaya;
Brahma Jala Sutta.
2. SIS. Vol. XLV,p. m i l .
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290Dr. Barua says, Sanjaya may be called an **Intell-
ectu al coward because, even when he was unable to form aclear theory he would not confers his inability to think, but
he would instead say th a t, * i f I were to know th at i t is such,
I would t e l l i t to be so to you but I don't hold i t to be ei ther
this way or that way and therefore do not say that it is either1 Wt - O j v \ Stf'V Hifirf- #
th is way or that way.'* Qr may be we a-he was very in te lligen t
and c r i t ic a l in his outlook and must have been convinced
that such questions are not capable of having any definite
answer, and if they had a defin ite answer at a l l , they would
have been solved at once and the whole process of philosophical
controversies would have come to an end. But we see that i t
is not so, and d iffer en t solutions are given by d ifferen t
philosophers and s t i l l the problems remain unsolved and continue
to puzzle people throughout the ages.
Even the Buddha does not like to give any definite
answer to such questions and he tactfully evades them as
unanswerable; or so to say, useless fo r a monk in the path
of getting final emancipation from paih.
Thus, when the great Buddha refused to answer
such questions, Sanjaya is obviously ju s ti fi e d i f he refuses
to answer the same; though the philosophical approach of the
two thinkers is quite d iffe re n t. In fa c t, as BarjJa notes,
1
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* he by suspending his judgements on certain great questions
of human mind, came to indicate that their final answer lay
beyond the domain of speculation*. He further continues,
* Both MahayIra and Buddha were unanimous in declaring
that there are certain mooted questions' of cosmology,
ontology, theology and eschatology on which a man is unable,k
constituted as he 4s , to pronounce a bold, authoritative
1or dogmatie opinion.*
1. See * A history of Pre-Buddhlstie Indian philosophy
p, 331 by Barua.
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THEORY OF RIGHT UNANSWERABLE PROBLEMS s-
Bnddha declared some questions as unanswerable
(avyakata), In the Digha Nikaya, Potthapada discusses about
trance. Then, in the course of further discussion; Pottha
pada asks Buddha several questions :
(1) Is the world eternal ?
Is this alone the truth and any other view
mere folly ?
Buddha replies, ** That, Potthapada, is a matter
on which I have expressed no opinion T Potthapada
then in the same terms, asks the following questionst-
(2) Is the world non-eternal ?
(S) Is the world finite ?
(4) Is the, world infinite ?
(5) Is the soul same as the body ?
(6) Is the soul one thing and the body another ?
(7) Does one who has gained the, truth live again after death ?
(8) Does he not live again after death ?
(9) Does he both live and not live again after death ?
(10) Does he neither live nor not live again after death ?
And to each of these questions, the exalted
one ga**e the same answer and said, * That too Potthapada
is a matter on which I have expressed no opinion**.
1. Digha Nikaya, Patthapada Sutta.
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** But why has the exalted one expressed no opinion
on that asks Potthapada . To that, the great Buddha
replied : ** This question is not ealjseulated to profit, it
is-not concerned with the Norm (i. e. the Dhamma) , it does
not redound even to the elements of right conduct, nor to
detachment, nor to purification from lusts, nor to quietude,
nor to the tranquillisation of heart, nor to real knowledge^,
nor to the insight ( of the higher stages of path), nor to
Nirvina. Therefore it is that I expressed no opinion upon it."1
In the Brahmajala Jiutta Buddha refers to sixty-
two views out of which eighteen are regarding the past, and
forty-four are regarding the ftetuae. its they are similar to
the views expressed in these ten question it Is necessary to
give a brief account of them.
Sasvatavada
Among the eighteen views regarding the past,
some hold that the soul and the world are eternal. The four
grounds, on which they hold so, are already explained
above in the exposition of Sasvatavada.
Sasvata - A sasvatavada s. . . . .. . .
Then there is the view of those who are eternalists
with regard to some things and are tefon-eternalists with regard
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to others. The y also, on four grounds, main tain that n the
soul and the world are partly eternal and partly not'*.
'* Th ere comes a time wh en sooner or later, after
the lapse of a long long period this wor ld system passes away.
And when this happens, beings have mostly been reborn in the
wo rld of Radiance and there they dwell, made of mind; f eeding
on joy, radiating light from themselves , traversing the air,
continu ing in glory, and thus they rema in for a long long
period of time.
How, there comes also a time whe n sooner or later,
this worl d system begins to re-evolve. Wh en this happens, the
Palace 8f Brah ma appears, but it is empty. And some being or
other, eith er because his span of years has expire d or his
merit is exhausted, falls from that world of Radiance, and
comes to life in the Palace 8f Brahma. And there he also
lives, made df mind, feeding on joy, radiating light^from
himself, traversing the air, continuing in glory and thus does
he rema in for a long long time. Ho w there arises in hi m from
his dwelling there so long alone, a dissatisfaction and a
longing t '* 0 would that other beings mig ht come to joi n
me in this place f.* And just then, either because their span
of years has expired or the ir merit is exhausted, other beings
fall fro m the world of Radiance and appear in the place of
Br ah ma as companions to him and in all respects like him.'*
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** On this, brethers, the one who was first
reborn, thinks thus to himself s'* I am Brahma, the
Great Brahma, Supreme one, the Mighty, the All-seeing,
the Ruler, the lord of all, the Maker, the Creator,
the Chief of all? appointing to each his place, the
Ancient of his days, the father of all that are and are
to be^these other beings are of my ereation. And why is
that so ? A while ago, I thought, ** Would that they might
come . And on ngr mental asjpiration. behold that beings
came.**
'* And those beings themselves, too think thus:
'* This must be Brahma, the Great Brahma, the Supreme, the
mighty, the All-seeing, the Ruler, the Lord of all, the
Maker, the creator, the Chief of all^ appointing to each
his place,' the ancient of days, the Father of all that
are and are to be . And we must have been created by him.
And why ? Because as we see, it was he who was here first
and we came after that**.
nOn this, brethren, the one, who first came
in to existence, is of longer life, and more glorious,
and more powerful than those who appeared after him. And
it might well be, hrethren^that some being, on his falling
from that state should come hither. And having come hither
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he might go forth from the household s tate to the homeless
s t a te . And having thu s become a re c lu se , he by reas on
o f a rd o u r o r e x e r t io n o f a p p l ic a t io n y a f e a rn e s tn e s s , 6 f
-ca re fu l thoug ht , reaches up to such rap ture o f h e a r t , th a t ,
rap t in h e a r t , he c a l l s to mind h i s l a s t dwe l ling p la ce , ,
bu t not th e p revious o n es. He says to h im s e lf , ** That
i l l u s t r io u s Brahma, the Great Brahma, the su pre m e. . . . the
ch ie f o f a l l , appo in t ing to each h i s p lace the Anc ien t o f
e>yi\da ys , the F ath er of a l l th a t a re and are to be by when we
were cr ea ted , he is s te a d fa s t , iTmautable, e te rn a l , of a
na ture th a t knows no change, and he w il l remain so fo r eve*?
and e v e r. But we, who have been c re a te d by him have come
h i th e r , as be ing impermanent, m utable , l im i ted in du ra t io n
o f l i f e . 1*
** T h i s i s t h e f i r s t s t a t e , s t a r t i n g o ut o f w h ic h,
some re c lu se s and brahmaijas, being E te rn a li s ts as to some
th in g s and N o n -E te rn a l is t s a s t o o th e r s , m a in t a in t h a t th e
so ul and the whole world a re parlor e te rn a l and pa rt ly no t*.
In the second s ta te , some gods c al le d the ** D eW -
W u^ he d by pleasure** ( HqflW T ) come
h i th e r on t h e i r f a l l i n g from th e fo rme r s t a t e . Here a s i n
the f i r s t ea se , they become rec lu ses and acqu ire the power
o f r e c o l le c t in g t h e i r l a s t b i r t h , b ut o nly t h e l a s t o ne .
And one such would say to h im se lf : " Those gods who a re
not debauched by p lea su re , a re s te a d fa s t , *immutable ,
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e te rn a l, of a natu re th a t knows no change and they w il l remain
so fo r ever and ev er . But we who f e l l from th a t s ta te , having
lo st our sd lf- c o n tr o l, though being debauehed by pleasu re -
we have come h ith e r as being impermanent, mutable, lim ite d
in durat ion of l i fe ." '
i In the th ir d case , the gods, Debauched in Mind'*
( JB*. i l p W W ) on fa l l in g from th e ir former
s ta te , come h ith e r and having become re c lu se s, shou ld, as\
in the othe r cases, acquire the power of reco llec ting the
las# b ir th but only the l a s t one. And such a one th ink s to
himself in the same way, th a t the sd gods who are not debaucheda i
in mind do not co n tinu ity burn w ith envy aga ins t each oth er ,
. so th e ir hea rts do not become evil-dispo sed^o ne^ towards
oth er s , nor th e ir bodies feeble and th e ir minds im bec ile.
Therefore they f a l l not from th a t sta te ; they are steadf a s t ; immutable, e te rn a l, of a natu re th a t knows no change
and they w il l remain so fo r ever and ev er. Itat we were
corrup ted in mind and f e l l from th a t s ta te and have come
h ith e r being impermanent, immutable, lim ited in du ratio n
of l i f e . 1*'
In the fourth case some Sramana and Brahmana is
add icted to lo gic and reasoning . He gives utte ran ce to the
follow ing conec lusion of hi s own, bea ten out by h is arguments
and based on so ph istr y . This which is ca lled eye and ea r
and nose, and tongue, and body is a s e lf whieh is impermanent,
u n sta b le, not e te rn a l, subject to change. But th is which
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i s c a l l ed he a r t , o r mind, o r consciousness i s a s e l f which
is permanent, s t e a d fa st , e te rn a l and knows no change and
i t w i l l r ema in fo r e v e r an# fo r e v e r " .
In these fo ur ways, the re clu se s and Brlhmaijas
who a re sem i-E tem ai l s t s m a in ta in th a t the sou l and the world
are in some resp ec ts e te rn a l and in some, n o t" . (D ia l , of
Buddha p. 30-35).
Santa- Anantavada :-
There are E x ten slo n ists who in fou r ways se t
f o r t h t h e i n f i n i t y o r th e f i n i te n e s s o f th e w o rld .
Some re c lu se o r Brahmana, by means of ard o u r,
o f e x e r t i o n , o f a p p l i c a t i o n , o f e a r n e s t n e s s , o f c a r e f u l
thou gh t , reaches up to such rap ture o f h e a r t , dw e l ls^ in
the w or ld , imagin ing i t f in i t e and he says thus to h imse l f :
" F in i te Is the world so th a t a pa th could be t race d round
i t . And why is th is so ? S inc e, I , by means of ar d o u r,
o f e x e r t i o n , .................. . can reach up to such rapture of h e a r t ,
t h a t r a p t i n h e a r t , I d w e l l i n t h e w o rld p e rc e iv in g i t t obe f i n i t e - by th a t I know t h i s . '* T h is i s th e f i r s t case
th e seco nd c as e a l s o i s s im i la r t o t h i s , d i f f e r i n g o nly
in conc lus ion which runs thus : In f in i t e i s the w or ld ,
w ithou t a l im it . Thdse rec lu se s and Brahma^as who say i t
i s f i n i t e , so t h a t a p a th c ou ld be t r a c e d round i t , a r e
wrong.*,
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The third case is also similar, save that the
conclusion there is that he imagines the world limited in
the upward and downward directions but infinite across,
and the person declares both the former conclusions to. be
xtfrong.*
In the fourth case, some recluse or Brahmana
is addicted to logic and reasoning. He gives utterance to
the following conclusion of his own \ beaten out by his
arguments and based on his Sophistry : '* This world is
neither finite nor yet infinite. Those recluses and Brahma-
nas who maintain either the first or the second, or the
third conclusion are wrong, neither is the world finite
nor is it infinite16. (Dial of the Buddha p. 35,36).
These are the eight views regarding the past.
Then there are forty four views regarding the future. Among
them, those who hold the doctrine of a conscious existence
after death maintain it in sixteen "ways, that the soul
after death is. conscious . They say thus of the soul1*. The
soul after death, not subject to decay and conscious, Cl)
tphas form, (2) is formless, (3) has and has not form,(4)-
^neither has form, nor has not form, (5) is finite, (6) is
infinite, (7) is both} (8) is neither, (9) has one mode
of consciousness.(lo) has various modes of consciousness1 S*
(11) has limited consciousness,(12) has infinite consciousness^
(13) is altogether happy?(14) is altogether1 miserable, (15)-
both (16) is neither.
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.300 Then there are the recluses and Brahmanas, who in
eight ways maintain that the soul after death is unconscious
They say thus of the soul : n The soul, after death, not
subject to decay and unconsciousness (1) has form (2) is
formless (3) has and has not form (4) neither has nor
has not form (5) is finite (6) is infinite (7) is both
(8) is neither. 1
Similarly there are those recluses and Brahmanas
who maintain in these dame eight ways that the soul after death
is neither conscious nor unconscious.
Then there are Annihilationalists who in seven
ways maintain the cutting off, the destruction, the anni
hilation of a living being. This same is the view of the
Ucchedavadins, which we have discussed above.
So also there are the -wrigglers?? who, when
asked, wriggle like eels and do not give a definite answer
in the affirmative or in the negative. Then there are some
views regarding the doctrine of happiness In this life and
regarding complete Salvation etc., of which we need not give
details as they are not quite similar to the views we have
to ddal with.
We find in the Brahmajala sutta all these views
in detail. All are called extremists, who hold extreme views,
e. g. - the world is eternal, or that the world is non-eternal
and so on.
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' Qfii
Buddha himself never suggests any solution to
the disputed problems. For him, all the|e were equally
heretical views. The relationship between these views and
heretical views given in the Nyaya Sutras will be examined
later on.
The fifth and the sixth questions pertain to
the Taj j ivataccharlravada. Buddha hardly gives any details
regarding it but we shall see that the Jaina canonical
literature treats it at length and while dealing with it,
we will show the characteristics of this view there.
The last four views are also mentioned in the
Majjhima Nikaya (3.2), and in the Samyutta Nikaya, 16.12,
22. 86, 44. 1.
In the Potthapada Sutta Buddha explains why he
does not answer these questions. So also in the Cula
MSlunkya Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya (2.13), he says that
it is not so that only after one forms a belief in the
eternity or non eternity of the world that righteous conduct
(brahmacarlyavaso) is possible. Buddha then declares that
it is not on the truth of any of these alternatives that the
practice of religious life depends.** There is still birth,
there is old age, there is death, grief, lamentation,
suffering, sorrow and despair of which I preach the destruction
1even in this present life**.
1. Majjhima Nikaya 2.2.3.
I
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Therefore, he asks his disciples to hear in mind,
what he has not determined, as undetermined. And why did
Buddha not say anything about these problems ? The answer
he himself gives is that he did so because ** these are not
useful, are not concerned with the principle of religious
life, ant do. hot tend to revulsion, absence of passion,
cessation, tranquility, insight, enlightenment, and
1 - Nirvana.'*'
In the same breath, Vatsagotra asks Buddha if
he accepts any of the ten views which were then in vogue.
The Buddha says that the view that the world is eternal is
a false one and it is not useful for the final emaneipation. ,
Then the Buddha says the same thing as regards the view that
the world is non-eternal, that it is finite, that it is/
infinite, that the soul is different from the body.
InMajjhim Nik ay a (2.22). Buddha giving an example
explains to Vafesagotra that the body with which one might define
a Tathagata, passes away, is cut off the roof, uprooted like
a palm^ree, made non-existent, not liable to rise again in
the future. A Tathagata (soul) released from what is called
body etc. is profound, immeasurable, hard to fathdm, like
the great ocean. It does not fit in With the case to say
that he is reborn or not reborn or both reborn and not reborn
or .neither reborn nor not reborn.**
1. Majjhima Nikaya, 2.22
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fhe Majjhim Nikaya (3.2) ( Ncxiq gctf ) gives
different views regarding the condition of the soul after
ddath. The views regarding the eternity or non-eternity
of the soul and the world, regarding the finiteness of the
world etc. etc., are also given there. But they need not
be mentioned here as they are treated in almost the same way,
as described earlier.
The Khuddaka Nikaya and the Dhammasangani also
.mention these views (ditthis^.
Tn the Samyutta Nikaya 92.5, Vatsa asks Buddha,
why some hold that the world is eternal or that it is non
eternal and so on. Buddha explaining this to him, says
that, those people regard Rupa to be the soul, soul as
being endowed with Rupay soul as being in the rupa.- This is
the case with Vedana, samjna, samskara and njnana also.
This is^ why when asked, they state that the soul and the
world are eternal,
_ 2The Samyutta Nikaya describes each of their views
in a separate Sutta. And then, in 33.1, it is stated that
because of rupa because of Vedahi, because of Samjna,
1. cf. Kuddakanikaya Pali, p. 142.
and Dhammasangani pali, pp. 247, 262, 272 &285.
2. Samyutta Nikaya 24.10-24-96).
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