1.Research methods in social sciences
Introduction
The driving force behind science is human curiosity
o = a compulsion to get to know the surrounding world and make sense of it
o combined with an effort to explain, exploit and improve it
cognition (poznávanie/poznanie) = a precondition for science
Types of cognition:
o practical, casual, common
random, driven by common needs
practically oriented: cf. buying the best/cheapest product on the
market
everybody is a lay researcher!
o scientific systematic
employs specialized procedures, sophisticated methods and technical
apparata
precisely describes, analyzes and categorizes phenomena
explains relations between them
less practically oriented, aimed at constructing scientific theories with
which to explain the world
Criteria Commonsense reasoning Scientific research D
I
F
F
E
R
E
N
T
knowledge Random, practically oriented methodically systemized
cognition Driven by common needs Institutionally organized
orderliness given by subjective importance scientific paradigm
reality approached as Real, factually existing,
undoubtable
Real under certain
conditions
language matching real world Abstract, contrived,
terminology
knowledge communicated primarily orally in written medium
scepticism and alternatives avoided sought and systemized
COMMON
Cognitive processes: generalization, abstraction, induction,
deduction
Formulation of hypotheses
Foreseeing future events
SCIENCE – 2 senses:
o an aggregate of systematically classified knowledge of a particular area of reality
o a process of systematic generation of knowledge
RESEARCH
o Lat re (again) + cercier = to search for
Cf.French chercher = seek: Cherchez la famme.
a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs
a solution (Sekran 2007:4)
o a systematic cognitive inquiry into a subject with the aim of
finding a solution to some problem
to confirm/refute existing data
gather new data
o conducted in pursuit of an answer to a research question/problem
o carried out within the framework of science through the use of specific rules,
principles, methods and procedures
o tasks = description, explanation, prediction
o scientific paradigm a generally accepted set of beliefs and ways of defining and explaining
the object of study, asking research questions and conducting research
is valid within a given area of science over a particular time period
paradigm shift = an ´old´ paradigm is overriden with a ´new´ one with a
greater explanatory potential
T.Kuhn: all sciences are products of different perspectives, schools
o contemporary science is pluriparadigmatic
has no single unified character
is determined by complex social processes
is dependent upon particular cultural contexts and value systems
SCIENTIFIC THEORY
„a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present
a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the
pupose of explaining and predicting phenomena“
(Kerlinger and Lee, 2000: 9)
o = a system of concepts and propositions which explains certain phenomena
o enables understanding, explanation, evaluation and prediction of phenomena
o criteria of scientific value of a theory:
logically constructed
clearly and concisely formulated
in correspondence with the available data
testable with the use of data
general
predictive
falsifiable
K. Popper: a theory is falsifiable if its basic tenets can be made
disputable with the use of empirical data, if not, the theory is
metaphysical
o is constantly in flux – ´new´ theories replace ´old´ ones
o scientific concepts = building blocks of a theory
function: define, classify and generalize aspects of reality
offer a perspective of reality
build up propositions
METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE:
o is concerned with proposing and assessment of research strategies and methods
o metatheoretical discipline, deals with science building, philosophy/ logic/
sociology/ psychology of sience
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
o methodological chapter is an essential part of any thesis!
o provides research ´philosophy´
o helps clarify research design – overarching structure of research:
relates methods of data gathering, methodology, theoretical perspective research
epistemology and ontology
ontology → epistemology → theoretical perspective → methodology → methods
Basic aspects of research:
o ONTOLOGY = the study of what is, of the essence of phenomena
What is the reality like?
what is the nature of the object of study?
is it independent of the researcher´s perception?
is it dependent on/determined by the researcher´s a priori presuppositions?
Two ontological traditions of Western thought
the ontology of becoming → the world is changing and emerging
(Heracllitus of Ephesus)
the ontology of being → the world is unchanging and permanent (Parmenides)
reality is composed of clearly formed, stable entities
accurately representable by symbols
has been dominating throughout the history
only recently has been challenged by the ´becoming´ o.
o EPISTEMOLOGY = the study of what kind of knowledge is legitimate, valid,
adequate
How can we get to know/learn about the reality?
how do we arrive at knowledge (= poznanie)?
Within the ontology of being we recognize three epistemologies:
Objectivism: reality exists objectively, ´out there´, independently of consciousness
research objective = discover the truth
closely related theoretical perspective = positivism
Constructivism: truth and meaning do not exist objectively
are not ´discovered´ by the subject
meaning is constructed, created by the
subject´s interaction with the world
subjects may differ in the construction of meaning
closely related theoretical perspective = interpretivism
Subjectivism: meaning is imposed on the object by the subject
closely related theoretical perspective = postmodernism
ontology: being becoming
epistemology: objectivist constructivist subjectivist
theor. perspective positivism postpositivism
(interpretivism)
p o s t m o d e r n i s m
approach deductive inductive
procedure quantitative qualitative
methodology experiment case study ethnography
timeframe longitudinal cross sectional
methods statistics, content analysis. questionnaire, observation, interview
Methodology of research is an applied scientific discipline
o accumulates information on planning, organizing, executing and assessing
research
two broad conceptions: quantitative - older, more accepted
qualitative – since 1970s, slowly gaining reputation
mixed
RESEARCH PROCESS
o = process of acquisition of knowledge by means of systematic analysis of data
acquired through esteablished procedures
o Goal = improved understanding of the social world
prediction and/or management of social processes
o Objectives of research:
Exploration - examination of a new phenomenon
- precedes complex research
Description - focuses on specific features of a phenomenon
Explanation - attempts to explain a phenomenon, process
is based on exploratory and descriptive research
Prediction - strives to bring about a change in the object of study
TYPES of research:
Basic/fundamental/pure - carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles
- goal = increase basic knowledge
- results may have no direct or immediate benefits (can be thought of as arising out
of curiosity).
- eventually it may become the basis for many commercial products and applied
research
- Is mainly carried out in laboratotries, universities
Applied research - seeks a practical implementation of results
includes: action r. - solution of practical local problems
critical r. - aims at disclosing and changing inequalities
Characteristic FEATURES of research:
o permanent cyclical process has no real beginning and end
research generates new research questions, hence no theory is definite,
not immutable, each theory carries a potential to be developed/improved/
adjusted/modified or refuted
Research wheel (R. Pavlík)
→ idea/problem → study of literature → theoretical framework → variables → hypotheses →
research design/sampling → data collection → data analysis→ interpretation of results →
idea/problem
idea/problem
interpretation of results study of literature
data analysis theoretical framework
data collection variables
hypotheses research design/sampling
o subject to critical control/assessment of research procedures and findings =
a typical feature of scientific research
- control procedures: publications,
defence procedures,
reviewing manuscripts
o scientific metalanguage – scientific terms (= monosemantic words with denotative
meanings)
-common wordstock words used with specific meanings: face, footing, line, politic
- foreign words: hypothesis, habitus
- neologisms:
o compartmentalization of knowledge into scientific disciplines
the mother of sciences = philosophy
division of sciences into „two cultures“:
natural sciences - focus on scientific explanation of the laws of nature
humanities - use method of interpretation of culture and mental products of
humans; also liberal arts (slobodné umenia)
social sciences 19C onwards – history, economy, sociology, political sciences,
anthropology, ethnography, geography, psychology,
legal studies
basic disciplines: linguistics
interdisciplines: sociolinguistics, neurolinguistcs, ethnolinguistics ...
o institutional and social character: research institutions,
researchers and societies,
communication networks
RESEARCH METHOD
= an overall procedure employed in research to gather the data (observation, elicitation ...)
- depends on the area of research
cf. technique = a concrete procedure to obtain data: interview
→ method = elicitation, technique = interview
STAGES of research process:
identification of an area of research
definition of a research problem
statement of a goal of research
formulation of a research question
articulation of a research hypothesis
selection of methodology
setting up a research plan
collection and analysis of data
interpretation of data
Note:
Research question can be modified, but the goal remains defined
The process can be iterative = certain stages may be repeated
Reformulation of the question, methodology, data collection and
interpretation
WHY study research methodology?
- knowledge is an integral part of the training of any social scientist
- practical outcome: designing and carrying out one´s own project research (MA thesis) =
practical know-how
- mainly to understand one´s own and others research, to critically reflect on research findings
- research captures the entire researcher´s personality: intellect + intuition, imagination,
creativity + emotions (joy, sadness)
- source of intellectual pleasure and satisfaction – satiates human curiosity
2. Research perspectives/approaches and methodology
RM is determined by ´how we see the world´ = worldview, philosophy:
Res. perspective = philosophical asumptions underlying research
Res. methodology = rationale supporting the choice of methods, based on researcher´s
worldview
Question: What methods can we use to acquire valid knowledge?
How to acquire data and analyze them?
through DIRECT OBSERVATION of the world?
→ empiricism, positivism, objectivism all knowledge is based on experience derived from senses
through the RATIONAL OPERATIONS with a priori categories of
reason?
→ rationalism, antipositivism, subjectivism, interpretativism all knowledge is based on experience derived from reason
Ontology = how you experience/perceive the world
e.g. knowability of the world, sharing the same sense of reality or perceving it
differently
Epistemology = ways in which disciplines construct, represent and interpret knowledge in the
world
The nature of
knowledge/ontology
Derived from senses
(by observation)?
Derived from reason
(by rational operations)?
Epistemology/theor.
perspective/approach
Positivism, empiricism, objectivism,
relativism Postpositivism, rationalism,
Subjectivism, interpretativism
Type of data Hard, real, objective, attached to the
object of study
Soft, subjective, created in an
individual´s mind
Methodology Experimental, quasi-experimental Phenomenological, ethnographic
...
Procedures Quantitative Qualitative
method elicitation, observation elicitation, observation
Technique Experiment, questionnaire, analytical
survey
Interview, narrative record, case
study
Sample Large, generalized Small, particularized, small groups
reconciliationism, eclecticism, multiplicity
a degree of certainty is possible to make predictions about objects of study but
these are open to dispute and interpretation
action research (case study)
timeframe cross-sectional longitudinal
purpose exploratory descriptive explanatory interpretive
The two methodologies stand on the opposite ends of a CONTINUUM:
A. POSITIVISTIC perspective:
- the world is describable, provable, measurable
- methods are highly structured
- deductive testing of hypotheses which are sought to be supported or refuted
- methodology:
1. experimental research:
experiment is carried out in laboratory env. (must be replicable)
2 groups: experimental – receives the treatment
control – does not
- variables (dep. and indep.) are manipulated with
- rigorous, reliable methods: quantitative methods used to large amount of data
- generalization is made from sample to population
2. Quasi-experimental research - when it is diff. to find experimental and control group,
existing groups are examined in their natural setting: independent variable is not
manipulated
with
- used in SCIENCES, or some social sciences where hypotheses are generated, experiments made
(e.g. psychology experiments using behaviourist paradigm which sees human behaviour as
mechanical and predictable)
B. POSTPOSITIVISTIC perspective:
- world is indefinable, interpreted, shifting in meaning dep. on who anyone carries or
adds meaning
-we can ask questions but not get absolutely final answers
-all data will need to be interpreted in context
-meanining is not fixed – we make meaning rather than discover it
- we understand by making links, interpreting contexts
-our findings are relative – can be differently interpreted in different contexts
- =inductive app. = it MAKES theory, NOT TESTS it
-more likely to use qualitative methods
- methodology:
The two perspectives compared:
positivistic postpositivistic
hypothesis testing generating theories
Samples: large small
Data specific, precise
quantitative
rich, subjective
qualitative
Reliability high low
Validity low high
Generalizes fom sample to population from one setting to another
3. Qualitative and quantitative research = two research approaches/types
Quantitative research (QTR) methodology
originated and developed in „natural“ sciences
assumption: a phenomenon can be grasped, measured as to its volume/size/
capacity/intensity/frequency/duration etc., and quantified
is connected with the hypothetico-deductive model of science:
a/ theory formulation
b/ deduction
c/ definition
d/ measurement/observation
e/ hypothesis testing
f/ verification
Crucial criteria: validity
reliability
2 types of QTR
- experimental
-researcher intentionally causes a change of situation, then measures behaviour
= independent variable X is altered and measures changes in dependent variable Y
X→Y
- non-experimental
researcher does not change situation
measurement of more variables:
mediating/intervening v.(I) X→I→Y
moderating v. (M) X→M→Y
Basic methods: features advantages Experiment Y is exactly detectable precision
Statistical research random sampling representative
Measurement of variables hypothesis testing
Official statistics data from the past large data corpora
Structured observation precisely set protocol reliability
Content analysis presence of categories reliability
is measured
QTR advantages disadvantages
Testing theories categories chosen by researcher need not correspond to
local specificities
Conditions anipulated to exclude researcher may forget st. else by focusing on particularity
intervening variables
Generalizability for entire population knowledge may be too abstract/general to be applied to
local context
Quick and straightforward data gathering
Exact numerical data
Quick data analysis (PC)
Results independent of resercher
Useful with large groups
QTR in social sciences
tries to imitate this ´ideal of research´
Assumption: human behaviour is measurable and predictable
Problem: QTR in social sciences has reached its peak
Drawbacks of QTR in social sciences:
- „objectivity“ is only ideal, can never be fully achieved
- presence of researchers´ values, intuition
Qualitative research (QLR) methodology
two sources:
- realizations of limitations of QTR
- ´epistemological turn´ in philosophy
does not exist any one single way of doing QLR but different approaches, schools
two definitions: „negative“: QLR = that r.which does not use quantitative data
„positive“ QLR = a search of sense and understanding, offer a complex
holistic picture of situation, of participants´ opinions in
their circumstances
QLR features:
- conducted over intensive contact with the group in casual, everyday situations
- R-er strives for an integratedc view of the object of study, explicit and implicit rules
functioning in the given setting
- R-er strives to make sense of participants´ actions, how they organize their casual acivities
- less standardized methods for gathering data are used – transcripts, field notes,diaries, ...
- data are inductively analyzed and interpreted, R-er is not doing puzzle-solving but detective
work
Basic methods: features advantages Observation long time understanding subculture
Texts/documents analysis of meaning, organization, use theoretical understanding
Interview reltively unstructured understanding experience
Audio/videorecordings exact transcripts of natural encounters understanding processes of int.
Critique of QLR:
-presents collection of subjective impressions
-lacks formal structure, transparency
- difficult to replicate, generalize and formalize
Positive features of QLR:
-in-depth insight of a matter, in progress, context-sensitivity
QLR advantages disadvantages -Detailed description+insight of individuals, knowledge need not be generalizable
Group, phenomenon, event to population
-phenomenon in its natural setting difficult to make quantitatie predictions
-processes are studied difficult to test hypotheses/theories
-enables to suggest theories data gathering/analysis are timely
-racts well to local conditions results easily to be influenced by researcher
-looks for local causal relationships
-helps with initial exploration of phenomenon
Approaches within QLR:
ethnogaphy, phenomenology, CA, DA, symbolic interactionism, grounded theor, constructivism,
critical theory, ecological psychology
Comparing QTR and QLR
-the basic difference bet. QTR and QLR is not in (not)using quantitative data but in philosophical
(= epistemological and ontological) foundations -philosophy of QTR is mostly based on positivism
Premises: exists objective world, has universal features
is unitary, stable, its existence is verifiable
independent of people, of their beliefs, convictions
describable, manipulable, measurable, explainable
SCIENCE can capture causal relations bet.phenomena
In social sciences: society, like the natural world, is subject to fixed
laws, behaviour can be determined
-philosophy of QLR is based on postpositivism/constructivism
Premises of postpositivism:
science can render objective reality only PARTIALLY, not entirely
objective knowledge can be approached, never fully obtained
perfect knowledge is illusionary
Premises of constructivism:
reality is socially constructed Exist many versions of the social world
language (and other symbolic systems) doesn´t reflect the world, but
shapes it: How we see is what we see
scientific theories are different versions of the world
undergo permanent change, revision, reevaluation
are not representatives of facts, but versions,
perspectives of the world
humans do not mechanically react to outer stimuli but actively interpret
researcher´s role to understand people´s actions
interpretate their behaviour
discover how people construct their reality +
understand it
observe man in his own natural habitat
account also social and cultural aspects of
the life of researched people in interaction with
them
Result of research = how people define their own world/reality
QTR QLR
positivism
postpositivism
weak constructivism
strong constructivism
radical constructivism
QTR QLR
Goals generalization understanding phenomena in their contexts
theory verification/falsification theory generation/
Process controlled setting natural setting
deduction induction
particularity holism
exploration of variables exploration of meaning-making
Focus macro (state) micro (classroom)
Data hard, reliable soft, in-depth
Persons randomly selected deliberately selected
Population,large groups small groups, individuals
Research heavily structured loosely structured
Methods questionnaire
Scaling
Structured interview unstructured interview
Structured observation unstructured observation
Experiment human product analysis
Publication brief elaborate
Individual lost individual in the foreground
Matter-of-factness „we“
Summary:
- neither research is better/worse, they are not cotradictory, but complementary
- they perform different functions, lead to different results
- both contribute to the enlargement of our knowledge of humans in their social world
Mixed research (MR) = implementation of QTR and QLR in a single research
Types of MR
1. QLR and QTR methods are used one after another
2. QLR and QTR methods are used inside each phase
advantages disadvantages words/narration ...reinforce numbers difficult to conduct by one researcher only
numbers make word meanings more exact researcher must be skilled in more methods
may compansate for the deficiency of the other resented by methodological purists
greater generalizability
more complex knowledge of a phenomenon
4. Projecting research design in social sciences
Research design = overarching plan for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
Elaboration of workable research design is a researcher´s primary task; it involves:
- describing purpose of the study, eg addressing a real-life problem to be solved
- grounding of research in research tradition, incl. surveying academic literature
- setting the research topic, hypothesis/research question
- deciding on the type of research, its overall approach (syn/dia, qual/quant,ind/ded)
- selecting research methodology: type of data and techniques of their collection
- selecting samples, processing and interpretation data
- addressing the validity and reliability of research
Stages of research – an overview of different approaches:
G. Wisker (2008):
→ ideas → plan → activities → assess and evaluate → ideas → replan → activities → ...
Silverman (2005):
Model → concept → theory → hypothesis → methodology → method → finding
↑ ↓
← ← ← ← ← ←
Model (paradigm/“idiom“) = ontology, epistemology
Concept = an idea derived from the given model expressed in a lexeme
Theory a set of concepts used to define/explanation of a phenomenon
= consists of acceptable relations between (sets of) concepts
Hypothesis = a testable proposition, scientific assumption, tentative answer to a problem,
can be derived deductively from theory, or inductively from observation,
Note: Hypothesis vs. Research question:
Hypothesis is constructed and tested to examine whether there are logical/causal relationships
between events/things, possible correlation between multiple phenomena
-Gr. hypothesis = to suppose/suggest something that can be tested/tried out
-usu. used in (natural) sciences and some social sciences, is based on a scientific theory, previous
research
- investigation/experimentation is used to test it, hypothesis is confirmed/(dis)proved
Research question is used when we believe that knowledge is constructed rather than provable
-explores relationships between people, events and contexts
- advancing understanding/awareness of interpretations of meaning in the area
- research addresses questions, produces conclusions
Methodology/approach = overall approach to the study of a problem
e.g. quantitative or qualitative approach
Method = overall procedure to gather data: observation, elicitation
Technique = concrete research procedure to gather data: QLR: intervew, observation, document analysis, transcript analysis (ethnomethodology),
historical analysis,
QTR: questionnaire, statistics, survey, experiment, statistics, content analysis
Pavlík´s (2006) research wheel (in QTR)
... → idea/problem → study of literature → theoretical framework → variables → hypotheses →
research design/sampling → data collection → data analysis→ interpretation of results →
idea/problem → ...
Research design = overall plan to carry out research
Includes: approach, method, mode, technique, data collection, analysis and interpreattion, consideration of validity,
reliability and ethical factors
Gavora (2007) - stages of research in QLR:
two types of research:
A.Closed sample research:
-closed sample is defined, later is not expanded
-empirical data is gathered about it (notes, recordings, transcripts, documents ...)
-data is processed, analysed, interpreted
-data analysis is recursive = from data to interpretations
- theory is formed – on the basis of the data, not in advance!
Disadvantage – lesser flexibility, used when researcher has no possibility to return to the site
B. Analytical induction approach cycle:
1st sample + data analysis
↓
preliminary hypothesis
↓
next sample analysis
↓
reformulated hypothesis ←
↓ ↓ ↑
(nsample) deviant case → disproved hypothesis
↓
hypothesis proved
↓
theory
Note:
1. QLR has no rigorously given research project at the start (as QTR), but a research framework which is
specified and adjusted in the course of research
Cf. QTR poject = architect´s design, QLR project = ship´s voyage 2. hypothesis in QLR are different from QTR, it does not relate variables and test them
4. while in QTR hypotheses are the essential fuel of research, in many types of QLR there is no
concrete hypothesis in the beginning of research, it may be formulated in the early stages of
research, rather, research questions are formulated, hence often no explicitely formulated variables
and their testing is employed
5. the method of inductive continuous building of a new theory, not taking over old theory, is prototypical
for QLR
5. Research methods and techniques in collecting data ... we seldom (perhaps never) get certainty from our research. Even when we have statistics, the way we interpret these
statistics is open to disagreement. [...] Just because we can´t be certain about or interpretations of data [...] doesn´t
mean that anything goes and that we can offer interpretations without giving good reasons for these interpretations. It
is our research [...] that supplies us with the „reasons“ [...] It´s best to think of academics spending their careers
trying to prove that their way of looking at whatever portion of the world they look at is correct. [...] Thinking doesn´t
make it so. You have to have some kind of evidence that a reasonable peron can accept. And that evidence comes from
research. (Berger 2000: 7-8)
Pavlík (2006) - 4-level framework of data collection:
Approach: = axiomatic: viewpoint, perspective, philosophy
method: = procedural: observation, elicitation
technique: elicitation – questionnaire, interview, inquiry, subjective reaction test
observation – narrative records, field notes
mode: audial, visual, audiovisual
Berger (2000) - three ways of getting information in Media and Communication research: asking them about what they are doing → QTR: elicitation
observing what they do → QLR: observation
analyzing their texts → textual analysis
three types of research methodologies: Quantitative (used to describe, explain and predict, count, measure and
process data, lend temselves to statistical manipulation)
experiment
survey questionnaire (=self-administered interview)
interview
content analysis = systematic/objective classification and description of
content acc. to certain predetermined categories
statistical research
Qualitative (used to evaluate, explicate and interpret):
(in-depth)interview –informal/unstructured/semistructured/structured
observation
historical analysis – biogaphical, regional, institutional, selected, editorial
study ethnomethodological research
incl. narrative records, field notes
Textual analysis methods:
Semiotic analysis, rhetorical analysis, ideological criticism, psychoanalytic criticism
Gavora (2007) -four methods of qualitative research:
observation, interview, content analysis, case study
Hendl (2008): qualitative research approaches:
case study, ethnographic research, grounded theory, phenomenology, biographic
research, document analysis, historical analysis, action research, critical research
data collection methods:
interview, observation, document study
6. Data analysis
empirical data for analysis are obtained from data collection techniques
types of data
o numerical/quantitative
o are brought about esp. by elicitation methods (e.g. questionnaire)
o their analysis consists of
identification of variants (i.e. occurrences of individual values of variables)
using descriptive statistics to process them, e.g. measures of central tendency
(mode, median, mean), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation)
o non-numerical/qualitative
o are brought about esp. by observation methods (ethnography)
o their analysis consists of searching for and processing participants´ attitudes and/or
experiences, motivations, values, meanings they attach to their own and other´s actions with
the goal of offering a theory of the phenomenon
cf. theory vs. description
theory is more abstract, complex, aims at generalization
description is more concrete, rooted in the particulars, acceptable at lower
stage of research; ´thick description´ = describing long sections of transcripts
growth of QLR has been notable esp. since 1980s:
There is too much dissatisfaction going on. Some things which are numerically precise are not
true; and some things which are not numerical are true. Orthodox research produces results
which are statistically sinificant but humanly insignificant; in human enquiry it is much better to be deeply
interesting than accurately boring.
Steps in analysing qualitative data and forming theory:
1.arrangement/sorting out of data, making transcripts
2.repeated reading of data
3. condensation of recurrent empirical data into categories, which are
building blocks of theories
4. searching for relations bet.categories
5.explaining relationships between categories = offering a theory
Data interpretation = the goal of research
Stages (Pavlik 2006):
1. description of results
2. explanation of results
3. large-scale generalization
7.Research quality: Reliability and validity
Quality of research is given by – reliability, validity (+ generalizablity, objectivity)
Reliability o = the extent to which a research technique provides the same result on
repeated trials
o = consistency and objectivity of instrument, method, technique, researcher
o = accuracy of measurement = how accurately an instrument measures what
it is intended to measure (Pavlík)
o =spoľahlivosť a presnosť (Gavora)
o consistency with which different researchers place the a phenomenon into the same
category (Silverman)
checked by replicated research checks whether the instrument produces
consistent results
unproblematic in QTR (laboratory experiments) but problematic in QLR (field
research), hence replication is NOT reliable in QLR
Validity
o degree to which a study accurately reflects/assesses the specific concept that is
attempted to be measured
o = ability of instrument, method, technique, researcher to do what it is designed to do,
how well an instrument does what it should do (Pavlík)
o =platnosť, pravdivosť, autentickosť (Gavora)
o degree of adequacy to which an account represents social phenomena
which it talks about (Silverman)
cf. reliability = accuracy of the measuring instrument/procedure
validity = success at measuring what the researchers set out to measure
ex. questionnaire is reliable if it produces the same responses from respondents
valid if it obtains the desired information
8.Ethical Issues in Research
Principles of research involving respondents:
1 voluntary participation
2 informed consent
3 confidentiality, privacy and dignity
4 anonymity
Literature:
Berger, A. A. (2000). Media and Communication Research Methods. Sage.
Gavora, P. (2007). Sprievodca metodológiou kvalitatívneho výskumu. Bratislava: UK.
Grey, D. (2009). Doing Research in the Real World. Sage.
Hendl, J. (2008). Kvalitativní výzkum. Praha: Portál.
Kerlinger, F.N. and Lee, H.B. (2000). Foundations of Behaviourial Research. Fort Worth:
Hartcourt College Publishers.
Pavlík, R. (2006). Elements of Sociolinguistics. Bratislava: UK. (p. 56-99)
Sekaran, U. (2007). Researc Methods for Business. New York: John Wiley.
Silverman, D. (2005). Ako robiť kvalitatívny výskum. Batislava: Pegas.
Walliman, N. and Buckler, S. (2008). Your dissertation in education. Sage.
Wisker, G. (2008). The Postgraduate Research Handbook. Palgrave.