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C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S

I R O N & S T E E L

2010 | Praveen Chompreda | Mahidol University2

O U T L I N E

Introduction

Manufacturing of Steel

Properties of Steel

Steel Products for Construction

Joining of Steel

Durability of Steel

Guggenheim Museum

Biblao, Spain

Source: Wikipedia

3

I R O N

Iron is the 10th most abundant element in the universe

Iron accounts for about 35% of earths mass, most of it is in the inner core

Earth crust contains about 5% of iron, the 2nd most abundant metal (the

first being aluminum)

4

I R O N

The relatively low cost of iron and its high strength make it the most-used

metal in the world. The majority of iron is in the form of steels, which are

alloys of iron with different metals and carbon.

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, the worlds longest bridge, is made of steel

Source: WikipediaSource: Wikipedia

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M A N U F A C T U R I N G O F S T E E L


Iron Ore Pig Iron (Step 1)

Cast IronPig Iron Steel (Step II)

Steel Alloy

Forming of Steel (Step III)

6


The manufacturing of steel consists of 3 main phases

Reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron

Refining Pig Iron to Steel

Forming Steel into products

Iron Ore Pig Iron SteelSteel

ProductsBlast

Furnace

Basic

Oxygen

Furnace,etc

Blooming

Mill

7


Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 8

I R O N O R E P I G I R O N ( S T E P 1 )

Iron does not occur in nature as pure metal, but as combinations with

oxygen or sulfur, called Iron Ore. The most common are hematite (Fe2O3),

magnetite (Fe3O4), or pyrite (FeS2)

3 main ingredients used in reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron are Coke (product

from Coal), Limestone, and Iron Ore Iron ore is converted to pig iron in the Blast Furnace

Hematite MagnetitePyrite (Fools Gold)Picture Source: Wikipedia

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I R O N O R E P I G I R O N

Iron is extracted from ore by removing theoxygen, usually by combining with carbon toproduce CO2

It takes about 5-8 hours from the loading ofmaterial at the top till the iron is obtained atthe bottom.

The process is done continuously thefurnace never shuts down.

To produce 1 ton of pig iron, it takes about1300 kg of iron ore, 600 kg of coke, 400 kgof limestone, 7300 kg of air, 22000 kg ofwater, and 27x106 BTU of heat.

Pig iron obtained from the blast furnacecannot be used by its own, due to its highcarbon content (about 3.5-4%). It has to beprocessed further to reduce the amount ofcarbon and to remove other impurities.

10

I R O N O R E P I G I R O N Inside the blast furnace

The coke (from coal) reacts with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide (CO)

2 C + O2 2 CO

Carbon monoxide reacts with iron ore to become carbon dioxide (CO2)

3 CO + Fe2O3 2 Fe + 3 CO2

Limestone (CaCO3) is used as a flux (solvent) to help removing the impurities,such as silicon dioxide in the ore

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3

The molten slag is lighter than the molten iron, so it floats on the top and can bedrawn off through an opening at the bottom of the furnace this can later be usedas cement replacement material in concrete (Recall GGBS = Ground GranulatedBlast Furnace Slag)

Slag

11

C A S T I R O N

Cast iron is produced

by reheating pig iron

and remove some of

the impurities. It

contains about 2-4%of carbon

It can be cast into

molds

It is brittle and best

used in compression

rather than tension

Common applications

are pipes and fittings. Cast iron is difficult

to weld.

Source: Marotta (2005) 12

C A S T I R O N

4 main types

White cast iron: The carbon and iron

are in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C).

It is hard and very brittle so it is not

used as structural components. It

may be used where high resistance to

abrasion and wear is required. When

broken, the fracture surface appears

white.

Grey Cast Iron: The carbon is

present in the form of graphite flakes.

This graphite make it softer and

machineable, but it is still very brittle.

When broken, the fracture surface

appears grey. This is the most

common type of cast iron.

Cast Iron Pipe Fittings

Source: wikipedia

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C A S T I R O N

Ductile Iron or Spheroidal Graphite Iron: By adding some alloying elements and

the right casting procedure, the graphite in the grey cast iron may be induced to

form into spherulites (small spheres). This reduce the brittleness.

Malleable Iron: By applying heat treatment to the white cast iron, the nodules ofgraphite may be formed. This helps increase the strength and reduce brittleness.

Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge (1785), UK

Cast iron bridgeDecorative Cast Iron Gate

Source: wikipediaSource: wikipedia

14

P I G I R O N S T E E L ( S T E P 2 )

Steel is an alloy of iron with some other metals, called alloying elements.

Alloying elements are added to improve properties of iron such as

hardness, elasticity, ductility, tensile strength, corrosion resistant, etc

Steel contains up to about 1.5% carbon Structural Steel contains up to about 0.25% carbon

Types

Mild Steel or Low Carbon Steel (C < 0.25%) this is the structural steel

Medium Carbon Steel or just Carbon Steel (0.3% < C < 0.6%)

High Carbon Steel (0.6% < C < 1.5%)

Alloy Steel (Steel + Alloying elements) eg. Stainless steel

3 main types of furnaces used in refining pig iron to steel

Open Hearth Furnace (Traditional)

Basic Oxygen Furnace (Most Popular)

Electric Arc

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P I G I R O N S T E E L

Molten pig iron and recycled steel are

dumped from the top.

Pure oxygen is blown with high

pressure into the furnace to stir things

up and cause rapid burning of

materials.

Limestone is added as a flux

Impurities are either removed as gases

(such as CO2) or as slag.

Alloying metals may be added to

produce special steel alloy

Basic oxygen furnace can refine about

300 tons of steel in under 30 minutes.

The molten steel may be cast into alarge prism called Ingot to be sent to

another factory to form into desired

shapes

Basic Oxygen Furnace

16

P I G I R O N S T E E L

Molten pig iron is added to the top of

the Basic Oxygen Furnace

Steel Ingot

Source: wikipediaSource: wikipedia

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S T E E L A L L O Y

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 18

S T E E L A L L O Y

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)

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S T E E L

The largest producer in the world is China, followed by Japan and USA

20

S T E E L

Today, most of the steel is from

recycled steel. This has some effects on

the chemical compositions of the

modern steel by having elements that

were not previously considered to be apart of normal steel chemistry

It is now become more difficult to find a

low-strength grade of steel. We tend to

get much higher actualstrength for the

lower-strengthgrade of steel.

Source: wikipedia

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F O R M I N G O F S T E E L ( S T E P 3 )

The steel ingot goes to blooming mill where it is reheated to about 1200 C

and get passed through huge rollers to reduce the ingot to a smaller size

It may take 20+ rollers to reduce the ingot into the desired shape and size

Typical shapes produced are plates, rods/bars, and structural steel rolledshapes.

Source: wikipedia

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F O R M I N G O F S T E E L ( S T E P 3 )

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

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P R O P E R T I E S O F S T E E L

Properties of Steel

Tensile Test & Modulus of Elasticity

Impact Test

Hardness Test

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Properties of metals, in general, may be divided into 2 categories

Structure Insensitive Properties : these are properties that has to do

with the atoms themselves, but not the microstructure. Examples are

density, elastic modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat.

Structure Sensitive Properties : these are properties that depends on

the microstructure of the materials, which is greatly affected by heating

and cooling histories. Examples are yield strength, fracture strength,

ductility (elongation at failure), and fatigue performance.

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T E N S I L E S T R E N G T H & M O D U L U S O F E L A S T I C I T Y

Tensile strength (ASTM A 370) and modulus of elasticity of steel are

obtained by testing a steel specimen under direct tension.

We can record the load and the displacement between two points to get a

stress-strain plot

Typical tensile test setup forlarge bars (left), and small

bars/ wires (right)

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S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S

Typical stress-strain curve of mild steel in tension (we also assume that the

behavior in compression is the same as in tension this is true for most

purposes)

Source: ASCE (2001) 28


The followings can be observed:

The stress-strain curve is linear from the point of zero load to a pointcalled Yield Point, Yield Strength (Fy), Limit of Proportionality, or ElasticLimit. In some steel, we can observe the upper yield point and thelower yield point.

The slope of the stress-strain curve during the linear portion is calledModulus of Elasticity (E), the typically value is 200 GPa

After the yield point, steel undergoes yielding, in which the strainincreases significantly without much increase in the load

At some point, the stress begin to increase until it reaches the point ofmaximum stress, called Ultimate Strength (Fu) at a strain much largerthan the strain at yielding. This portion of the curve is called Strain

Hardening Range. We usually grade the steel by its yield strength (not the ultimate

strength as in concrete!)

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At the ultimate strength, the tensile test member exhibit necking

behavior in which the area of the test piece decreases as the

deformation increases with the corresponding decrease in load. Thus, if

we calculate the stress by Engineering Stress = F/Aoriginal, we get a

decrease in stress from ultimate to rupture. But if we calculate thestress by True Stress = F/Aactual, we get an increase in stress (dashed line)

instead.

Original

Just before Failure

At Ult imate

Necking

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)

30


Note that if weunload the steelafter the yieldpoint, it will not

return to theoriginal length;thus, apermanentdeformation hasoccurred

If we reload it again, it will follow the unloading path until it reaches theprevious maximum load. After that, it follows the same stress-strain curve asif it is loaded continuously (without unloading) to failure.

Source: ASCE (2001)

31


In the design of steel structures, we usually rely on the strength up to the

yielding. For simplicity, we generally model the stress-strain curve as bilinear.

We know that there is some reserved strength in the Strain Hardening range

but we just dont use it in the design.

Idealized Stress-Strain Curve

Source: ASCE (2001)

32


As the yield strength of

steel increases (higher

strength steel), the

yield point becomes

more difficult to define.

We can define the yield

point in this case by

using Offset Method,

or Proof Stress.

Yield point of A36 steel

Where should be the yield point???

Source: ASCE (2001)

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We find the point of small strain

(0.1%, 0.2% depending on the

standard or the value agreed

upon) and draw a line parallel tothe linear portion of the stress-

strain curve.

The point where the parallel line

intersects the stress-strain curve

is the proof stress or the yield

stress.

We may also use the stress at

0.5% strain as the yield point. Thismay give slightly different yield

point than the offset method.Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

34


Source: ASCE (2001)

35

I M P A C T

The Charpy V-Notch Impact test (ASTM

E23) is used to measure the energy required

to fracture a steel specimen.

It uses a hammer pendulum to strike a

notched specimen

After striking, some of the kinetic energy isabsorbed by the test specimen so the

swinging arm will not go up as high as its

starting position. We can measure the

height to compute the energy.

The lower the energy required to fracture,

the more brittle the steel

Notch

Source: WikipediaSource: Wikipedia

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H A R D N E S S

Hardness is the measure of the materials

resistance to small dent or scratch to the

surface.

Most common method is the Rockwell

hardness test (ASTM E18) This method measures the penetration

depth of small metal ball or diamond

cone under a standard load.

The hardness value can be used to

estimate the tensile strength of the

material. This is very useful because

hardness test is easy to do, inexpensive,

and do not require special specimens.

Source: Wikipedia

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F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G S T R E N G T H

For the same type of steel, the measured strength and/or elongation at

failure may be affected by the following factors:

Loading rate (static vs. dynamic)

Location in the section where the sample is collected this is usuallycritical for hot-rolled sections as it is affected by residual stress in

some parts of the section

Loading history cold-formingof steel changes the strength and

deformation capacity of steel.

38


Structural steel sections have

residual stresses in them.

Residual stress occurs due to

nonuniform cooling of thesection after hot rolling. The

thinner part cools faster than

the thicker part.

The parts that cool first will

have residual compression.

The parts that cool last will

have residual tension.

Magnitude and distributiondepends on the shape of the

section, not the strength of

the steel.

This reduce the usable

strength to yielding

Compression

Tension

Compression

Tension

Source: ASCE (2001)

39


Cold forming of steel

(i.e. shaping of steel

without heat) leaves

the steel with higher

yield strength but

lower strain to failure.

If we test the steel

with the history of

cold forming, we

would get different

behavior from the one

without any forming

Ductility = u/y u = ultimate strain

y = yield strain

Source: ASCE (2001)40

S T E E L P R O D U C T S F O R C O N S T R U C T I O N S

Reinforcing steel

Round bar

Deformed bar

Prestressing strands

Structural steel

Hot Rolled steel

Cold-formed steel

Built-up Members (Steel plate)

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S T E E L P R O D U C T S F O R C O N S T R U C T I O N S

Reinforcing steel

Round bar

Deformed bar

Prestressing strands

Structural steel

Hot Rolled steel

Cold-formed steel

Built-up Members (Steel plate)

Source: Wikipedia 42

R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L

Reinforcing bars are obtained by hot

rolling of steel

Two main types:

Round bar the surface of the bar issmooth

Deformed bar the surface of the bar

has ribs on it

The ribs on the surface of deformed bar

increase the bond to the concrete. Thus,

the Deformed bars are generally used as

main reinforcement of structural

members. Round bars are generallyused as reinforcement to prevent

concrete cracking under temperature

changes and shrinkage.

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

43

R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - G R A D E S

Type Grade Fy (ksc)

Minimum

Fu (ksc)

Minimum

Ultimate

Strain (%)

Minimum

Round Bar SR24 2400 3900 21Deformed

Bar

SD30 3000 4900 17SD40 4000 5700 15SD 50 5000 6300 13

.20-2543, 24-2548

Reinforcing steel is graded by the minimum yield strength

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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - R O U N D B A R

Type Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm2)

RB 6 6 28.3

RB 8 8 50.3

RB 9 9 63.6

RB 10 10 78.5

RB 12 12 113.1

RB 15 15 176.7

RB 19 19 283.5

RB 22 22 380.1

RB 25 25 490.9

RB 28 28 615.8RB 34 34 907.9

. 20-2543:

Grade: SR 24

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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - D E F O R M E D B A R

Type Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm2)

DB 6 6 28.3

DB 8 8 50.3

DB 10 10 78.5

DB 12 12 113.1

DB 16 16 201.1

DB 20 20 314.2

DB 22 22 380.1

DB 25 25 490.9

DB 28 28 615.8

DB 32 32 804.2

DB 36 36 1017.9

DB 40 40 1256.6

. 24-2548:

Grades: SD30, SD 40, SD 50

Source: Wikipedia

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R E I N F O R C I N G S T E E L - P R E S T R E S S I N G S T R A N D S

Prestressing strands are made by twisting 2, 3, 7, or 19 wires together. The

most common type is the 7-wire strand.

They are made of higher strength steel than those used in regular reinforcing

steel bars . 420-2540:

Source: Naaman (2004)

47


Source: Naaman (2004) 48


Prestressed concrete segmental

girders

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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L

For steel structures, there are 3 main types of steel members

Hot rolled members

Cold-formed members

Built-up members (from steel plates)

Strata Center

MIT, Boston, MA50

S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - H O T R O L L E D

Hot rolled shapes are obtained by passing very hot block of steel through

various rollers several times to obtain the desired shape.

Most of the shapes are standardized by the American Institute of Steel

Construction (AISC). Typical shapes are W or H (wide-flange), I, C(Channel), L (Angle), T, Pipe, and Tube.

1227-2539:

51


Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 52


They are used for main structural members, such as truss members, beams,

and columns.

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

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54


55


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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - C O L D F O R M E D

Cold-formed shapes are obtained by stamping and/or bending steel plate to

a desired shape at normal temperature

Cold-formed sections usually have small thickness (we cannot bend a verythick plate). Common shapes are C (Channels), Z (Zees), and L (Angles)

Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)

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They are used mostly for nonstructural elements or for structures that

carry small loads

Source: Wikipedia

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1228-2537: Has only one grade: SSC 400

Yield Strength

Minimum (MPa)

Tensile Strength

Minimum (MPa)

Elongation, Minimum (%)

Thickness

< 5 mm

Thickness

> 5 mm

245 400-510 21 17

59


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S T R U C T U R A L S T E E L - B U I L T U P M E M B E R S

We can create structural members by welding

steel plates into any desirable shapes

Typical examples are bridge girders and

columns of tall buildings

Source: Nowak (2004)

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1499-2541:

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J O I N I N G O F S T E E L

Rivet

High-Strength Bolt

Welding

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J O I N I N G O F S T E E L

Structural steel

pieces may be join

by one of these 3

methods:

Riveting

Bolting

Welding

Connection Details of the

Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge

(the first cast iron bridge)

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W E L D I N G

Weld metal in arc welding is

deposited by electromagnetic field,

not gravity. Therefore, welding

can be done in any positions.

Welded connection are usually

smaller and more aesthetically

pleasing than bolted or riveted

connections.

Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 74

W E L D I N G

Source: Salmon and Johnston (1996)

75

W E L D I N G

The current practice is to weld

parts of built-up structuralmembers in the shop but using

bolts to assemble the member in

the field.

Field welding is inconvenient,

difficult to inspect, and can be

expensive

Shop welding is faster and looks

better than bolting

Welds done in fabrication shop

Field Bolting

Field Bolting

Welded Plate Girder

76

W E L D I N G

Residual stress occurs in the welded section in a similar manner to the hot

rolled sections: i.e. the parts that cool first will have residual compression.

The parts that cool last will have residual tension.

Source: ASCE (2001)

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W E L D I N G

In addition, the location near the weld was subjected to very high heat and

fast cooling rate. A Martensite structure was developed, which was very

hard and brittle. This is the area where failure often occurs. This area is

called Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

To reduce the residual stresses and HAZ, cooling rate of welding must becarefully controlled, especially in large welds.

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)78

D U R A B I L I T Y O F S T E E L

Corrosion

Prevention of Corrosion

Weathering Steel

Stainless Steel

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C O R R O S I O N

Corrosion is a destruction of a material byelectrochemical reaction. When the steel corrodes,rust is formed.

Some rust on the steel reinforcement before placingof concrete is OK

Rust on the steel structures must be avoided as itcan lead to reduction in strength

Steel rust at the rate of about 0.5mm/year

In order for rust to occur, we need 4 elements

Anode: The electrode where corrosion occurs

Cathode: The other electrode needed to form acorrosion cell

Conductor: A metallic pathway for electrons to flow

Electrolyte: A liquid that can support the flow ofelectrons

Steel by itself already has 3 elements, it only needswater (electrolyte) to complete the corrosion cell

Source: Nowak (2004)

80

C O R R O S I O N

Reactions:

Anode Side Fe Fe2+ + 2e-

Fe2+ + 2(OH)- Fe(OH)2

Ferrous Hydroxide (Black Rust)

4Fe(OH)2

+ 2H2

O + O2

4Fe(OH)3

Ferric Hydroxide (Red Rust)

Cathode Side 4e- + 2H2O + O2 4(OH)-


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C O R R O S I O N

The amount of time the steel stays wet affects the rate of corrosion.

Environmental contaminants may accelerate corrosion. Examples are SO2in acid rain, and salts (from sea or deicing salts).

Corrosion of steel column near the sea Corrosion from deicing salts

Source: Nowak (2004) Source: Nowak (2004)Source: Nowak (2004)

82

P R E V E N T I O N O F C O R R O S I O N

Design the structure such that water cannot collect on the surface or joints


83


Design the structure such that inspection and maintenance can be done

easily

Inspection Catwalk underneath a

Cable-Stayed Bridge84


Applying protective coating to seal off the surface from moisture.

The surface to be painted must be dry and clean

Periodic repainting is necessary

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Cathodic protection: we prevent the corrosion of steel by making it the

cathode side of the corrosion cell!

Sacrificial Anode: this is done by connecting more anodic metal with steel. The

anode metal will corrode instead of the steel. This anode metal must be

replaced occasionally.

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 86


Anodic coating : this is similar to the sacrificial

anode but, instead of using a piece of metal, the

anode metals is coated on the surface of the steel.

Galvanizing: uses Zinc to coat the surface of the

steel

Zinc-Pigmented Paint: Same concept as

galvanizing but in the form of paint

Galvanized Surface

Aluminum anodes are

mounted on steel

structure

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

87


Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP): Using external power source

to make the metal cathodic and consume the anode metal instead. Inert Anodes

such as carbon, titanium, lead, or platinum are used. This is typically used for

large structures, such as buried pipelines, as placing sacrificial anodes at regular

intervals is impossible.

Source: www.daviddarling.info Source: www.byauto.com.cn

88

W E A T H E R I N G S T E E L

Weathering steel or high strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel

(also known commercially as COR-TEN steel) is a steel

alloy with very low percentage of carbon (

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W E A T H E R I N G S T E E L

U.S. Steel Building, Pittsburgh Core-Ten Sculpture

It is widely used in bridges and marine structures.

It is not rust-proof. If water collects on the surface, it will corrode.

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

90

S T A I N L E S S S T E E L

Stainless steel, also known as high-alloysteels, contains 16-28% chromium, up to22% nickel, and some manganese. It hasvery high resistance to corrosion due to

the forming of a thin, transparent coatingofchromium oxide over the surface.

It is often used as kitchen tools,laboratory equipments, etc Forconstruction, stainless steel are used ascladding, water pipes/fittings, andcorrosion-resistant reinforcement forconcrete (ASTM A 955M).

Over 150 grades are available, some has

higher corrosion resistance than theothers, some are harder, some hasmagnetic property, some are easier toweld, etc

Variety of finishes are available fromunpolished, brushed, to mirror finishes.

Petronas Towers

Stainless steel cladding

Source: Wikipedia

91

S T A I N L E S S S T E E L

St. Louis Gateway Arch

St. Louis, Missouri, USA

Stainless steel cladding

Chrysler Building, New York

Stainless steel spire

Completed 1929Stainless steel rebar

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

92

R E C A P

Introduction


Iron Ore Pig Iron Steel

Microstructure & Heat Treatment

Properties of Steel

Tensile Stress-Strain Curve

Impact & Hardness Test

Factors Affecting Strength

Steel Products for Construction

Reinforcing steel

Round Bar

Deformed Bar Prestressing Strands

Structural steel

Hot Rolled steel

Cold-formed steel

Built-up Members (Steel

plate)

Joining of Steel Riveting, Bolting, Welding

Durability of Steel

Corrosion

Preventions of Corrosion

Weathering Steel

Stainless Steel

Source: Wikipedia

R E F E R E N C E S

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R E F E R E N C E S

American Society of Civil Engineers (2001), Structural Steel Selection Considerations: A Guide forStudents, Educators, Designers, and Builders, Ed. R. Bjorhovde et. al., ASCE, Reston, VA, 110 pages.

American Society of Testing and Materials, ASTM A370, West Conshohocken, PA.

Illston, J. M. and Domone, P. L. J. (2001), Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour, 3rd

Edition, Spon Press, London.

Mamlouk, M. S., and Zaniewski, J. P. (2006),Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, 2nd

Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 576 pages

Marotta, T. W. (2005), Basic Construction Materials, 7th Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 598 pages

Naaman, A. E. (2004), Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: Fundamentals, Technopress 3000,Ann Arbor, MI.

Nowak, A. S. (2004), Bridge Design Course Materials, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E. (1996), Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, 4th Edition,HarperCollins College Publishers, NY, 1024 pages.

Smith, R.C, and Andres, C.K. (1989),Materials of Construction, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 401 pages.

Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 20-2543, Bangkok, Thailand


Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 420-2540, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1227-2539, Bangkok, Thailand



http://www.wikipedia.org

27110 - steel

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