ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL GREECE

CIVILIZATION COMES TO EUROPE

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY • The Land

– Mountains dominate land; cross land travel difficult

– Fertile river valleys were center of settlement

– River valleys formed basis of polis

– No place more than a few miles from sea

– Outdoor life common due to temperate climate

• The Sea – Greece is a series of peninsulas, islands

– Sea travel easier than land communication

– Most Greeks took to the sea

• Economy – Agriculture: Grains, honey, olives, grapes

– Herding: Goats, sheep, cattle

– Trade: Necessary to make up for lack of resources

PHYSICAL MAP OF AREA

MINOAN SOCIETY • Knossos

– Minoan society arose on Crete, late 3rd millennium B.C.E. – Takes name from legendary king of Knossos, Minos – Lavish palaces at Knossos, between 2000 and 1700 B.C.E. – Linear A, a kind of written language, is found

• Island of Crete – From 2200 to 1450 B.C.E., center of Mediterranean commerce – Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt – Established colonies on Cyprus and islands in the Aegean Sea

• Society – Much evidence of egalitarian society; women had rights – Agriculture was important: grapes, olives, fishing, wheat – Trade was very important: marble, artifacts, cloth

• Decline of Minoan Society – After 1700 B.C.E., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis – After 1450 B.C.E., wealth attracted a number of invaders – By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign (Hellenic) domination

THE ISLAND OF CRETE

MYCENAEAN GREECE • Mycenaean society

– Indo-European immigrants settled in area, 2000 B.C.E.

– Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script Linear B

– Fortified agricultural settlements in Peloponnesus

– Most important settlement was Mycenae

– Society resembled Aryan: emphasis on war, trade

– Kingdoms ruled by strongest of nobles; constant strife

• Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean 1100 to 800 BCE – Mycenaeans engaged in Trojan war, about 1200 B.C.E.

• Troy may have been a Hittite city-state and trade rival

• Tomb of Agamemnon, Troy excavated by von Schliemann

• Recorded by Homer in the Illiad and the Odyssey

– More invasions by Hellenic tribes

– “Sea Peoples” • Later Hellenic invaders moved by sea along coasts

• Seemed to have raided into Palestine, Egypt as Philistines

ANCIENT GREECE

THE GREEK DARK AGES

• 800 TO 500 BCE

– Called Dark Ages due to loss of writing

– Age remembered through oral traditions

– A period of migration and warfare

– Hellenes spread to Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, Cyprus

• The Hellenes

– Indo-Europeans who settled in area

– Tribes include Dorians, Attics, Achaeans

– Originally aristocratic societies

– Warfare, slavery, and trade common

GREEK TRIBES

THE POLIS • Greek City-State

– Polis = city-state; Poleis = city-states

– Metropolis = city of polis

– Acropolis = fortified center of city

– Boundaries shaped by geography

– Terms of politics come from POLIS • Politics, politic, politician, polite, polity

• Police, metropolis, metroplex

• Most important – Athens

– Sparta

POLIS OF ATTICA

POLITICAL FORMS • Archon: Greek for “ruler” – English “archy”

• Kratien: Greek for “to rule” – English “cracy” – Demos: People – Democracy (direct election)

– Aristos: The Best – Aristocracy (nobles)

– Oligos: The Few – Oligarchy (rule by select few)

– Monos: One – Monarchy (rule by a king)

– Di: Two – Diarchy (Sparta’s state had 2 kings)

– An: None – Anarchy (No government)

– Theos: God – Theocracy (Rule by priests, religion)

– Geron: Old Man – Gerontocracy (rule by elderly)

– Pater: Father – Patriarchy (rule by males)

– Mater: Mother – Matriarchy (rule by women)

– Auto: Self – Autocracy (dictatorial rule)

– Tyrannos: Tyrant – Tyranny (rule by a dictator)

– Ethnos: Ethnic or locals – Ethnarchy (rule by the local people)

SPARTA • Sparta

– Situated in a fertile region of the Peloponnesus

– Began to extend control during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.E.

– Reduced neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or servants

– By 6th century B.C.E., helots outnumbered Spartans by 10 to 1

– Maintained domination by a powerful military machine

• Spartan society – Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle

– Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent

– Commitment to military values was strong

– Society was a military aristocracy; state ruled by two kings

– Young boys, girls educated in military barracks

– After marriage, men still lived at barracks; women ran homes

– Women: surprisingly free in comparison to other Greek women

– All merchants were foreigners licensed by state

LACONIA: SPARTA

ATHENS • Athens

– Population growth, economic development caused political strain

– Sought to negotiate order by democratic principles

– Citizenship was open to free adult males

– Foreigners, slaves, and women had no rights

• Athenian society – Maritime trade brought about prosperity

– Aristocratic landowners were principal beneficiaries

– Owners of small plots began to sell lands, some became slaves

– Class tension became intensified, the 6th century B.C.E.

• Solon and Athenian democracy – Solon forged a compromise between the classes

– Opened polis councils for any male citizen

• Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.) – The most popular democratic leader of Athens – Ruled Athens during its Golden Age

GREECE & THE LARGER WORLD

• Greeks founded more than 400 colonies – Controlled Black, Aegean, Adriatic, Ionian Seas

– Settled Sicily, S. Italy, Corsica, France, Spain, Africa

– Settled Coasts of Yugoslavia, Albania, Turkey, Cyprus

• Effects of Greek colonization – Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands

– Facilitate exchanges between peoples, cultures

– Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions

– Stimulated development of surrounding areas

– Spread civilization to ancient, Neolithic areas

– Warfare increased

– Technology stimulated: naval, navigation, astronomy

THE GREEK WORLD

GREEK MILITARY • Based on citizen soldiers

– Lightly armed, armored foot soldiers (Hoplites) • Carry shields, long spear • All citizens had to furnish own arms, armor • All citizens expected to fight in army, navy • All citizens had military training in school

– Fought in massed formations called Phalanx • Very useful in rugged terrain; used 10’ long pikes • Easily defeats massed cavalry favored by others

• Greek navy – Rowed vessels called galleys

• Most famous was the trireme or three oar banked • Rowed by free citizens • Fought by ramming other vessels; than hand to hand

– Greek fleets included larger vessels

• Equites or mounted troops were aristocrats

THE PERSIAN WARS • The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)

– Cyrus and Darius controlled Anatolia

– Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted, 500 B.C.E.

– Darius’ Invasion • The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E.

• Greeks led by Spartans and Athens battled Persia to a draw

– Xerxes Invasion • To fight Persians, Athenians build a wall of wood, or a navy

• Xerxes seized, burned Athens

• Athenian navy destroys Persian in the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E.

• Persian army retreated back to Anatolia, 479 B.C.E.

• The Delian League – Alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat

– Military force from Athens, finance from other poleis

– As Persian threat subsided, poleis no longer wanted to participate

– Athens uses navy to turn Delian League into Athenian Empire

PELOPONNESIAN WAR • Pericles Rebuilds Athens

– Athens experiences a Golden Age

– Pericles turns Delian states into Athenian colonies

• 30 Year Civil War (431-404 B.C.E.) – Athens and Allies vs. Sparta and Allies

– Costly victories/defeats and plague wreck city

– Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.

• Hegemony first by Sparta and then by Thebes – Constant warfare between leagues, allies

– Spartan hegemony replaced by Theban

– Greece horribly weakened

– Athens remained intellectual center of Greece

RISE OF MACEDONIA • The kingdom of Macedon

– A frontier state north of peninsular Greece – Partially Hellenized society

• Philip of Macedon (re. 359-336 B.C.E.) – Built a powerful army, overcame the power of clan leaders – Began to offend Greece from 350 B.C.E. – Brought Greece under control by 338 B.C.E. – Murdered possibly by wife and son

• Alexander of Macedon and his conquests – Educated by Aristotle; gifted in many areas – At age 20, Alexander succeeded Philip – Invaded Persia, controlled Ionia and Anatolia, 333 B.C.E. – By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia – Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis – Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E.

– Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of 33

ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE

HELLENISTIC EMPIRES • The Hellenistic Era: Age of Alexander and his successors

– Saw a blending of Hellenic (Greek) and Asian, Egyptian traditions – A Greek layer of upper class ruled over an Asians, Egyptians

• The Antigonid empire in Greece, Macedonia and Thrace – Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities – The economy of Athens flourished again through trade – Overpopulation, many moved to the Seleucid empire

• The Ptolemaic empire ruled Egypt, Cyprus, often Holy Land – The wealthiest of the Hellenistic empires – Greek rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society – Efficient organization of agriculture, industry, and taxation – Royal monopolies over textiles, salt, and beer – Alexandria

• The capital of Ptolemaic empire, at the mouth of the Nile • Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library

• The Seleucid empire Mesopotamia, Persia, India – More Greek influence than in Egypt – Greek, Macedonian colonists flocked to new Greek – Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society

• Parthians, Bactrians, Mauryans, Romans were all Hellenistic

HELLENISTIC WORLD

INTEGRATION OF MEDITERRANEAN

• Trade – Olive oil, wine, in exchange for grain and other items – Trade brought prosperity, population growth, colonization – Merchant ships with 400 tons capacity were common – Some cities relied more on commerce than on agriculture – Controlled slave markets of Eastern Mediterranean – Trade rivalry with Carthage in North Africa – Athenian silver drachma was common currency

• Panhellenic festivals – Sense of being Greek prevailed among all Greeks – Romans later admitted to Panhellenic, Olympic games – Colonists shared the same religion and language – Periodic panhellenic festivals reinforced their common bonds – Olympic games, the best known panhellenic festival

FAMILY AND SOCIETY • Greek society in Homer's works

– Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world – Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly – Highest achieve was arete

• Aristocracy (landed elites) vs. common – Over years, aristocracy gradually came to control most states – Held most of the social, political power

• Patriarchal society – Male family heads ruled households, could abandon newborns – Upper-class women wore veils in public, accompanied by servants – Women could not own land but could operate small business – Priestess was the only public position for women – Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis – Common occupation of women was cloth making

• Slavery – By law, slaves were private chattel property of their owners – Worked as agricultural laborers, domestic servants – Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen, business managers – Slaves were commonly prisoners of war

RATIONITY AND PHILOSOPHY • The formation of Greek cultural traditions

– From the 8th century, drew inspirations from Mesopotamia and Egypt – About 800 B.C.E., adapted the Phoenicians' alphabet to their own language – The Greek cultural feature: a philosophy based on human reason, rationality

• Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.) – An Athenian philosopher, determined to understand human beings – Encouraged reflection on ethics and morality

• Integrity was more important than wealth and fame • "The unexamined life is not worth living"

– Critical scrutiny to traditional ethical teachings – Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths

• Plato (430-347 B.C.E.) – A zealous disciple of Socrates – The theory of Forms or Ideas – His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings

• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) – Plato's disciple, but distrusted theory of Forms or Ideas – Devised rules of logic to construct arguments; father of western science – His Nicomedian Ethics became later basis in Christianity

• Legacy of Greek philosophy – Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until 17th century – Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians. – Provided a powerful intellectual framework for future generations

GREEK RELIGION & FINE ARTS • Greek Polytheism

– Atheism considered treason, illogical – Deities: Zeus, Athena, Apollo and many others – Worship tied to patriotism and civics of the polis – Public worship and house gods

• Various types of religious cults – Dionysian Rites – Oracle of Delphi

• The Theatre – Tragic drama (Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides)

• Dramas performed at annual theatrical festivals • Tragedians explored possibilities, limitations of human action

– Comic drama (Aristophanes) • Lampooned public and political figures

• Art and Architecture – Both were for public consumption and public enjoyment – Balance, proportion and rationality part of design

HELLENISTIC WORLD VIEWS • Hellenistic philosophers

– Epicureans • Identified pleasure as greatest good; freedom from turmoil, pressure

– Skeptics • Doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity

– Stoics • Taught individuals duty to aid others, lead virtuous lives

• Emphasized inner moral independence and tranquillity

• Cultivated by strict discipline of the body and mind.

• Religions of salvation – Many people felt no allegiance to old gods, beliefs

– Syncretism: Mixing of Greek, foreign beliefs

– Mystery religions • Promised eternal bliss for true believers

– Foreign Cults • Egyptian cult of Osiris became very popular

• Worship of Isis favored by women

– Speculation about a single, universal god emerged