i
Creating Word-Consciousness
at the Intermediate Level: A Study
By
Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh
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About the Author
X
Name: Dr. Shirin Shaikh
Educational Qualification: M.A., M.Phil, Ph.D, SET
Designation: Assistant Professor
Dr. Shirin Shaikh is an Assistant Professor in the
subject of English in Poona College of Arts, Science and Commerce,
Pune. She has an experience of more than 14 years in the field of
teaching English as a second language at undergraduate as well as
post-graduate level. She has completed her international Certification
in TESOL/TEFL with distinction from Oxford Seminars, Houston,
Texas, U.S.A. She is a Global Professional Member of TESOL
International Association. She is also a founder member of My
Incubation Center, Institute of Advance Studies in English. She is a visiting faculty in several Post Graduate Centers in Pune.
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About the book
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The main aim of this book is to connect in a straightforward way
the growing body of second language vocabulary research with
teacher actions in classrooms.
Words are pervasive in our life. The words that we use
express and shape our identity. Our vocabulary gives away our
social and educational background. It is a major factor in
determining what we understand. It opens or closes access to
sources of information that will impact our future. Today
vocabulary acquisition is considered an integral area of language
teaching by linguists, teachers and researchers. They have come to
understand the role of lexicon in language learning and
communication. Therefore during the past three decades, the field
of second language acquisition has seen renewed interest in
vocabulary learning. But the scene was different few decades ago.
For many years vocabulary was considered unimportant in
language teaching. Its neglect in part may be due to specialisation
in linguistic research on syntax and phonology. This may have
fostered a climate in which vocabulary was considered an
unimportant element in the learning of a second or foreign
language. This view largely dominated the 1940’s, 1950’s and
1960’s. The period between 1940-60 was an uncertain period for
vocabulary as an aspect of language teaching. In this period
vocabulary was seen mainly as a problem of selection and
gradation for the target learners. It was only in 1970’s that
vocabulary was given some place of importance in language
teaching but still it was considered less important when compared
with syntax and phonology.
For years, second language learners have complained about
their lack of vocabulary in their new language. During this time,
experts in our field did not give much importance to vocabulary.
However, since the mid-1990s there has been a renewed interest in
research on second language vocabulary issues such as student
v
needs, teaching techniques, learner strategies, incidental learning
and vocabulary for specific purpose.
Today lexical knowledge is acknowledged to be central to
communicative competence and the acquisition and development
of second language.
This study is probably the first systematic attempt to
expand the students’ active vocabulary and to create word-
consciousness in the classroom. The aim of the present study is to
examine students’ knowledge of vocabulary at the college level
and note the problem areas and follow the eclectic method to
increase the students’ word power in order to enable them to use
more precise words instead of general ones. The students are
taught words in lexical sets for quick expansion of vocabulary and
they are also made to consider the paradigmatic and syntagmatic
relations of words for better understanding of word meanings.
Chapter I of this book deals with English as an international
language and its position in India today. It also highlights the
importance of vocabulary, aspects of vocabulary and the principles
of selection and gradation of vocabulary. Chapter II reviews the
work already done in the field of vocabulary. Chapter III focuses
on the aims and procedure adopted in the present study. It also
highlights techniques of teaching new words and expanding
vocabulary. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data collected.
The relative difficulty level of different questions in the pre-test
and the post-test, the students’ progress in the use of vocabulary
and the conclusions of the study are presented in this chapter.
I sincerely hope that the present study and the discussions
will have an impact on the way teachers and learners view the
teaching and learning of vocabulary in a second language.
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Contents
Chapter -1 :: Introduction 1-16
1.1 English as an International Language…………………………………..1
1.2 English in India Today…………………………………………..............2
1.3 The Term ‘Vocabulary’ and its Importance………………………….....4
1.4 Aspects of Vocabulary…………………………………………..............5
1.5 Factors Contributing to the Meaning of an Utterance………………….6
1.6 Classification of Words……………………………………………..…...8
1.7 Types of Vocabulary…………………………………………………......9
1.8 The Students’ Problem………………………………………………….10
1.9 Selection of Vocabulary……………………………………………...…11
1.10 Gradation of Vocabulary………………………………………………..12
1.11 Methods of Teaching New Vocabulary………………………................13
Chapter -2 :: Review of the Work Done 17-32
2.1 Earlier Research in the Field of Vocabulary…………………………....17
2.2 A Test of the P.U.C. Students’ Vocabulary in Chota Nagpur (1961) by
Helen Bernard…………………………………………………………...19
2.3 An Investigation into the Teaching of Vocabulary in the First Year of
English (1962) by J.N. Kachroo………………………………………...20
2.4 Vocabulary Learning: The Use of Grids (1983) by P.D. Harvey……...21
2.5 Advanced Vocabulary Teaching: The Problem of Synonyms (1984) by
Marilyn Martin………………………………………………………….23
2.6 The Keyword Method: An Alternative Vocabulary Strategy for
Developmental College Readers (1985) by Judy Roberts and Nancy
Kelly…………………………………………………………………….25
2.7 Long-term Retention of Vocabulary After Keyword and Context
Learning (1987) by Mark A. Mc Daniel, Michae Pressley and Paul
Dunay…………………………………………………………………...26
2.8 Poor Language Learners and their Strategies for Dealing with New
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Vocabulary (1988) by Graeme Porte…………………………………...28
2.9 Teaching Vocabulary by Oral Translation (1989) by Pal Heltai……….28
2.10 Two Approaches to Vocabulary Instruction: TheTeaching of Individual
Word Meanings and Practice in Deriving Word Meaning from Context
(1989) by Joseph R. Jenkins, Barbara Matlock and Timothy A.
Slocum………………………………………………………………… 29
2.11 The Semantico-Functional Variability of Words and Teaching of
Vocabulary to Advanced EFL Students (1989) by Irina Kerim–Zade and
Vladimir Pavlov…………………………………………………… 30
Chapter - 3 :: Aims and Procedure 33- 44
3.1 Aims…………………………………………………………………….33
3.2 Eclectic Method………………………………………………………....33
3.3 Techniques of Expanding Vocabulary………………………………….35
3.4 Scope……………………………………………………………………37
3.5 Procedure………………………………………………………………..38
3.6 Data for the Present Study……………………………………................41
3.7 Method of Gradation According to the Questionwise Performance…..42
3.8 Method of Gradation According to the Overall Performance…………43
Chapter- 4 :: Analysis of the Data and Conclusions 45-56
4.1 Lexical Structure: A Major Consideration……………………………..45
4.2 The Relative Difficulty Level of Different Questions …………………48
4.3 The Pre-Test Results……………………………………………………52
4.4 Shortcomings of the Students…………………………………………..52
4.5 The Post-Test Results…………………………………………………..53
4.6 The Overall Progress in the Use of Vocabulary……………………….53
4.7 Findings about the Pre-Test and Post-Test Results……………………54
4.8 Conclusions……………………………………………………………..55
4.9 Suggestions for Teachers……………………………………………….55
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Appendix – I……………………………………………………………57-60
Appendix – II…………………………………………………………...61-64
Appendix - III…………………………………………………………...65-66
Appendix - IV…………………………………………………………...67-68
Appendix - V…………………………………………………………...69-70
Bibliography…………………………………………………………….71-76
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Chapter1
1.1 English as an International Language
English holds a place of supreme importance as an international
language. It is the most widely used language in the world. A Chinese
and a Japanese almost automatically find themselves conversing in
English. Similarly, the crew of a Russian airliner approaching Cairo use
English to ask for landing instructions. These examples show that the use
of English is not restricted to any English-speaking country. The
significant aspect of English is its unprecedented distribution. It is the
first language of the countries like the United Kingdom, the United
States of America, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. It is the first
language of more than 320 million people. According to Kachru (1983),
‘A significant segment of the world’s population uses it as their other
tongue (as a second or foreign language. It is this side of English which
has actually elevated it to the status of an international (or universal)
language’.
There is a significant increase in the demand for English as a
foreign language in countries like Russia and China. English is a
language that informs us about the progress that has been made or is
being made in various fields anywhere in the world. English provides
access to the scientific and technical knowledge indispensable for the
political and economic development of the vast areas of the world. It is a
window that reveals to us the various facets of life.
The importance of English and its international status are
obvious when we compare the use of English in Shakespeare’s time with
that at present. In 1600, the sentences ‘He speaks English’ and ‘He is
Introduction
Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study
2
English’ were considered to have the same meaning. English was almost
unknown outside the British Isles and it was by no means a universally
spoken language. The increase in the number of English speakers in the
world since Shakespeare’s times is in itself a reflection of the importance
of the language. Today English enjoys worldwide distribution and
immense popularity. Sinclair (1985) asserts that English is ‘no longer the
exclusive province of the native speakers’. It is no longer the language of
its native country only but has attained the status of the world language.
1.2 English in India Today
English was introduced in India by the British. Before independence the
goal set before the students of English was that of mastering the language
in order to know the English life, thoughts and literature for developing
their sensibility and expression. But after independence the goal has been
to use it as a tool to obtain up-to-date knowledge in various subjects.
The use of English in India which started as a ‘historico-political
accident’ seems to have become an economic-academic reality. Today it
occupies a place of supreme importance in India as a developing country.
It is the first language of the Anglo-Indians and it is a second language
for a large number of Indians. It is estimated that more than 18 million
Indians use English as a necessary part of their daily lives. In a few
Indian states and Union Territories English has been adopted as the
official language.
When India became independent, it was decided that Hindi
would be the official language. But in 1965, the Indian Government in
the face of bloodshed in Madras and a few other places had to assure the
people that English would continue to be used for the official purposes.
This decision was taken because Hindi was not accepted as a national
language as it was hoped. At present English seems to be the only
language that tends to encourage unity.
English is of great importance to India for the following reasons.
(a) In India different states have their own regional languages as
mediums of instruction and English is a link language used by
Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh
3
these states to communicate. People belonging to different states
use English to exchange their thoughts and express their
emotions. Thus English is a unifying factor.
(b) It acquaints us with the thoughts of the English-speaking people.
It connects us with the Commonwealth, the UNO and other
foreign agencies. It also caters to our needs in foreign trades.
(c) English is the language of science and technology and so all
standard books on science and technology are available in
English but they are not available in Indian languages and
translation would never keep pace with the fast advancements in
science and technology.
(d) English still continues to be the language of competitive
examinations. It is also used at the higher levels of
administration. English is no longer a foreign language for
Indians. The Indians have a respectable literature of their own,
known as Indo-English literature. English is still the language of
the intelligentsia in India.
(e) As an international language, it serves as a link among the
countries of the world. It helps to bring the people of different
countries into close contact with each other.
The Radhakrishnan Commission emphasised the importance of
English, as it is a language rich in literature – scientific, technical and
humanistic. To give up English means to cut ourselves from the living
stream of ever-growing knowledge. This in turn would result in
deterioration of the standards of our scholarship. According to the
Radhakrishnan University Education Report (1948-49) English is the
only means of preventing our isolation from the world and we will act
unwisely if we allow ourselves to be enveloped in a dark curtain of
ignorance. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru did not agree to the idea of
discarding English. He considered English as a window on the world of
technology and wanted to give it statutory recognition as an Indian
language.
Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study
4
1.3 The Term ‘Vocabulary’ and its Importance
In any language-teaching situation, four constituents are taken into
consideration. They are sound, structure, meaning and vocabulary. The
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2000) defines
vocabulary as, ‘all the words that someone knows, learns or uses’.
Sound, structure, meaning and vocabulary hold an equal place of
importance, but according to Morris (1964), ‘viewed in the right
perspective as a concomitant feature of the language abilities, vocabulary
is unquestionably a major consideration’.
Vocabulary is considered important because even if one wants to
frame a few sentences, one needs a stock of vocabulary. According to
Thorat et al. (2000), ‘Words are the building blocks of language’. Our
efficiency in using any particular language depends on the number of
words we know in that language. If we know more words, we can use the
language more efficiently. On other hand, if we know only a few words,
we are likely to manage with the words we know and that may lead to
using inappropriate words or using more words to convey the same
meaning. In short, if one does not know the words of a language, one
cannot use the language efficiently.
Regarding the importance of vocabulary, Spender (1980) rightly remarks
‘In order to live in the world, we must name it. Names are essential for
the construction of reality for without a name it is difficult to accept the
existence of an object, an event, a feeling. Naming is the means whereby
we attempt to order and structure the chaos and flux of existence which
would otherwise be an undifferentiated mass. By assigning names we
impose a pattern and a meaning which allows us to manipulate the
world.’
In the initial stages more attention is needed to the accuracy of
sound, rhythm and structural form, so vocabulary may be restricted to a
few words. But in higher classes it is important to enlarge the students’
vocabulary. The students at the undergraduate level are in a better
position to enlarge their vocabulary because at this level the students
know the sound system, sentence patterns and common words reasonably
well. It is also the right time to create word-consciousness among the
Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh
5
students. The students at the undergraduate level feel a strong need to
enlarge their vocabulary as they are expected to express their ideas more
effectively.
1.4 Aspects of Vocabulary
There are different aspects of vocabulary. Many of these aspects have
been posited by Richards (1976) and reinforced by Taylor (1990). They
are as follows.
(a) Knowledge of Word Frequency
Knowledge of word frequency means knowing the degree of probability
of encountering a word in speech or in print. Some words in English are
more frequently used in speech than in writing. For example, words such
as ‘actually’ and ‘well’ are used more frequently in speech than in
writing, whereas words like ‘former’ and ‘latter’ occur more often in
written language. The words having high frequency form the ‘Core’
Vocabulary.
(b) Knowledge of Register
According to Taylor (1990), knowledge of register means ‘knowing the
limitations imposed on the use of the word according to variations of
function and situation’. For example, ‘Would you like to have a
cigarette?’ is a neutral formula as it is suitable in most contexts.
However, ‘Want a fag?’ may be an acceptable utterance among friends
but if made to a stranger or a person of high authority, it would be
considered impolite. It is important to label words as formal or informal
in order to avoid the use of formal words in informal situations and vice
versa. But at the elementary level, the teacher should introduce neutral
terms, as they are capable of generalisations.
(c) Knowledge of Collocation
Knowledge of collocation means knowing the syntactic behaviour of a
word and also knowing the network of associations between that word
Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study
6
and the other words in the language. For example, the word ‘overtake’ is
a verb, normally a transitive verb followed by article + noun or pronoun.
It is likely to occur in the context of transport, with items such as ‘lane’,
‘car’ and ‘speed’.
(d) Knowledge of Morphology
Morphology is the study of word formation. The knowledge of
morphology is important as it includes the meaning of prefixes, suffixes
and identification of word classes. Many items of specialised vocabulary
consist of the root plus a prefix or suffix. For example, the word
‘unfaithful’ consists of the root ‘faith’, the prefix ‘un-’ and the suffix ‘-
ful’.
(e) Knowledge of Semantics
Knowledge of semantics means knowing what the word denotes and also
what the word connotes. According to Abrams (1993), ‘the denotation of
a word is its primary significance or reference, such as a dictionary
mainly specifies; its connotation is the range of secondary or associated
significances and feelings which it commonly suggests or implies’ (p.
36). For example, the word ‘home’ denotes the house where one lives,
but connotes cosiness, privacy and intimacy. Similarly, one must know
the different meanings associated with a word. For example, three
different meanings of ‘still’ are expressed in the following sentences.
(i) John is in Australia but his brother is still in London.
(ii) Stand still or they will shoot you.
(iii) A still is needed in the production of sugar.
The teacher at the elementary level should ignore certain
homographs but at an advanced level they must be dealt with. This helps
in clearing ambiguities.
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