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AP Psych Prep 6Learning
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Introduction to Learning
Learning - long lasting change in
behaviour that comes about because of
our experience
Learning is measured by looking for
change in behaviour; change inbehaviour is OFTEN evidence of
learning.
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Overview:
Well look at a few types of learning.
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Perspectives on Learning
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Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov - Russian
physiologist - studied
digestion in dogs.
He wasnt trying to study learning, but he
found principles of classical conditioning
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Pavlovs Dogs
Dogs were fed, and a bell was rung. Pavlov
found that dogs started to salivate (drool) along
with the bell; the two became connected.
Humans and non-human animals can
associate a reflexive behaviour with a neutralstimulus (one that normally does not cause a
behaviour)
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Classical Conditioning
TerminologyUnconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS) -
original, natural stimulus (e.g. food)
Unconditioned Response (UR or UCR) -
the original, natural response to the US
(e.g. salivating / drooling)
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Classical Conditioning
The result is learning or acquisition.
Order of stimulus presentation andtiming can influence acquisition
Some patterns of training are more
effective than others
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Training Patterns:
Delayed Conditioning - ring bell, and while it is
still ringing, give food. (Very Effective)
Trace Conditioning - ring bell, wait a shortperiod, then give food (not a bad method)
Simultaneous Conditioning - ring bell and give
food at the same time (also not bad)
Backward Conditioning - give food first, and
then ring bell (least effective method)
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Other Conditioning Concepts:
Extinction - unlearning. If you ring the bell
without giving food, eventually the
association between the two will fade, andthe CR will stop appearing
Spontaneous recovery - where after
extinction, the CS brings about the CR
again for some reason. Why is not
understood well yet.
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Extinction and Sp. Recovery
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Other Conditioning Concepts:
Generalization - learned responses are
often elicited by stimuli that are similar to
the CS (e.g. different bells) (See LittleAlbert)
But can be trained to Discriminate between
different stimuli and respond only to thethe right one. (ring diff bells, dont give
food; ring right bell, give food)
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Example: Little Albert
Little Albert was a very young boy, who
was conditioned by the researchers John
Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
They taught him to be afraid of a white
rat.
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Little Albert
Fear of the white rat
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Little Albert
Even generalized to other similarstimuli, things that were white and
fluffy or hairy
Cl i l A i
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Classical: Aversive
Conditioning
Aversive Conditioning - conditioning using negative
stimuli
e.g. Antabuse is a drug that stops alcoholfrom being broken down in your body; causes
nausea, vomiting, headache, and other
symptoms if you drink alcohol.
People will associate those negative symptoms with
drinking, and will eventually stop drinking because
of this association.
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Second-Order (or higher-order)
conditioning
This is where you first condition with one
stimulus (e.g. bell), and then use that stimulus
to condition another.
e.g. once bell causes you to drool, you start
pairing the bell with a smell. After some trials,the smell alone can cause you to drool (even
though smell and food were never together)
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Biological Influences on
Classical Conditioning
Some responses are easier to
condition than others
It seems we are biologically more
prepared to make some connectionsthan others.
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John Garcia and Robert
Koelling Experiment
Easier to condition
reactions to some
things that make moresense in the natural
world
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Classical Conditioning
Application
Learned Taste Aversion - if you eat / drink
something, and then become sick (especially
nausea, vomiting), you will pair the taste of the
new thing and the nauseous feeling.
Can happen very quickly and strongly (even with
only one pairing)
Thought to be adaptive, to help us survive. Will
prevent us from eating potentially dangerous
things in the future.
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Classical Conditioning Application
Learned Taste Aversion can happen even if the
food or drink is no t real ly connected to the sick
feeling.
E.g. you eat something, and then an hour later you
feel sick and vomit because of a flu
Your mind will still try to stop you from eating that
food again. If you see or smell it later you will
probably feel sick.
L d T t
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Learned Taste
AversionCan be used to
train predators not
to kill and eat our
animals.
E.g. A farmer might kill one sheep, and inject a mild
poison into it. Then coyote or wolves eat it, and then
get sick. They will then avoid eating sheep in the
future. The farmer doesnt have to kill the predator
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2. Operant Conditioning
Based on consequences of
actions, instead of associating
stimuli with responses.
(Big difference: neutral stimulibefore/during vs. punishment or
reward after.)
Th dik P l
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Thorndike - Puzzle
BoxesEdward Thorndike - An early operant conditioning
researcher.
Used puzzle boxes and studied cats ability tolearn how to escape them for food.
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Puzzle Boxes
Cats who escaped were rewarded with food. This
makes the behaviours that cause escape to become
more likely, increasing speed of escape.
Law of Effect - pleasant consequences = increased
likelihood of that behaviour
unpleasant consequences - decreased likelihood ofthat behaviour
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8
B F Skinner Skinner
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8 -
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B.F. Skinner - SkinnerBox
Used special boxes to experiment
on rats and pigeons.
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Skinner Box
reinforcer - a positive consequence
reinforcement - act of giving positive conseq.
Reinforcement - anything that makes behaviour
more likely.
Can be positive reinforc. - give good thing
Or negative reinforc. - take away bad thing
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Punishment
Punishment - makes behaviour less likely
Positive punishment - adding a negative thing.
e.g. punching your friend if they bother you
Negative punishment (omission training) - takingaway something good. e.g. dont study, parents
take away T.V. privileges
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Conditioning
Both punishment and reinforcement can be used
to alter behaviour
Shaping can be used to get subject to do whatyou want. When you reward small steps in the
direction of
the behaviouryou want.
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Conditioning
Chaining is similar to shaping, but here you reward
in order to teach a number of ordered behaviours.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kfxI9HXA_8&feature=related
Shaping - to get to one complex behaviour,
Chaining - to get multiple behaviours
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kfxI9HXA_8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kfxI9HXA_8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kfxI9HXA_8&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kfxI9HXA_8&feature=related -
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Types of Reinforcers
Extinction, spontaneous recovery, discrimination
and generalization also happens with operant
conditioning
Primary Reinforcers vs. Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers - are naturally reinforcing ontheir own. e.g. food, water, sleep, air,
Secondary Reinforcers - things we have learned to
value. e.g. praise, getting to watch a movie,
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Types of Reinforcers
Generalized Reinforcers (a kind of secondary
reinforcer) - are reinforcers that have been
paired with other reinforcers, and are
reinforcing because they can provide access to
a lot of other reinforcers.
E.g. Money, tokens
in token economy.
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Types of Reinforcers
Token Economy - tokens that function
as money given as reward for desired
behaviour.Used in experiments with
people and animals (e.g.
chimps) but also used
practically in schools and prisons.
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Premack Principle
Some people like some things but not
others.
Dramas, reading, etc.
Premack Princ. - an enjoyed activity can be used
to reinforce a less enjoyed activity (dependent on
persons preferences)
If you do _____, you can do ______
Reinforcement
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ReinforcementSchedules
Different rates of reinforcement are possible
Ratio Schedules - reinforcement based on the number of
times the behaviour happens
Interval Schedules - reinforce based on how much time has
passed
Variable Schedules - change time or # of responses for each
reward
Fixed Schedules - same time or # of responses for each
reward
Reinforcement
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ReinforcementSchedules
Those can be mixed to make:
Fixed Ratio (FR) - the same number of behaviours
will bring reward (e.g. every 5 behaviours (FR-5),
every 10, every 7, etc
Variable Ratio (VR) - after different number ofbehaviours, give reward. (e.g. VR-10 - after 10, then
5, then 15, then 8, then 12 [10 is average])
Reinforcement
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ReinforcementSchedules
Fixed Interval (FI) - after a certain time, behaviour
will be reinforced again. (e.g. you need to wait for
one hour each time before youre rewarded again
FI-60min)
Variable Interval (VI) - after different amounts oftime the behaviour is rewarded again (e.g. after 10
min, 20 min, 13 min, 17 min, etc. [VI-15min])
Reinforcement
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ReinforcementSchedules
Partial-reinforcement effect - if you dont reward after
each behaviour, it will be less likely to quickly go
extinct.
Variable schedules
are more resistant
to extinction, but
ratio schedules
make the behaviour
occur more often.
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Biology and Operant Conditioning
It can be very hard to teach animals to
do things that are very different from their
normal behaviours.
called Instinctive Drift - behaviours drift
towards their instinctive behaviours.
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Cognitive Learning
Psychologists who believe that thinking (cognition) is
involved in learning
Classical Conditioning - Contiguity (togetherness)
Model (traditional classical; ignores thoughts)
vs.
Contingency Model - includes thinking;
humans/animals form cognitive expectations that
affect our learning
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Observational Learning (or Modelling)
Learning by watching. We can watch others behaviour,
and learn how to do things, and what the consequences
for those actions could be.
Studied by Albert Bandura - Classic Study - Bobo Dolls
studies
Children exposed to aggressive or non-aggressive play,
and then allowed to play with the same toys.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU -
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Observational Learning (or Modelling)
Obs. Learning has two steps: observing, and mimicking.
Requires some kind of cognition. The image of thebehaviour has to come into the mind of the observer if
they are going to mimic.
Many worry a lot about observational learning because
of violent media: TV, movies, video games, etc.
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Latent Learning
Latent learning - Learning that remains hidden, until its
needed.
Edward Tolman - study with rats in a maze. Some rats
were rewarded, some were not. If not rewarded, they
didnt do well, but they still learned about the maze.Therefore later when they were rewarded, they could
do the maze more easily. They learned, but only
applied the learning when they needed it.
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Latent Learning
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Abstract Learning
Learning about concepts, rather than just actions.
Some evidence that animals can understand concepts.
e.g. pigeons taught the concept of tree by rewarding
if they pecked pictures of trees. Then when showed
new trees, they would still peck the trees. They didnt
just memorize, but seemed to understand what a tree
was.
Teaching to apply other mental concepts like same-
different, or use math also possible.
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Insight Learning
When you suddenly realize what the solution to a
problem is. It doesnt seem like you went through a
step by step process; you dont know, and then
suddenly you know.
Some think this happens because of unconscious
processing; brain works in the background.
Remembering can seem to work this way too
sometimes. e.g. someones name.
Insight Learning
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Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler studied learning in
chimpanzees. Banana problem, they would
mostly be unproductive, not seeming to try the
trial and error method that would be supported
by operant conditioning, then due to an insight,
they would suddenly solve the problem.
Classical and Operant
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Classical and Operant
Conditioning Videos
Classical Conditioning situation from
The Office
And Operant Conditioning situation fromThe Big Bang Theory
Learning
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Learning
Classical, Operant, and Cognitive perspectives
on learning can show us some of the basic
principles of how we learn and start to form
complicated behaviours.
Next well look at more complicated mental
functioning, Cognition.