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Chapter 02*Lecture and

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Type Course Number Here: Type Course Name Here

Chapter 2

Type Professor Name Here

Type Academic Rank Here

Type Department Name Here

2

Type Institution Name Here

2.1: Introduction

3

Why study chemistry in an Anatomy and Physiology class?

- Body functions depend on cellular functions

- Cellular functions result from chemical changes

- Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes

2.2: Structure of Matter

4

Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements.

Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms:• Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts• Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts• Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very minute amounts

Atoms – smallest particle of an element

Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter

5

Elements and Atoms

6

• All matter is composed of elements

•Elements are:

• Bulk elements

• Trace elements

• Ultratrace elements

• Elements are composed of atoms of the same type

• Compounds are composed of atoms of different types that are chemically bonded

Atomic Structure

7

Atoms - composed of subatomic particles:

• Proton – carries a single positive charge

• Neutron – carries no electrical charge• Electron – carries a single negative charge

Nucleus• Central part of atom• Composed of protons and neutrons• Electrons move around the nucleus

Electron(e–)

Lithium (Li)

Proton(p+)

Neutron(n0)

Nucleus

0

0++

0+

0

-

-

-


8

Atomic Number and

Atomic Weight

Atomic Number • Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom • Each element has a unique atomic number• Equals the number of electrons in the atom

Atomic Weight• Approximated by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom (since a proton and a neutron each have an approximate atomic weight of one)• Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom

Isotopes

9

Isotopes• Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights• Different numbers of neutrons• Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)• Radioactive isotopes are unstable, releasing energy or pieces of themselves (atomic radiation)

For an element, the atomic weight is often considered the average of the atomic weights of its isotopes.

2.1 From Science to Technology

10

Radioactive Isotopes Reveal Physiology


11

Ionizing Radiation:

From the Cold War to Yucca Mountain

Molecules and Compounds

12

Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms chemically combine

Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine

Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule

H2 C6H12O6 H2O

13

Molecules and Compounds


HH

OO

H HO

H H

OH

H

O

H

HO HH

O

H

H O

O

O

O

O

HH

HH

HH

H

H

HH

Bonding of Atoms

14

• Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms

• Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called electron shells which circle the nucleus

• For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following rules apply:

• The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons• The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons• The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons

Bonding of Atoms

15

• Lower shells are filled first

• If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable

Lithium (Li)Helium (He)Hydrogen (H)

+

-

-

-

00+

+-

-

-

0

0++

00+


Ionic Bonds

16

• An attraction between a cation and an anion

Ionic Bonds

• Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom

+ –11p+

12n0

Chloride ion (Cl–)Sodium ion (Na+)

Sodium chloride

17p+

18n0


Na+

Cl–


Bonding of Atoms: Ions

17

Ion• An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable• An electrically charged atom

Cation• A positively charged ion• Formed when an atom loses electrons

Anion• A negatively charged ion• Formed when an atom gainselectrons

11p+

12n0

Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)

17p+

18n0

Covalent Bonds

18

• Formed when atoms share electrons

• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds• Oxygen atoms form two bonds• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds• Carbon atoms form four bonds

H ― HO = ON ≡ NO = C = O

Hydrogen atom +

H

Hydrogen molecule

H2

Hydrogen atom

H

+ + ++

- -

-

-


Bonding of Atoms:Structural Formula

19

• Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules


OO O

CO2H2OO2H2

C

HH

O OH H

Bonding of Atoms:Polar Molecules

20

Polar Molecules• Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end• Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds• Water is an important polar molecule

Slightly negative ends

Slightly positive ends(a)

Hydrogen Bonds

21

Hydrogen Bonds• A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule• Formed between water molecules• Important for protein and nucleic acid structure

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

O

O

O

O

O

Hydrogen bonds

(b)

Chemical Reactions

22

Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms, ions, or molecules

Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the atoms, ions, or molecules

Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction

NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl-

Reactant Products

Types of Chemical Reactions

23

Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed

A + B ’ AB Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to forma simpler chemical structure

AB ’ A + B

Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed

AB + CD ’ AD + CBReversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants

A + B AB

Acids, Bases, and Salts

24

Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water

Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water

HCl H+ + Cl-

Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions

NaOH Na+ + OH-

Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base

NaCl Na+ + Cl-

HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl

25

Acids, Bases, and SaltsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ions insolution

Na+

Cl–

Na+

Cl–

Salt crystal

Acid and Base Concentration

26

pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions insolution Neutral – pH 7;indicates equalconcentrations of H+

and OH-

Acidic – pH less than7; indicates a greater concentration of H+

Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;indicates a greater concentration of OH-

OH– concentration increasesH+ concentration increases

AcidicH+

RelativeAmountsof H+ (red)and OH–

(blue)

BasicOH–

2.0gastricjuice

6.0corn

7.0Distilledwater

8.0Eggwhite

10.5milk ofmagnesia

11.5Householdammonia

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Basic (alkaline)NeutralAcidic

3.0applejuice

4.2tomatojuice

5.3cabbage

6.6cow’smilk

7.4Humanblood

8.4Sodiumbiocarbonate


Changes in pH and Buffers

27

Blood pH• Normal blood pH is 7.35 – 7.45• Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8• Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3• Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate pH• Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH changes

2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells

28

Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules

Organic molecules • Contain C and H• Usually larger than inorganic molecules• Dissolve in water and organic liquids• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Inorganic molecules • Generally do not contain C and H• Usually smaller than organic molecules• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions • Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

Inorganic Substances

29

Water • Most abundant compound in living material• Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human• Major component of all body fluids• Medium for most metabolic reactions• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body• Absorbs and transports heat

Oxygen (O2) • Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities• Necessary for survival

Inorganic Substances

30

Carbon dioxide (CO2)• Waste product released during metabolic reactions• Must be removed from the body

Inorganic salts• Abundant in body fluids• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.)• Play important roles in metabolism

Organic SubstancesCarbohydrates

31

• Provide energy to cells

• Supply materials to build cell structures

• Water-soluble• Contain C, H, and O• Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)• Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose• Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose• Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose


32

(a) Some glucose molecules (C6H12O6) have a straight chain of carbon atoms.

C

C

C

C

C

C

H

O

H

O

O

O

HH

OH

H

H

H

H O

H

H

H

H

C

H

O

O H

H

OH

O H

H

H H

C

O

H

C

C C

OC

H

(b) More commonly, glucose molecules form a ring structure.

O

(c) This shape symbolizes the ring structure of a glucose molecule.





33

O

(a) Monosaccharide

O O

O

(b) Disaccharide

O

O

O

(c) Polysaccharide

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.


Organic SubstancesLipids

34

• Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water


C

H

H

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

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H

C

H

H

C

H

H

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C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C HCO

O

H

C

H

H

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

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H

C

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C H

CO

O

H

(b) Unsaturated fatty acid

(a) Saturated fatty acid


• Fats (triglycerides)• Saturated fats contain three saturated fatty acids

• Mostly solid and come from animals

• Unsaturated fats contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid• Mostly liquid and come from plants


C

O

OH C C

H

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

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H

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C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

H

C

O

OH C C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

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O

OH C C

H

HH

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H H

H

C

Glycerolportion

Fatty acidportions


36

• Phospholipids

• Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule

• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic

• Major component of cell membranes

C

H

C

OH

CH

H

Glycerol portion

(a) A fat molecule

O

O

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

H

C

H H

HH

C

H

H

N

O

O

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

O

POCH

O–

Phosphate portion

(b) A phospholipid molecule(the unshaded portion may vary)

H

CH

C

H

H

O

(c) Schematic representationof a phospholipid molecule

Water-insoluble (hydrophobic) “tail”

Water-soluble(hydrophilic)“head”




Organic Substances Lipids

37

• Steroids• Four connected rings of carbon• Widely distributed in the body, various functions• Component of cell membrane• Used to synthesize hormones• Cholesterol

(a) General structure of a steroid

CC

CH2C

H2C C

H

(b) Cholesterol

C

CH CH2

CH2

CH

CH3

CH2

HC

HC

H2

H2

CH2 CHCH2

CH3

CH3

CH2

CH

CH3

HO C

CH3

CH2

CHC

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Organic SubstancesProteins

38

• Structural material• Energy source• Hormones• Receptors• Enzymes• Antibodies

• Protein building blocks are amino acids• Amino acids held together with peptide bonds

H N

H

C

H

C

O

OH

S

C

H

HH

H N

H

C

H

C

O

OH

C

C

C

H

H

C H

C H

H

CH

CH

H N

H

C

H

C

O

OH

R

Organic SubstancesProteins

39

Four Levels of Protein StructureCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a) Primary structure—Eachoblong shape in thispolypeptide chain representsan amino acid molecule. Thewhole chain represents aportion of a protein molecule.

(b) Secondary structure—Thepolypeptide chain of a proteinmolecule is often either pleatedor twisted to form a coil. Dottedlines represent hydrogen bonds.R groups (see fig. 2.17)are indicated in bold.

(c) Tertiary structure—The pleated and coiledpolypeptide chain of aprotein molecule foldsinto a unique three-dimensionalstructure.

(d) Quaternary structure—Two or morepolypeptide chains may be connectedto form a single protein molecule.

N

N

N

NN

HH

HH

H

C

CC

C

O

O

O

CC

C

C

CC

OC

O

NN

H H

C

OC

C

OC

H

NN

H

O

O

C

CC

C

N

N

N

N H

H

H O C

CC

O

O

CC

C

H OC

C

C

N

C

NHO

CC

H OC

C

N

N

N

N H

H

H O C

O

O

CC

C

H OC

H

R

H

R

H

R

H

RH

R

H

R

H

R

H

R

H

R

H

H

R

H

H

R

H

R

H

R

HHRR

HHRR

CH

CH

Three-dimensionalfolding

Pleatedstructure

Coiledstructure

Amino acids

40

Animation: Protein Denaturation

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Organic SubstancesNucleic Acids

41

• Encode amino acid sequences of proteins

• Building blocks are nucleotides

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide• RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide

S

P B


Organic SubstancesNucleic Acids

42S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

B

B

B

B

B

B

S

S

S

S

S

S

P

P

P

P

P

P

B

B

B

B

B

B

(b)

S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

S

P

B

B

B

B

B

B

(a)




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CT Scanning and PET Imaging

Important Points in Chapter 2:Outcomes to be Assessed

44

2.1: Introduction

Give examples of how the study of living materials requires an understanding of chemistry.

2.2: Structure of Matter

Describe the relationships among matter, atoms, and molecules.

Describe how atomic structure determines how atoms interact.

Explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the composition of compounds.

Describe three types of chemical reactions.

Describe the differences among acids, bases, and buffers.

Explain the pH scale.

Important Points in Chapter 2:Outcomes to be Assessed Continued

45

2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells

List the major groups of inorganic chemicals common in cells and explain the function(s) of each group.

Describe the general functions of the main classes of organic molecules in cells.

46

Quiz 2

Complete Quiz 2 now!

Read Chapter 3.

1 chapter 02 *lecture and animation outline with anatomy & physiology revealed images copyright...

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atoms of different elements

elements present

isotopes atoms

unique atomic number

number of neutrons

number of electrons

atomic numbers

type course number