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Chapter 02*Lecture and
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Type Course Number Here: Type Course Name Here
Chapter 2
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2
Type Institution Name Here
2.1: Introduction
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Why study chemistry in an Anatomy and Physiology class?
- Body functions depend on cellular functions
- Cellular functions result from chemical changes
- Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes
2.2: Structure of Matter
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Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements.
Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms:• Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts• Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts• Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very minute amounts
Atoms – smallest particle of an element
Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter
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Elements and Atoms
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• All matter is composed of elements
•Elements are:
• Bulk elements
• Trace elements
• Ultratrace elements
• Elements are composed of atoms of the same type
• Compounds are composed of atoms of different types that are chemically bonded
Atomic Structure
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Atoms - composed of subatomic particles:
• Proton – carries a single positive charge
• Neutron – carries no electrical charge• Electron – carries a single negative charge
Nucleus• Central part of atom• Composed of protons and neutrons• Electrons move around the nucleus
Electron(e–)
Lithium (Li)
Proton(p+)
Neutron(n0)
Nucleus
0
0++
0+
0
-
-
-
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Atomic Number and
Atomic Weight
Atomic Number • Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom • Each element has a unique atomic number• Equals the number of electrons in the atom
Atomic Weight• Approximated by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom (since a proton and a neutron each have an approximate atomic weight of one)• Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom
Isotopes
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Isotopes• Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights• Different numbers of neutrons• Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)• Radioactive isotopes are unstable, releasing energy or pieces of themselves (atomic radiation)
For an element, the atomic weight is often considered the average of the atomic weights of its isotopes.
2.1 From Science to Technology
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Radioactive Isotopes Reveal Physiology
2.2 From Science to Technology
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Ionizing Radiation:
From the Cold War to Yucca Mountain
Molecules and Compounds
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Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms chemically combine
Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine
Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule
H2 C6H12O6 H2O
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Molecules and Compounds
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
HH
OO
H HO
H H
OH
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O
H
HO HH
O
H
H O
O
O
O
O
HH
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HH
Bonding of Atoms
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• Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms
• Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called electron shells which circle the nucleus
• For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following rules apply:
• The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons• The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons• The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons
Bonding of Atoms
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• Lower shells are filled first
• If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable
Lithium (Li)Helium (He)Hydrogen (H)
+
-
-
-
00+
+-
-
-
0
0++
00+
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Ionic Bonds
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• An attraction between a cation and an anion
Ionic Bonds
• Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom
+ –11p+
12n0
Chloride ion (Cl–)Sodium ion (Na+)
Sodium chloride
17p+
18n0
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Na+
Cl–
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Bonding of Atoms: Ions
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Ion• An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable• An electrically charged atom
Cation• A positively charged ion• Formed when an atom loses electrons
Anion• A negatively charged ion• Formed when an atom gainselectrons
11p+
12n0
Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)
17p+
18n0
Covalent Bonds
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• Formed when atoms share electrons
• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds• Oxygen atoms form two bonds• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds• Carbon atoms form four bonds
H ― HO = ON ≡ NO = C = O
Hydrogen atom +
H
Hydrogen molecule
H2
Hydrogen atom
H
+ + ++
- -
-
-
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Bonding of Atoms:Structural Formula
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• Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules
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OO O
CO2H2OO2H2
C
HH
O OH H
Bonding of Atoms:Polar Molecules
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Polar Molecules• Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end• Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds• Water is an important polar molecule
Slightly negative ends
Slightly positive ends(a)
Hydrogen Bonds
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Hydrogen Bonds• A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule• Formed between water molecules• Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
H
H
H
H
H
H
HH
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
Hydrogen bonds
(b)
Chemical Reactions
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Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms, ions, or molecules
Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the atoms, ions, or molecules
Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction
NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl-
Reactant Products
Types of Chemical Reactions
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Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed
A + B ’ AB Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to forma simpler chemical structure
AB ’ A + B
Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
AB + CD ’ AD + CBReversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants
A + B AB
Acids, Bases, and Salts
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Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water
Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water
HCl H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions
NaOH Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base
NaCl Na+ + Cl-
HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl
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Acids, Bases, and SaltsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Ions insolution
Na+
Cl–
Na+
Cl–
Salt crystal
Acid and Base Concentration
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pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions insolution Neutral – pH 7;indicates equalconcentrations of H+
and OH-
Acidic – pH less than7; indicates a greater concentration of H+
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;indicates a greater concentration of OH-
OH– concentration increasesH+ concentration increases
AcidicH+
RelativeAmountsof H+ (red)and OH–
(blue)
BasicOH–
2.0gastricjuice
6.0corn
7.0Distilledwater
8.0Eggwhite
10.5milk ofmagnesia
11.5Householdammonia
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Basic (alkaline)NeutralAcidic
3.0applejuice
4.2tomatojuice
5.3cabbage
6.6cow’smilk
7.4Humanblood
8.4Sodiumbiocarbonate
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Changes in pH and Buffers
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Blood pH• Normal blood pH is 7.35 – 7.45• Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8• Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3• Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate pH• Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH changes
2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells
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Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Organic molecules • Contain C and H• Usually larger than inorganic molecules• Dissolve in water and organic liquids• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules • Generally do not contain C and H• Usually smaller than organic molecules• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions • Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
Inorganic Substances
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Water • Most abundant compound in living material• Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human• Major component of all body fluids• Medium for most metabolic reactions• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body• Absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2) • Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities• Necessary for survival
Inorganic Substances
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Carbon dioxide (CO2)• Waste product released during metabolic reactions• Must be removed from the body
Inorganic salts• Abundant in body fluids• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.)• Play important roles in metabolism
Organic SubstancesCarbohydrates
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• Provide energy to cells
• Supply materials to build cell structures
• Water-soluble• Contain C, H, and O• Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)• Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose• Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose• Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
Organic SubstancesCarbohydrates
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(a) Some glucose molecules (C6H12O6) have a straight chain of carbon atoms.
C
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H
O
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H H
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O
H
C
C C
OC
H
(b) More commonly, glucose molecules form a ring structure.
O
(c) This shape symbolizes the ring structure of a glucose molecule.
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organic SubstancesCarbohydrates
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O
(a) Monosaccharide
O O
O
(b) Disaccharide
O
O
O
(c) Polysaccharide
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Organic SubstancesLipids
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• Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water
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C
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(b) Unsaturated fatty acid
(a) Saturated fatty acid
Organic SubstancesLipids
• Fats (triglycerides)• Saturated fats contain three saturated fatty acids
• Mostly solid and come from animals
• Unsaturated fats contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid• Mostly liquid and come from plants
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C
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Glycerolportion
Fatty acidportions
Organic SubstancesLipids
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• Phospholipids
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule
• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• Major component of cell membranes
C
H
C
OH
CH
H
Glycerol portion
(a) A fat molecule
O
O
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
H
C
H H
HH
C
H
H
N
O
O
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
O
POCH
O–
Phosphate portion
(b) A phospholipid molecule(the unshaded portion may vary)
H
CH
C
H
H
O
(c) Schematic representationof a phospholipid molecule
Water-insoluble (hydrophobic) “tail”
Water-soluble(hydrophilic)“head”
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organic Substances Lipids
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• Steroids• Four connected rings of carbon• Widely distributed in the body, various functions• Component of cell membrane• Used to synthesize hormones• Cholesterol
(a) General structure of a steroid
CC
CH2C
H2C C
H
(b) Cholesterol
C
CH CH2
CH2
CH
CH3
CH2
HC
HC
H2
H2
CH2 CHCH2
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH
CH3
HO C
CH3
CH2
CHC
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Organic SubstancesProteins
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• Structural material• Energy source• Hormones• Receptors• Enzymes• Antibodies
• Protein building blocks are amino acids• Amino acids held together with peptide bonds
H N
H
C
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C
O
OH
S
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Organic SubstancesProteins
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Four Levels of Protein StructureCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(a) Primary structure—Eachoblong shape in thispolypeptide chain representsan amino acid molecule. Thewhole chain represents aportion of a protein molecule.
(b) Secondary structure—Thepolypeptide chain of a proteinmolecule is often either pleatedor twisted to form a coil. Dottedlines represent hydrogen bonds.R groups (see fig. 2.17)are indicated in bold.
(c) Tertiary structure—The pleated and coiledpolypeptide chain of aprotein molecule foldsinto a unique three-dimensionalstructure.
(d) Quaternary structure—Two or morepolypeptide chains may be connectedto form a single protein molecule.
N
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NN
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HHRR
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CH
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Pleatedstructure
Coiledstructure
Amino acids
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Animation: Protein Denaturation
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Organic SubstancesNucleic Acids
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• Encode amino acid sequences of proteins
• Building blocks are nucleotides
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide• RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide
S
P B
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Organic SubstancesNucleic Acids
42S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
B
B
B
B
B
B
S
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(b)
S
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S
P
B
B
B
B
B
B
(a)
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2.3 From Science to Technology
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CT Scanning and PET Imaging
Important Points in Chapter 2:Outcomes to be Assessed
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2.1: Introduction
Give examples of how the study of living materials requires an understanding of chemistry.
2.2: Structure of Matter
Describe the relationships among matter, atoms, and molecules.
Describe how atomic structure determines how atoms interact.
Explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the composition of compounds.
Describe three types of chemical reactions.
Describe the differences among acids, bases, and buffers.
Explain the pH scale.
Important Points in Chapter 2:Outcomes to be Assessed Continued
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2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells
List the major groups of inorganic chemicals common in cells and explain the function(s) of each group.
Describe the general functions of the main classes of organic molecules in cells.
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Quiz 2
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