1.Research methods in social sciences

Introduction

The driving force behind science is human curiosity

o = a compulsion to get to know the surrounding world and make sense of it

o combined with an effort to explain, exploit and improve it

cognition (poznávanie/poznanie) = a precondition for science

Types of cognition:

o practical, casual, common

random, driven by common needs

practically oriented: cf. buying the best/cheapest product on the

market

everybody is a lay researcher!

o scientific systematic

employs specialized procedures, sophisticated methods and technical

apparata

precisely describes, analyzes and categorizes phenomena

explains relations between them

less practically oriented, aimed at constructing scientific theories with

which to explain the world

Criteria Commonsense reasoning Scientific research D

I

F

F

E

R

E

N

T

knowledge Random, practically oriented methodically systemized

cognition Driven by common needs Institutionally organized

orderliness given by subjective importance scientific paradigm

reality approached as Real, factually existing,

undoubtable

Real under certain

conditions

language matching real world Abstract, contrived,

terminology

knowledge communicated primarily orally in written medium

scepticism and alternatives avoided sought and systemized

COMMON

Cognitive processes: generalization, abstraction, induction,

deduction

Formulation of hypotheses

Foreseeing future events

SCIENCE – 2 senses:

o an aggregate of systematically classified knowledge of a particular area of reality

o a process of systematic generation of knowledge

RESEARCH

o Lat re (again) + cercier = to search for

Cf.French chercher = seek: Cherchez la famme.

a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs

a solution (Sekran 2007:4)

o a systematic cognitive inquiry into a subject with the aim of

finding a solution to some problem

to confirm/refute existing data

gather new data

o conducted in pursuit of an answer to a research question/problem

o carried out within the framework of science through the use of specific rules,

principles, methods and procedures

o tasks = description, explanation, prediction

o scientific paradigm a generally accepted set of beliefs and ways of defining and explaining

the object of study, asking research questions and conducting research

is valid within a given area of science over a particular time period

paradigm shift = an ´old´ paradigm is overriden with a ´new´ one with a

greater explanatory potential

T.Kuhn: all sciences are products of different perspectives, schools

o contemporary science is pluriparadigmatic

has no single unified character

is determined by complex social processes

is dependent upon particular cultural contexts and value systems

SCIENTIFIC THEORY

„a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present

a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the

pupose of explaining and predicting phenomena“

(Kerlinger and Lee, 2000: 9)

o = a system of concepts and propositions which explains certain phenomena

o enables understanding, explanation, evaluation and prediction of phenomena

o criteria of scientific value of a theory:

logically constructed

clearly and concisely formulated

in correspondence with the available data

testable with the use of data

general

predictive

falsifiable

K. Popper: a theory is falsifiable if its basic tenets can be made

disputable with the use of empirical data, if not, the theory is

metaphysical

o is constantly in flux – ´new´ theories replace ´old´ ones

o scientific concepts = building blocks of a theory

function: define, classify and generalize aspects of reality

offer a perspective of reality

build up propositions

METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE:

o is concerned with proposing and assessment of research strategies and methods

o metatheoretical discipline, deals with science building, philosophy/ logic/

sociology/ psychology of sience

METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

o methodological chapter is an essential part of any thesis!

o provides research ´philosophy´

o helps clarify research design – overarching structure of research:

relates methods of data gathering, methodology, theoretical perspective research

epistemology and ontology

ontology → epistemology → theoretical perspective → methodology → methods

Basic aspects of research:

o ONTOLOGY = the study of what is, of the essence of phenomena

What is the reality like?

what is the nature of the object of study?

is it independent of the researcher´s perception?

is it dependent on/determined by the researcher´s a priori presuppositions?

Two ontological traditions of Western thought

the ontology of becoming → the world is changing and emerging

(Heracllitus of Ephesus)

the ontology of being → the world is unchanging and permanent (Parmenides)

reality is composed of clearly formed, stable entities

accurately representable by symbols

has been dominating throughout the history

only recently has been challenged by the ´becoming´ o.

o EPISTEMOLOGY = the study of what kind of knowledge is legitimate, valid,

adequate

How can we get to know/learn about the reality?

how do we arrive at knowledge (= poznanie)?

Within the ontology of being we recognize three epistemologies:

Objectivism: reality exists objectively, ´out there´, independently of consciousness

research objective = discover the truth

closely related theoretical perspective = positivism

Constructivism: truth and meaning do not exist objectively

are not ´discovered´ by the subject

meaning is constructed, created by the

subject´s interaction with the world

subjects may differ in the construction of meaning

closely related theoretical perspective = interpretivism

Subjectivism: meaning is imposed on the object by the subject

closely related theoretical perspective = postmodernism

ontology: being becoming

epistemology: objectivist constructivist subjectivist

theor. perspective positivism postpositivism

(interpretivism)

p o s t m o d e r n i s m

approach deductive inductive

procedure quantitative qualitative

methodology experiment case study ethnography

timeframe longitudinal cross sectional

methods statistics, content analysis. questionnaire, observation, interview

Methodology of research is an applied scientific discipline

o accumulates information on planning, organizing, executing and assessing

research

two broad conceptions: quantitative - older, more accepted

qualitative – since 1970s, slowly gaining reputation

mixed

RESEARCH PROCESS

o = process of acquisition of knowledge by means of systematic analysis of data

acquired through esteablished procedures

o Goal = improved understanding of the social world

prediction and/or management of social processes

o Objectives of research:

Exploration - examination of a new phenomenon

- precedes complex research

Description - focuses on specific features of a phenomenon

Explanation - attempts to explain a phenomenon, process

is based on exploratory and descriptive research

Prediction - strives to bring about a change in the object of study

TYPES of research:

Basic/fundamental/pure - carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles

- goal = increase basic knowledge

- results may have no direct or immediate benefits (can be thought of as arising out

of curiosity).

- eventually it may become the basis for many commercial products and applied

research

- Is mainly carried out in laboratotries, universities

Applied research - seeks a practical implementation of results

includes: action r. - solution of practical local problems

critical r. - aims at disclosing and changing inequalities

Characteristic FEATURES of research:

o permanent cyclical process has no real beginning and end

research generates new research questions, hence no theory is definite,

not immutable, each theory carries a potential to be developed/improved/

adjusted/modified or refuted

Research wheel (R. Pavlík)

→ idea/problem → study of literature → theoretical framework → variables → hypotheses →

research design/sampling → data collection → data analysis→ interpretation of results →

idea/problem

idea/problem

interpretation of results study of literature

data analysis theoretical framework

data collection variables

hypotheses research design/sampling

o subject to critical control/assessment of research procedures and findings =

a typical feature of scientific research

- control procedures: publications,

defence procedures,

reviewing manuscripts

o scientific metalanguage – scientific terms (= monosemantic words with denotative

meanings)

-common wordstock words used with specific meanings: face, footing, line, politic

- foreign words: hypothesis, habitus

- neologisms:

o compartmentalization of knowledge into scientific disciplines

the mother of sciences = philosophy

division of sciences into „two cultures“:

natural sciences - focus on scientific explanation of the laws of nature

humanities - use method of interpretation of culture and mental products of

humans; also liberal arts (slobodné umenia)

social sciences 19C onwards – history, economy, sociology, political sciences,

anthropology, ethnography, geography, psychology,

legal studies

basic disciplines: linguistics

interdisciplines: sociolinguistics, neurolinguistcs, ethnolinguistics ...

o institutional and social character: research institutions,

researchers and societies,

communication networks

RESEARCH METHOD

= an overall procedure employed in research to gather the data (observation, elicitation ...)

- depends on the area of research

cf. technique = a concrete procedure to obtain data: interview

→ method = elicitation, technique = interview

STAGES of research process:

identification of an area of research

definition of a research problem

statement of a goal of research

formulation of a research question

articulation of a research hypothesis

selection of methodology

setting up a research plan

collection and analysis of data

interpretation of data

Note:

Research question can be modified, but the goal remains defined

The process can be iterative = certain stages may be repeated

Reformulation of the question, methodology, data collection and

interpretation

WHY study research methodology?

- knowledge is an integral part of the training of any social scientist

- practical outcome: designing and carrying out one´s own project research (MA thesis) =

practical know-how

- mainly to understand one´s own and others research, to critically reflect on research findings

- research captures the entire researcher´s personality: intellect + intuition, imagination,

creativity + emotions (joy, sadness)

- source of intellectual pleasure and satisfaction – satiates human curiosity

2. Research perspectives/approaches and methodology

RM is determined by ´how we see the world´ = worldview, philosophy:

Res. perspective = philosophical asumptions underlying research

Res. methodology = rationale supporting the choice of methods, based on researcher´s

worldview

Question: What methods can we use to acquire valid knowledge?

How to acquire data and analyze them?

through DIRECT OBSERVATION of the world?

→ empiricism, positivism, objectivism all knowledge is based on experience derived from senses

through the RATIONAL OPERATIONS with a priori categories of

reason?

→ rationalism, antipositivism, subjectivism, interpretativism all knowledge is based on experience derived from reason

Ontology = how you experience/perceive the world

e.g. knowability of the world, sharing the same sense of reality or perceving it

differently

Epistemology = ways in which disciplines construct, represent and interpret knowledge in the

world

The nature of

knowledge/ontology

Derived from senses

(by observation)?

Derived from reason

(by rational operations)?

Epistemology/theor.

perspective/approach

Positivism, empiricism, objectivism,

relativism Postpositivism, rationalism,

Subjectivism, interpretativism

Type of data Hard, real, objective, attached to the

object of study

Soft, subjective, created in an

individual´s mind

Methodology Experimental, quasi-experimental Phenomenological, ethnographic

...

Procedures Quantitative Qualitative

method elicitation, observation elicitation, observation

Technique Experiment, questionnaire, analytical

survey

Interview, narrative record, case

study

Sample Large, generalized Small, particularized, small groups

reconciliationism, eclecticism, multiplicity

a degree of certainty is possible to make predictions about objects of study but

these are open to dispute and interpretation

action research (case study)

timeframe cross-sectional longitudinal

purpose exploratory descriptive explanatory interpretive

The two methodologies stand on the opposite ends of a CONTINUUM:

A. POSITIVISTIC perspective:

- the world is describable, provable, measurable

- methods are highly structured

- deductive testing of hypotheses which are sought to be supported or refuted

- methodology:

1. experimental research:

experiment is carried out in laboratory env. (must be replicable)

2 groups: experimental – receives the treatment

control – does not

- variables (dep. and indep.) are manipulated with

- rigorous, reliable methods: quantitative methods used to large amount of data

- generalization is made from sample to population

2. Quasi-experimental research - when it is diff. to find experimental and control group,

existing groups are examined in their natural setting: independent variable is not

manipulated

with

- used in SCIENCES, or some social sciences where hypotheses are generated, experiments made

(e.g. psychology experiments using behaviourist paradigm which sees human behaviour as

mechanical and predictable)

B. POSTPOSITIVISTIC perspective:

- world is indefinable, interpreted, shifting in meaning dep. on who anyone carries or

adds meaning

-we can ask questions but not get absolutely final answers

-all data will need to be interpreted in context

-meanining is not fixed – we make meaning rather than discover it

- we understand by making links, interpreting contexts

-our findings are relative – can be differently interpreted in different contexts

- =inductive app. = it MAKES theory, NOT TESTS it

-more likely to use qualitative methods

- methodology:

The two perspectives compared:

positivistic postpositivistic

hypothesis testing generating theories

Samples: large small

Data specific, precise

quantitative

rich, subjective

qualitative

Reliability high low

Validity low high

Generalizes fom sample to population from one setting to another

3. Qualitative and quantitative research = two research approaches/types

Quantitative research (QTR) methodology

originated and developed in „natural“ sciences

assumption: a phenomenon can be grasped, measured as to its volume/size/

capacity/intensity/frequency/duration etc., and quantified

is connected with the hypothetico-deductive model of science:

a/ theory formulation

b/ deduction

c/ definition

d/ measurement/observation

e/ hypothesis testing

f/ verification

Crucial criteria: validity

reliability

2 types of QTR

- experimental

-researcher intentionally causes a change of situation, then measures behaviour

= independent variable X is altered and measures changes in dependent variable Y

X→Y

- non-experimental

researcher does not change situation

measurement of more variables:

mediating/intervening v.(I) X→I→Y

moderating v. (M) X→M→Y

Basic methods: features advantages Experiment Y is exactly detectable precision

Statistical research random sampling representative

Measurement of variables hypothesis testing

Official statistics data from the past large data corpora

Structured observation precisely set protocol reliability

Content analysis presence of categories reliability

is measured

QTR advantages disadvantages

Testing theories categories chosen by researcher need not correspond to

local specificities

Conditions anipulated to exclude researcher may forget st. else by focusing on particularity

intervening variables

Generalizability for entire population knowledge may be too abstract/general to be applied to

local context

Quick and straightforward data gathering

Exact numerical data

Quick data analysis (PC)

Results independent of resercher

Useful with large groups

QTR in social sciences

tries to imitate this ´ideal of research´

Assumption: human behaviour is measurable and predictable

Problem: QTR in social sciences has reached its peak

Drawbacks of QTR in social sciences:

- „objectivity“ is only ideal, can never be fully achieved

- presence of researchers´ values, intuition

Qualitative research (QLR) methodology

two sources:

- realizations of limitations of QTR

- ´epistemological turn´ in philosophy

does not exist any one single way of doing QLR but different approaches, schools

two definitions: „negative“: QLR = that r.which does not use quantitative data

„positive“ QLR = a search of sense and understanding, offer a complex

holistic picture of situation, of participants´ opinions in

their circumstances

QLR features:

- conducted over intensive contact with the group in casual, everyday situations

- R-er strives for an integratedc view of the object of study, explicit and implicit rules

functioning in the given setting

- R-er strives to make sense of participants´ actions, how they organize their casual acivities

- less standardized methods for gathering data are used – transcripts, field notes,diaries, ...

- data are inductively analyzed and interpreted, R-er is not doing puzzle-solving but detective

work

Basic methods: features advantages Observation long time understanding subculture

Texts/documents analysis of meaning, organization, use theoretical understanding

Interview reltively unstructured understanding experience

Audio/videorecordings exact transcripts of natural encounters understanding processes of int.

Critique of QLR:

-presents collection of subjective impressions

-lacks formal structure, transparency

- difficult to replicate, generalize and formalize

Positive features of QLR:

-in-depth insight of a matter, in progress, context-sensitivity

QLR advantages disadvantages -Detailed description+insight of individuals, knowledge need not be generalizable

Group, phenomenon, event to population

-phenomenon in its natural setting difficult to make quantitatie predictions

-processes are studied difficult to test hypotheses/theories

-enables to suggest theories data gathering/analysis are timely

-racts well to local conditions results easily to be influenced by researcher

-looks for local causal relationships

-helps with initial exploration of phenomenon

Approaches within QLR:

ethnogaphy, phenomenology, CA, DA, symbolic interactionism, grounded theor, constructivism,

critical theory, ecological psychology

Comparing QTR and QLR

-the basic difference bet. QTR and QLR is not in (not)using quantitative data but in philosophical

(= epistemological and ontological) foundations -philosophy of QTR is mostly based on positivism

Premises: exists objective world, has universal features

is unitary, stable, its existence is verifiable

independent of people, of their beliefs, convictions

describable, manipulable, measurable, explainable

SCIENCE can capture causal relations bet.phenomena

In social sciences: society, like the natural world, is subject to fixed

laws, behaviour can be determined

-philosophy of QLR is based on postpositivism/constructivism

Premises of postpositivism:

science can render objective reality only PARTIALLY, not entirely

objective knowledge can be approached, never fully obtained

perfect knowledge is illusionary

Premises of constructivism:

reality is socially constructed Exist many versions of the social world

language (and other symbolic systems) doesn´t reflect the world, but

shapes it: How we see is what we see

scientific theories are different versions of the world

undergo permanent change, revision, reevaluation

are not representatives of facts, but versions,

perspectives of the world

humans do not mechanically react to outer stimuli but actively interpret

researcher´s role to understand people´s actions

interpretate their behaviour

discover how people construct their reality +

understand it

observe man in his own natural habitat

account also social and cultural aspects of

the life of researched people in interaction with

them

Result of research = how people define their own world/reality

QTR QLR

positivism

postpositivism

weak constructivism

strong constructivism

radical constructivism

QTR QLR

Goals generalization understanding phenomena in their contexts

theory verification/falsification theory generation/

Process controlled setting natural setting

deduction induction

particularity holism

exploration of variables exploration of meaning-making

Focus macro (state) micro (classroom)

Data hard, reliable soft, in-depth

Persons randomly selected deliberately selected

Population,large groups small groups, individuals

Research heavily structured loosely structured

Methods questionnaire

Scaling

Structured interview unstructured interview

Structured observation unstructured observation

Experiment human product analysis

Publication brief elaborate

Individual lost individual in the foreground

Matter-of-factness „we“

Summary:

- neither research is better/worse, they are not cotradictory, but complementary

- they perform different functions, lead to different results

- both contribute to the enlargement of our knowledge of humans in their social world

Mixed research (MR) = implementation of QTR and QLR in a single research

Types of MR

1. QLR and QTR methods are used one after another

2. QLR and QTR methods are used inside each phase

advantages disadvantages words/narration ...reinforce numbers difficult to conduct by one researcher only

numbers make word meanings more exact researcher must be skilled in more methods

may compansate for the deficiency of the other resented by methodological purists

greater generalizability

more complex knowledge of a phenomenon

4. Projecting research design in social sciences

Research design = overarching plan for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

Elaboration of workable research design is a researcher´s primary task; it involves:

- describing purpose of the study, eg addressing a real-life problem to be solved

- grounding of research in research tradition, incl. surveying academic literature

- setting the research topic, hypothesis/research question

- deciding on the type of research, its overall approach (syn/dia, qual/quant,ind/ded)

- selecting research methodology: type of data and techniques of their collection

- selecting samples, processing and interpretation data

- addressing the validity and reliability of research

Stages of research – an overview of different approaches:

G. Wisker (2008):

→ ideas → plan → activities → assess and evaluate → ideas → replan → activities → ...

Silverman (2005):

Model → concept → theory → hypothesis → methodology → method → finding

↑ ↓

← ← ← ← ← ←

Model (paradigm/“idiom“) = ontology, epistemology

Concept = an idea derived from the given model expressed in a lexeme

Theory a set of concepts used to define/explanation of a phenomenon

= consists of acceptable relations between (sets of) concepts

Hypothesis = a testable proposition, scientific assumption, tentative answer to a problem,

can be derived deductively from theory, or inductively from observation,

Note: Hypothesis vs. Research question:

Hypothesis is constructed and tested to examine whether there are logical/causal relationships

between events/things, possible correlation between multiple phenomena

-Gr. hypothesis = to suppose/suggest something that can be tested/tried out

-usu. used in (natural) sciences and some social sciences, is based on a scientific theory, previous

research

- investigation/experimentation is used to test it, hypothesis is confirmed/(dis)proved

Research question is used when we believe that knowledge is constructed rather than provable

-explores relationships between people, events and contexts

- advancing understanding/awareness of interpretations of meaning in the area

- research addresses questions, produces conclusions

Methodology/approach = overall approach to the study of a problem

e.g. quantitative or qualitative approach

Method = overall procedure to gather data: observation, elicitation

Technique = concrete research procedure to gather data: QLR: intervew, observation, document analysis, transcript analysis (ethnomethodology),

historical analysis,

QTR: questionnaire, statistics, survey, experiment, statistics, content analysis

Pavlík´s (2006) research wheel (in QTR)

... → idea/problem → study of literature → theoretical framework → variables → hypotheses →

research design/sampling → data collection → data analysis→ interpretation of results →

idea/problem → ...

Research design = overall plan to carry out research

Includes: approach, method, mode, technique, data collection, analysis and interpreattion, consideration of validity,

reliability and ethical factors

Gavora (2007) - stages of research in QLR:

two types of research:

A.Closed sample research:

-closed sample is defined, later is not expanded

-empirical data is gathered about it (notes, recordings, transcripts, documents ...)

-data is processed, analysed, interpreted

-data analysis is recursive = from data to interpretations

- theory is formed – on the basis of the data, not in advance!

Disadvantage – lesser flexibility, used when researcher has no possibility to return to the site

B. Analytical induction approach cycle:

1st sample + data analysis

↓

preliminary hypothesis

↓

next sample analysis

↓

reformulated hypothesis ←

↓ ↓ ↑

(nsample) deviant case → disproved hypothesis

↓

hypothesis proved

↓

theory

Note:

1. QLR has no rigorously given research project at the start (as QTR), but a research framework which is

specified and adjusted in the course of research

Cf. QTR poject = architect´s design, QLR project = ship´s voyage 2. hypothesis in QLR are different from QTR, it does not relate variables and test them

4. while in QTR hypotheses are the essential fuel of research, in many types of QLR there is no

concrete hypothesis in the beginning of research, it may be formulated in the early stages of

research, rather, research questions are formulated, hence often no explicitely formulated variables

and their testing is employed

5. the method of inductive continuous building of a new theory, not taking over old theory, is prototypical

for QLR

5. Research methods and techniques in collecting data ... we seldom (perhaps never) get certainty from our research. Even when we have statistics, the way we interpret these

statistics is open to disagreement. [...] Just because we can´t be certain about or interpretations of data [...] doesn´t

mean that anything goes and that we can offer interpretations without giving good reasons for these interpretations. It

is our research [...] that supplies us with the „reasons“ [...] It´s best to think of academics spending their careers

trying to prove that their way of looking at whatever portion of the world they look at is correct. [...] Thinking doesn´t

make it so. You have to have some kind of evidence that a reasonable peron can accept. And that evidence comes from

research. (Berger 2000: 7-8)

Pavlík (2006) - 4-level framework of data collection:

Approach: = axiomatic: viewpoint, perspective, philosophy

method: = procedural: observation, elicitation

technique: elicitation – questionnaire, interview, inquiry, subjective reaction test

observation – narrative records, field notes

mode: audial, visual, audiovisual

Berger (2000) - three ways of getting information in Media and Communication research: asking them about what they are doing → QTR: elicitation

observing what they do → QLR: observation

analyzing their texts → textual analysis

three types of research methodologies: Quantitative (used to describe, explain and predict, count, measure and

process data, lend temselves to statistical manipulation)

experiment

survey questionnaire (=self-administered interview)

interview

content analysis = systematic/objective classification and description of

content acc. to certain predetermined categories

statistical research

Qualitative (used to evaluate, explicate and interpret):

(in-depth)interview –informal/unstructured/semistructured/structured

observation

historical analysis – biogaphical, regional, institutional, selected, editorial

study ethnomethodological research

incl. narrative records, field notes

Textual analysis methods:

Semiotic analysis, rhetorical analysis, ideological criticism, psychoanalytic criticism

Gavora (2007) -four methods of qualitative research:

observation, interview, content analysis, case study

Hendl (2008): qualitative research approaches:

case study, ethnographic research, grounded theory, phenomenology, biographic

research, document analysis, historical analysis, action research, critical research

data collection methods:

interview, observation, document study

6. Data analysis

empirical data for analysis are obtained from data collection techniques

types of data

o numerical/quantitative

o are brought about esp. by elicitation methods (e.g. questionnaire)

o their analysis consists of

identification of variants (i.e. occurrences of individual values of variables)

using descriptive statistics to process them, e.g. measures of central tendency

(mode, median, mean), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation)

o non-numerical/qualitative

o are brought about esp. by observation methods (ethnography)

o their analysis consists of searching for and processing participants´ attitudes and/or

experiences, motivations, values, meanings they attach to their own and other´s actions with

the goal of offering a theory of the phenomenon

cf. theory vs. description

theory is more abstract, complex, aims at generalization

description is more concrete, rooted in the particulars, acceptable at lower

stage of research; ´thick description´ = describing long sections of transcripts

growth of QLR has been notable esp. since 1980s:

There is too much dissatisfaction going on. Some things which are numerically precise are not

true; and some things which are not numerical are true. Orthodox research produces results

which are statistically sinificant but humanly insignificant; in human enquiry it is much better to be deeply

interesting than accurately boring.

Steps in analysing qualitative data and forming theory:

1.arrangement/sorting out of data, making transcripts

2.repeated reading of data

3. condensation of recurrent empirical data into categories, which are

building blocks of theories

4. searching for relations bet.categories

5.explaining relationships between categories = offering a theory

Data interpretation = the goal of research

Stages (Pavlik 2006):

1. description of results

2. explanation of results

3. large-scale generalization

7.Research quality: Reliability and validity

Quality of research is given by – reliability, validity (+ generalizablity, objectivity)

Reliability o = the extent to which a research technique provides the same result on

repeated trials

o = consistency and objectivity of instrument, method, technique, researcher

o = accuracy of measurement = how accurately an instrument measures what

it is intended to measure (Pavlík)

o =spoľahlivosť a presnosť (Gavora)

o consistency with which different researchers place the a phenomenon into the same

category (Silverman)

checked by replicated research checks whether the instrument produces

consistent results

unproblematic in QTR (laboratory experiments) but problematic in QLR (field

research), hence replication is NOT reliable in QLR

Validity

o degree to which a study accurately reflects/assesses the specific concept that is

attempted to be measured

o = ability of instrument, method, technique, researcher to do what it is designed to do,

how well an instrument does what it should do (Pavlík)

o =platnosť, pravdivosť, autentickosť (Gavora)

o degree of adequacy to which an account represents social phenomena

which it talks about (Silverman)

cf. reliability = accuracy of the measuring instrument/procedure

validity = success at measuring what the researchers set out to measure

ex. questionnaire is reliable if it produces the same responses from respondents

valid if it obtains the desired information

8.Ethical Issues in Research

Principles of research involving respondents:

1 voluntary participation

2 informed consent

3 confidentiality, privacy and dignity

4 anonymity

Literature:

Berger, A. A. (2000). Media and Communication Research Methods. Sage.

Gavora, P. (2007). Sprievodca metodológiou kvalitatívneho výskumu. Bratislava: UK.

Grey, D. (2009). Doing Research in the Real World. Sage.

Hendl, J. (2008). Kvalitativní výzkum. Praha: Portál.

Kerlinger, F.N. and Lee, H.B. (2000). Foundations of Behaviourial Research. Fort Worth:

Hartcourt College Publishers.

Pavlík, R. (2006). Elements of Sociolinguistics. Bratislava: UK. (p. 56-99)

Sekaran, U. (2007). Researc Methods for Business. New York: John Wiley.

Silverman, D. (2005). Ako robiť kvalitatívny výskum. Batislava: Pegas.

Walliman, N. and Buckler, S. (2008). Your dissertation in education. Sage.

Wisker, G. (2008). The Postgraduate Research Handbook. Palgrave.