1

Early Hazard Categorization

In the early days of Civil Defense:

1. Attack, and

2. Natural Hazards

2

E.L. Quarantelli

“To the category of natural hazards. . . has been added the

relatively new category of technological accidents and

mishaps. These are the disasters brought about by human

error and the collective mistakes of groups.”

(Quarantelli, 1984)

Thus: (1) Attack

(2) Natural Hazards

(3) Technological Hazards

3

“Man-Made” Hazards

“Miller and Fowlkes (1984) have argued that the

term ‘technological disaster’ renders such events

too impersonal in origin. They believe that such

‘accidents’ are due mainly to the excessive

priority given to industrial profits and advocate

the term ‘man-made disaster’ to indicate

corporate responsibility.” (Smith 1996)

4

Post-Cold War Taxonomy

1. Natural

2. Technological

3. Man-made

5

Dr. David McEntire

• Natural

– Atmospheric

– Geologic/Seismic

– Hydrologic

– Volcanic

– Wildfire

• Environmental

• Biological

– Disease Outbreaks

– Infestations

• Technological

• Human Induced/Civil

6

John Carroll

• Weather

• Man-Made

• Transport and

Communication

• Medical

• Major

Disturbance

• Energy

7

Laurie Pearce, Gerard Hoetmer

Pearce (2000)

1. Natural

2. Diseases, epidemics,

infestation

3. Person-induced

Hoetmer (1991)

1. Natural

2. Technological

3. Civil

4. Environmental

8

ISDR 2002

1. Natural

2. Technological

3. Environmental Degradation

9

“Environmental Degradation”

• Land degradation

• Deforestation

• Wildland fires

• Loss of

biodiversity

• Pollution of land,

water, and air

• Climate change

• Sea-level rise

• Ozone depletion

10

Temporal Components

• Rapid Onset: Flash floods, tornadoes,

earthquakes

• Slow Onset: Drought, heat waves, cold

waves

• Medium-Term Onset: Flooding,

hurricanes

11

Spatial Components

• Diffuse Hazards: Droughts, heat

waves

• Concentrated Hazards: Chemical

spills, train derailments

12

The “Loss” Component

Expected or possible human and

material loss:

• Low

• Medium

• Heavy

13

Data Limitations

• Vague/inaccurate

• Unavailable

• Poorly collected

• Difficult to collect

• Sketchy

• Exaggerated

• Underestimated

• Minimized

14

Today’s Threefold Distinctions

• Natural

• Technological

• Man (or human)

Made (or caused)

or Civil or Willful

• Natural

• Man-Made

• Hybrid (combined

natural and man-

made)

15

Hazard Classification Trends

Disagreement--whether to:

• Expand classification schemes.

OR

• Reduce hazard classifications.

16

On Classification by Origin

“ . . . in many parts of the world, deforestation has

resulted in increased runoff, which then leads to

catastrophic downstream flooding. Is this a natural or a

socially induced hazard? Or consider the use of

technology to control nature, such as dams and levees. . .

Is a wet-year levee break and the subsequent flooding

that follows a technological, natural, or environmental

hazard?” (Cutter, 2001)

17

On Classification by Origin

“Although I stopped using the natural/technological

disaster distinction long ago, I have always felt that there

are other features that might be used to start to

distinguish certain categories of disasters.

. . . no single dimension is enough on which to

base a typology.”

(Quarantelli, 1998a)

18

On Classification by Origin

“As we have done a number of times before, we want to

restate that to pursue the current popular fad of

distinguishing between so-called natural disasters and

technological disasters is to pursue an unfruitful path.

There are differences between disasters, but they

do not result from their supposed source in nature or

technology, a simple minded common sense distinction

at best.” (Quarantelli, 1987)

19

On Classification: Other Criteria

“. . . disasters caused by technological agents constitute

a distinct genre because the social and behavioral

patterns that occur in emergencies and disasters

involving technological agents differ from those that are

commonly observed in natural disasters, and because the

two types of events tend to differ in their short- and

longer-term consequences.”

(Tierney, Lindell and Perry, 2001)

20

On Classification: Other Criteria

“. . . Natural hazards result from a

lack of control, whereas

technological hazards result from a

loss of control.”

(Pearce, 2000)

21

Areas of Distinction

1. Causation differs.

2. Reactions differ.

3. Consequences differ.

22

Continuation of Distinctions

• Assists in thinking about causes, sources,

consequences and differing reactions to hazard

types.

• Broadens awareness of fuller range of hazards and

stakeholders.

• Assists in moving forward with areas such as risk

assessments and communicating with the public.

23

McEntire: Hazard Relationships

A. Natural hazards may initiate other

natural hazards.

B. Natural hazards may initiate other

technological hazards.

C. Technological hazards may initiate

other natural/environmental hazards.

24

McEntire: Hazard Relationships

D. Natural/environmental hazards may

initiate other biological/natural hazards.

E. Human-induced/civil hazards may

initiate other technological/biological

hazards.

F. Other unique combinations.