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C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S
I R O N & S T E E L
2010 | Praveen Chompreda | Mahidol University2
O U T L I N E
Introduction
Manufacturing of Steel
Properties of Steel
Steel Products for Construction
Joining of Steel
Durability of Steel
Guggenheim Museum
Biblao, Spain
Source: Wikipedia
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I R O N
Iron is the 10th most abundant element in the universe
Iron accounts for about 35% of earths mass, most of it is in the inner core
Earth crust contains about 5% of iron, the 2nd most abundant metal (the
first being aluminum)
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I R O N
The relatively low cost of iron and its high strength make it the most-used
metal in the world. The majority of iron is in the form of steels, which are
alloys of iron with different metals and carbon.
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, the worlds longest bridge, is made of steel
Source: WikipediaSource: Wikipedia
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M A N U F A C T U R I N G O F S T E E L
Manufacturing of Steel
Iron Ore Pig Iron (Step 1)
Cast IronPig Iron Steel (Step II)
Steel Alloy
Forming of Steel (Step III)
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M A N U F A C T U R I N G O F S T E E L
The manufacturing of steel consists of 3 main phases
Reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron
Refining Pig Iron to Steel
Forming Steel into products
Iron Ore Pig Iron SteelSteel
ProductsBlast
Furnace
Basic
Oxygen
Furnace,etc
Blooming
Mill
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M A N U F A C T U R I N G O F S T E E L
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 8
I R O N O R E P I G I R O N ( S T E P 1 )
Iron does not occur in nature as pure metal, but as combinations with
oxygen or sulfur, called Iron Ore. The most common are hematite (Fe2O3),
magnetite (Fe3O4), or pyrite (FeS2)
3 main ingredients used in reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron are Coke (product
from Coal), Limestone, and Iron Ore Iron ore is converted to pig iron in the Blast Furnace
Hematite MagnetitePyrite (Fools Gold)Picture Source: Wikipedia
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I R O N O R E P I G I R O N
Iron is extracted from ore by removing theoxygen, usually by combining with carbon toproduce CO2
It takes about 5-8 hours from the loading ofmaterial at the top till the iron is obtained atthe bottom.
The process is done continuously thefurnace never shuts down.
To produce 1 ton of pig iron, it takes about1300 kg of iron ore, 600 kg of coke, 400 kgof limestone, 7300 kg of air, 22000 kg ofwater, and 27x106 BTU of heat.
Pig iron obtained from the blast furnacecannot be used by its own, due to its highcarbon content (about 3.5-4%). It has to beprocessed further to reduce the amount ofcarbon and to remove other impurities.
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I R O N O R E P I G I R O N Inside the blast furnace
The coke (from coal) reacts with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide (CO)
2 C + O2 2 CO
Carbon monoxide reacts with iron ore to become carbon dioxide (CO2)
3 CO + Fe2O3 2 Fe + 3 CO2
Limestone (CaCO3) is used as a flux (solvent) to help removing the impurities,such as silicon dioxide in the ore
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
The molten slag is lighter than the molten iron, so it floats on the top and can bedrawn off through an opening at the bottom of the furnace this can later be usedas cement replacement material in concrete (Recall GGBS = Ground GranulatedBlast Furnace Slag)
Slag
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C A S T I R O N
Cast iron is produced
by reheating pig iron
and remove some of
the impurities. It
contains about 2-4%of carbon
It can be cast into
molds
It is brittle and best
used in compression
rather than tension
Common applications
are pipes and fittings. Cast iron is difficult
to weld.
Source: Marotta (2005) 12
C A S T I R O N
4 main types
White cast iron: The carbon and iron
are in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C).
It is hard and very brittle so it is not
used as structural components. It
may be used where high resistance to
abrasion and wear is required. When
broken, the fracture surface appears
white.
Grey Cast Iron: The carbon is
present in the form of graphite flakes.
This graphite make it softer and
machineable, but it is still very brittle.
When broken, the fracture surface
appears grey. This is the most
common type of cast iron.
Cast Iron Pipe Fittings
Source: wikipedia
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C A S T I R O N
Ductile Iron or Spheroidal Graphite Iron: By adding some alloying elements and
the right casting procedure, the graphite in the grey cast iron may be induced to
form into spherulites (small spheres). This reduce the brittleness.
Malleable Iron: By applying heat treatment to the white cast iron, the nodules ofgraphite may be formed. This helps increase the strength and reduce brittleness.
Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge (1785), UK
Cast iron bridgeDecorative Cast Iron Gate
Source: wikipediaSource: wikipedia
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P I G I R O N S T E E L ( S T E P 2 )
Steel is an alloy of iron with some other metals, called alloying elements.
Alloying elements are added to improve properties of iron such as
hardness, elasticity, ductility, tensile strength, corrosion resistant, etc
Steel contains up to about 1.5% carbon Structural Steel contains up to about 0.25% carbon
Types
Mild Steel or Low Carbon Steel (C < 0.25%) this is the structural steel
Medium Carbon Steel or just Carbon Steel (0.3% < C < 0.6%)
High Carbon Steel (0.6% < C < 1.5%)
Alloy Steel (Steel + Alloying elements) eg. Stainless steel
3 main types of furnaces used in refining pig iron to steel
Open Hearth Furnace (Traditional)
Basic Oxygen Furnace (Most Popular)
Electric Arc
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P I G I R O N S T E E L
Molten pig iron and recycled steel are
dumped from the top.
Pure oxygen is blown with high
pressure into the furnace to stir things
up and cause rapid burning of
materials.
Limestone is added as a flux
Impurities are either removed as gases
(such as CO2) or as slag.
Alloying metals may be added to
produce special steel alloy
Basic oxygen furnace can refine about
300 tons of steel in under 30 minutes.
The molten steel may be cast into alarge prism called Ingot to be sent to
another factory to form into desired
shapes
Basic Oxygen Furnace
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P I G I R O N S T E E L
Molten pig iron is added to the top of
the Basic Oxygen Furnace
Steel Ingot
Source: wikipediaSource: wikipedia
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S T E E L A L L O Y
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 18
S T E E L A L L O Y
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)
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S T E E L
The largest producer in the world is China, followed by Japan and USA
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S T E E L
Today, most of the steel is from
recycled steel. This has some effects on
the chemical compositions of the
modern steel by having elements that
were not previously considered to be apart of normal steel chemistry
It is now become more difficult to find a
low-strength grade of steel. We tend to
get much higher actualstrength for the
lower-strengthgrade of steel.
Source: wikipedia
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F O R M I N G O F S T E E L ( S T E P 3 )
The steel ingot goes to blooming mill where it is reheated to about 1200 C
and get passed through huge rollers to reduce the ingot to a smaller size
It may take 20+ rollers to reduce the ingot into the desired shape and size
Typical shapes produced are plates, rods/bars, and structural steel rolledshapes.
Source: wikipedia
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F O R M I N G O F S T E E L ( S T E P 3 )
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
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P R O P E R T I E S O F S T E E L
Properties of Steel
Tensile Test & Modulus of Elasticity
Impact Test
Hardness Test
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P R O P E R T I E S O F S T E E L
Properties of metals, in general, may be divided into 2 categories
Structure Insensitive Properties : these are properties that has to do
with the atoms themselves, but not the microstructure. Examples are
density, elastic modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat.
Structure Sensitive Properties : these are properties that depends on
the microstructure of the materials, which is greatly affected by heating
and cooling histories. Examples are yield strength, fracture strength,
ductility (elongation at failure), and fatigue performance.
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P R O P E R T I E S O F S T E E L
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T E N S I L E S T R E N G T H & M O D U L U S O F E L A S T I C I T Y
Tensile strength (ASTM A 370) and modulus of elasticity of steel are
obtained by testing a steel specimen under direct tension.
We can record the load and the displacement between two points to get a
stress-strain plot
Typical tensile test setup forlarge bars (left), and small
bars/ wires (right)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
Typical stress-strain curve of mild steel in tension (we also assume that the
behavior in compression is the same as in tension this is true for most
purposes)
Source: ASCE (2001) 28
S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
The followings can be observed:
The stress-strain curve is linear from the point of zero load to a pointcalled Yield Point, Yield Strength (Fy), Limit of Proportionality, or ElasticLimit. In some steel, we can observe the upper yield point and thelower yield point.
The slope of the stress-strain curve during the linear portion is calledModulus of Elasticity (E), the typically value is 200 GPa
After the yield point, steel undergoes yielding, in which the strainincreases significantly without much increase in the load
At some point, the stress begin to increase until it reaches the point ofmaximum stress, called Ultimate Strength (Fu) at a strain much largerthan the strain at yielding. This portion of the curve is called Strain
Hardening Range. We usually grade the steel by its yield strength (not the ultimate
strength as in concrete!)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
At the ultimate strength, the tensile test member exhibit necking
behavior in which the area of the test piece decreases as the
deformation increases with the corresponding decrease in load. Thus, if
we calculate the stress by Engineering Stress = F/Aoriginal, we get a
decrease in stress from ultimate to rupture. But if we calculate thestress by True Stress = F/Aactual, we get an increase in stress (dashed line)
instead.
Original
Just before Failure
At Ult imate
Necking
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
Note that if weunload the steelafter the yieldpoint, it will not
return to theoriginal length;thus, apermanentdeformation hasoccurred
If we reload it again, it will follow the unloading path until it reaches theprevious maximum load. After that, it follows the same stress-strain curve asif it is loaded continuously (without unloading) to failure.
Source: ASCE (2001)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
In the design of steel structures, we usually rely on the strength up to the
yielding. For simplicity, we generally model the stress-strain curve as bilinear.
We know that there is some reserved strength in the Strain Hardening range
but we just dont use it in the design.
Idealized Stress-Strain Curve
Source: ASCE (2001)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
As the yield strength of
steel increases (higher
strength steel), the
yield point becomes
more difficult to define.
We can define the yield
point in this case by
using Offset Method,
or Proof Stress.
Yield point of A36 steel
Where should be the yield point???
Source: ASCE (2001)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
We find the point of small strain
(0.1%, 0.2% depending on the
standard or the value agreed
upon) and draw a line parallel tothe linear portion of the stress-
strain curve.
The point where the parallel line
intersects the stress-strain curve
is the proof stress or the yield
stress.
We may also use the stress at
0.5% strain as the yield point. Thismay give slightly different yield
point than the offset method.Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S
Source: ASCE (2001)
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I M P A C T
The Charpy V-Notch Impact test (ASTM
E23) is used to measure the energy required
to fracture a steel specimen.
It uses a hammer pendulum to strike a
notched specimen
After striking, some of the kinetic energy isabsorbed by the test specimen so the
swinging arm will not go up as high as its
starting position. We can measure the
height to compute the energy.
The lower the energy required to fracture,
the more brittle the steel
Notch
Source: WikipediaSource: Wikipedia
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H A R D N E S S
Hardness is the measure of the materials
resistance to small dent or scratch to the
surface.
Most common method is the Rockwell
hardness test (ASTM E18) This method measures the penetration
depth of small metal ball or diamond
cone under a standard load.
The hardness value can be used to
estimate the tensile strength of the
material. This is very useful because
hardness test is easy to do, inexpensive,
and do not require special specimens.
Source: Wikipedia
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F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G S T R E N G T H
For the same type of steel, the measured strength and/or elongation at
failure may be affected by the following factors:
Loading rate (static vs. dynamic)
Location in the section where the sample is collected this is usuallycritical for hot-rolled sections as it is affected by residual stress in
some parts of the section
Loading history cold-formingof steel changes the strength and
deformation capacity of steel.
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F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G S T R E N G T H
Structural steel sections have
residual stresses in them.
Residual stress occurs due to
nonuniform cooling of thesection after hot rolling. The
thinner part cools faster than
the thicker part.
The parts that cool first will
have residual compression.
The parts that cool last will
have residual tension.
Magnitude and distributiondepends on the shape of the
section, not the strength of
the steel.
This reduce the usable
strength to yielding
Compression
Tension
Compression
Tension
Source: ASCE (2001)
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F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G S T R E N G T H
Cold forming of steel
(i.e. shaping of steel
without heat) leaves
the steel with higher
yield strength but
lower strain to failure.
If we test the steel
with the history of
cold forming, we
would get different
behavior from the one
without any forming
Ductility = u/y u = ultimate strain
y = yield strain
Source: ASCE (2001)40
S T E E L P R O D U C T S F O R C O N S T R U C T I O N S
Reinforcing steel
Round bar
Deformed bar
Prestressing strands
Structural steel
Hot Rolled steel
Cold-formed steel
Built-up Members (Steel plate)
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S T E E L P R O D U C T S F O R C O N S T R U C T I O N S
Reinforcing steel
Round bar
Deformed bar
Prestressing strands
Structural steel
Hot Rolled steel
Cold-formed steel
Built-up Members (Steel plate)
Source: Wikipedia 42
R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L
Reinforcing bars are obtained by hot
rolling of steel
Two main types:
Round bar the surface of the bar issmooth
Deformed bar the surface of the bar
has ribs on it
The ribs on the surface of deformed bar
increase the bond to the concrete. Thus,
the Deformed bars are generally used as
main reinforcement of structural
members. Round bars are generallyused as reinforcement to prevent
concrete cracking under temperature
changes and shrinkage.
Source: Wikipedia
Source: Wikipedia
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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - G R A D E S
Type Grade Fy (ksc)
Minimum
Fu (ksc)
Minimum
Ultimate
Strain (%)
Minimum
Round Bar SR24 2400 3900 21Deformed
Bar
SD30 3000 4900 17SD40 4000 5700 15SD 50 5000 6300 13
.20-2543, 24-2548
Reinforcing steel is graded by the minimum yield strength
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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - R O U N D B A R
Type Diameter
(mm)
Cross-Sectional
Area (mm2)
RB 6 6 28.3
RB 8 8 50.3
RB 9 9 63.6
RB 10 10 78.5
RB 12 12 113.1
RB 15 15 176.7
RB 19 19 283.5
RB 22 22 380.1
RB 25 25 490.9
RB 28 28 615.8RB 34 34 907.9
. 20-2543:
Grade: SR 24
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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - D E F O R M E D B A R
Type Diameter
(mm)
Cross-Sectional
Area (mm2)
DB 6 6 28.3
DB 8 8 50.3
DB 10 10 78.5
DB 12 12 113.1
DB 16 16 201.1
DB 20 20 314.2
DB 22 22 380.1
DB 25 25 490.9
DB 28 28 615.8
DB 32 32 804.2
DB 36 36 1017.9
DB 40 40 1256.6
. 24-2548:
Grades: SD30, SD 40, SD 50
Source: Wikipedia
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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - P R E S T R E S S I N G S T R A N D S
Prestressing strands are made by twisting 2, 3, 7, or 19 wires together. The
most common type is the 7-wire strand.
They are made of higher strength steel than those used in regular reinforcing
steel bars . 420-2540:
Source: Naaman (2004)
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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - P R E S T R E S S I N G S T R A N D S
Source: Naaman (2004) 48
R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - P R E S T R E S S I N G S T R A N D S
Prestressed concrete segmental
girders
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L
For steel structures, there are 3 main types of steel members
Hot rolled members
Cold-formed members
Built-up members (from steel plates)
Strata Center
MIT, Boston, MA50
S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
Hot rolled shapes are obtained by passing very hot block of steel through
various rollers several times to obtain the desired shape.
Most of the shapes are standardized by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC). Typical shapes are W or H (wide-flange), I, C(Channel), L (Angle), T, Pipe, and Tube.
1227-2539:
51
S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 52
S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
They are used for main structural members, such as truss members, beams,
and columns.
Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - C O L D F O R M E D
Cold-formed shapes are obtained by stamping and/or bending steel plate to
a desired shape at normal temperature
Cold-formed sections usually have small thickness (we cannot bend a verythick plate). Common shapes are C (Channels), Z (Zees), and L (Angles)
Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - C O L D F O R M E D
They are used mostly for nonstructural elements or for structures that
carry small loads
Source: Wikipedia
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - C O L D F O R M E D
1228-2537: Has only one grade: SSC 400
Yield Strength
Minimum (MPa)
Tensile Strength
Minimum (MPa)
Elongation, Minimum (%)
Thickness
< 5 mm
Thickness
> 5 mm
245 400-510 21 17
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - C O L D F O R M E D
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - B U I L T U P M E M B E R S
We can create structural members by welding
steel plates into any desirable shapes
Typical examples are bridge girders and
columns of tall buildings
Source: Nowak (2004)
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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - B U I L T U P M E M B E R S
1499-2541:
62
S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - B U I L T U P M E M B E R S
63
J O I N I N G O F S T E E L
Rivet
High-Strength Bolt
Welding
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J O I N I N G O F S T E E L
Structural steel
pieces may be join
by one of these 3
methods:
Riveting
Bolting
Welding
Connection Details of the
Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge
(the first cast iron bridge)
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W E L D I N G
Weld metal in arc welding is
deposited by electromagnetic field,
not gravity. Therefore, welding
can be done in any positions.
Welded connection are usually
smaller and more aesthetically
pleasing than bolted or riveted
connections.
Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 74
W E L D I N G
Source: Salmon and Johnston (1996)
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W E L D I N G
The current practice is to weld
parts of built-up structuralmembers in the shop but using
bolts to assemble the member in
the field.
Field welding is inconvenient,
difficult to inspect, and can be
expensive
Shop welding is faster and looks
better than bolting
Welds done in fabrication shop
Field Bolting
Field Bolting
Welded Plate Girder
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W E L D I N G
Residual stress occurs in the welded section in a similar manner to the hot
rolled sections: i.e. the parts that cool first will have residual compression.
The parts that cool last will have residual tension.
Source: ASCE (2001)
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W E L D I N G
In addition, the location near the weld was subjected to very high heat and
fast cooling rate. A Martensite structure was developed, which was very
hard and brittle. This is the area where failure often occurs. This area is
called Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
To reduce the residual stresses and HAZ, cooling rate of welding must becarefully controlled, especially in large welds.
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)78
D U R A B I L I T Y O F S T E E L
Corrosion
Prevention of Corrosion
Weathering Steel
Stainless Steel
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C O R R O S I O N
Corrosion is a destruction of a material byelectrochemical reaction. When the steel corrodes,rust is formed.
Some rust on the steel reinforcement before placingof concrete is OK
Rust on the steel structures must be avoided as itcan lead to reduction in strength
Steel rust at the rate of about 0.5mm/year
In order for rust to occur, we need 4 elements
Anode: The electrode where corrosion occurs
Cathode: The other electrode needed to form acorrosion cell
Conductor: A metallic pathway for electrons to flow
Electrolyte: A liquid that can support the flow ofelectrons
Steel by itself already has 3 elements, it only needswater (electrolyte) to complete the corrosion cell
Source: Nowak (2004)
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C O R R O S I O N
Reactions:
Anode Side Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
Fe2+ + 2(OH)- Fe(OH)2
Ferrous Hydroxide (Black Rust)
4Fe(OH)2
+ 2H2
O + O2
4Fe(OH)3
Ferric Hydroxide (Red Rust)
Cathode Side 4e- + 2H2O + O2 4(OH)-
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
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C O R R O S I O N
The amount of time the steel stays wet affects the rate of corrosion.
Environmental contaminants may accelerate corrosion. Examples are SO2in acid rain, and salts (from sea or deicing salts).
Corrosion of steel column near the sea Corrosion from deicing salts
Source: Nowak (2004) Source: Nowak (2004)Source: Nowak (2004)
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P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Design the structure such that water cannot collect on the surface or joints
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
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P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Design the structure such that inspection and maintenance can be done
easily
Inspection Catwalk underneath a
Cable-Stayed Bridge84
P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Applying protective coating to seal off the surface from moisture.
The surface to be painted must be dry and clean
Periodic repainting is necessary
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P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Cathodic protection: we prevent the corrosion of steel by making it the
cathode side of the corrosion cell!
Sacrificial Anode: this is done by connecting more anodic metal with steel. The
anode metal will corrode instead of the steel. This anode metal must be
replaced occasionally.
Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 86
P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Anodic coating : this is similar to the sacrificial
anode but, instead of using a piece of metal, the
anode metals is coated on the surface of the steel.
Galvanizing: uses Zinc to coat the surface of the
steel
Zinc-Pigmented Paint: Same concept as
galvanizing but in the form of paint
Galvanized Surface
Aluminum anodes are
mounted on steel
structure
Source: Wikipedia
Source: Wikipedia
87
P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP): Using external power source
to make the metal cathodic and consume the anode metal instead. Inert Anodes
such as carbon, titanium, lead, or platinum are used. This is typically used for
large structures, such as buried pipelines, as placing sacrificial anodes at regular
intervals is impossible.
Source: www.daviddarling.info Source: www.byauto.com.cn
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W E A T H E R I N G S T E E L
Weathering steel or high strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel
(also known commercially as COR-TEN steel) is a steel
alloy with very low percentage of carbon (
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W E A T H E R I N G S T E E L
U.S. Steel Building, Pittsburgh Core-Ten Sculpture
It is widely used in bridges and marine structures.
It is not rust-proof. If water collects on the surface, it will corrode.
Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia
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S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
Stainless steel, also known as high-alloysteels, contains 16-28% chromium, up to22% nickel, and some manganese. It hasvery high resistance to corrosion due to
the forming of a thin, transparent coatingofchromium oxide over the surface.
It is often used as kitchen tools,laboratory equipments, etc Forconstruction, stainless steel are used ascladding, water pipes/fittings, andcorrosion-resistant reinforcement forconcrete (ASTM A 955M).
Over 150 grades are available, some has
higher corrosion resistance than theothers, some are harder, some hasmagnetic property, some are easier toweld, etc
Variety of finishes are available fromunpolished, brushed, to mirror finishes.
Petronas Towers
Stainless steel cladding
Source: Wikipedia
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S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
St. Louis Gateway Arch
St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Stainless steel cladding
Chrysler Building, New York
Stainless steel spire
Completed 1929Stainless steel rebar
Source: Wikipedia
Source: Wikipedia
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R E C A P
Introduction
Manufacturing of Steel
Iron Ore Pig Iron Steel
Microstructure & Heat Treatment
Properties of Steel
Tensile Stress-Strain Curve
Impact & Hardness Test
Factors Affecting Strength
Steel Products for Construction
Reinforcing steel
Round Bar
Deformed Bar Prestressing Strands
Structural steel
Hot Rolled steel
Cold-formed steel
Built-up Members (Steel
plate)
Joining of Steel Riveting, Bolting, Welding
Durability of Steel
Corrosion
Preventions of Corrosion
Weathering Steel
Stainless Steel
Source: Wikipedia
R E F E R E N C E S
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R E F E R E N C E S
American Society of Civil Engineers (2001), Structural Steel Selection Considerations: A Guide forStudents, Educators, Designers, and Builders, Ed. R. Bjorhovde et. al., ASCE, Reston, VA, 110 pages.
American Society of Testing and Materials, ASTM A370, West Conshohocken, PA.
Illston, J. M. and Domone, P. L. J. (2001), Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour, 3rd
Edition, Spon Press, London.
Mamlouk, M. S., and Zaniewski, J. P. (2006),Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, 2nd
Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 576 pages
Marotta, T. W. (2005), Basic Construction Materials, 7th Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 598 pages
Naaman, A. E. (2004), Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: Fundamentals, Technopress 3000,Ann Arbor, MI.
Nowak, A. S. (2004), Bridge Design Course Materials, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E. (1996), Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, 4th Edition,HarperCollins College Publishers, NY, 1024 pages.
Smith, R.C, and Andres, C.K. (1989),Materials of Construction, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 401 pages.
Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 20-2543, Bangkok, Thailand
Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 24-2548, Bangkok, Thailand
Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 420-2540, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1227-2539, Bangkok, Thailand
Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1228-2537, Bangkok, Thailand
Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1499-2541, Bangkok, Thailand
http://www.wikipedia.org