Running head: SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 1
Supplemental Educational Services and Literacy of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12
Students in Specific Central California School Districts
Catalina Di Somma
California State University, Stanislaus
SSCI 4960
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 2
Abstract
This paper explores the relationship between Supplemental Educational Services (SES) and the
literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school
districts. The data in this study is provided by Legacy Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home
Tutoring and includes information from Lodi Unified School District, Lincoln Unified School
District, Stockton Unified School District, and Stockton Unified School District. The research
examines student demographic, grade level, model of instruction, primary language, total hours
allotted for tutoring, hours in English and language arts (ELA) and reading, site of services, the
name of assessment used to determine raw test scores, pre-reading raw score, post reading raw
score, and change in reading and raw score of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in
specific Central California school districts for the 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 academic school
years. The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA), SES, and raw test scores will
be evaluated to provide a background of the data provided by Legacy tutoring LLC DBA Club
Z! In-Home Tutoring.
Keywords: supplemental educational services (SES), literacy, tutoring
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 3
Supplemental Educational Services and Literacy of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12
Students in Specific Central California School Districts
“Today a reader, tomorrow a leader,” a phrase coined by American writer and
philosopher Margaret Fuller, is a profound statement that illustrates the the power of literacy
(Matteson, 2013). Basic reading and writing abilities are skills that many take for granted, yet
these skills are the foundation of academic and professional success. The link between poverty
and illiteracy suggests that equal access to basic reading and writing skills may reduce high rates
of poverty in the United States. Low-income students are more likely to lack basic literacy skills
compared to students of higher socioeconomic classes (Koyama, 2011). Students from low-
income families are also more likely to perpetuate the cycle of illiteracy; therefore, it is important
to examine resources that help to bridge the literacy gap of low-income, poor performing
students.
Factors that may contribute to the poor literacy of low-income students include but are
not limited to food and housing insecurities, poor health and nutrition, and limited exposure to
books. Neuman and Dickenson (2006) discuss the ratio of books for children of various
socioeconomic classes. There are approximately 13 books per one child in middle-income
neighborhoods; however, this number decreases significantly for children from impoverished
neighborhoods. There is approximately one book per 300 children in low-income neighborhoods
(Neuman & Dickenson, 2006, p. 13). Limited exposure to books means low-income students
cannot develop the basic literacy skills necessary to succeed in school and future endeavors. The
vocabulary of low-income students is typically 50% smaller than the vocabulary of peers from
higher income families by the time a student reaches the 1st grade (Isaacs, 2012). Students that
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 4
struggle to read and write cannot learn independently; therefore, illiterate students are expected
to perform poorly in school and continue the cycle of generational illiteracy.
It is more difficult for low-income students to become contributing members of society
than students of higher socioeconomic classes because low-income students often lack basic
literacy skills. All occupations, including low-skill, low wage jobs, require basic reading and
writing skills. It is important to bridge the literacy gap of low-income, poor performing students
to ensure that students of low socioeconomic classes have access to basic skills that may help lift
them from poverty. Many low-income students do not have access to the resources that may help
to improve basic literacy skills due to economic insecurity.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) established various programs to meet the
financial and educational needs of low-income, poor performing students in the United States in
2001 (Walker, T). The era of NCLB came to an end when the United States Senate introduced
the Every Child Achieves Act (ECAA) (Walker, 2015). Programs that aim to improve the
educational inequality of economically disadvantaged students remain active under ECAA.
These programs include but are not limited to free after-school tutoring services.
Supplemental Educational Services (SES) offers free after-school tutoring to low-income,
poor performing students that attend Title I school and was “established to close achievement
gaps across social and racial differences” (Walker, 2015). SES tutoring is provided by state-
approved companies and includes one-on-one and small group models of instruction. Koyama
(2011) states that SES is a “reflection of an increased emphasis on efficiency, accountability, and
standardization in American schooling.” The goal of SES is to improve the reading, writing, and
mathematic skills of economically disadvantaged students; however, SES will focus most in the
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 5
area(s) or subject(s) that are most troublesome for the student (Walker, 2015). SES is unique
because it does not teach to the test. The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) is
used to assess the specific learning styles, weaknesses, and strengths of SES students.
Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship and patterns between SES and
low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The
research questions that will guide this study include: Does Supplemental Educational Services
help low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts to
improve their literacy skills? How does the model of instruction of Supplemental Educational
Services impact the literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central
California school districts? What recommendations can be established about the relationship
between low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school
districts and Supplemental Educational Services?
Research Methods
This study includes a sample size of 93 K-12 students. All participants are low-income,
poor performing students that attend Title I schools. A Title I school is a school that has not
made adequate yearly progress (AYP) for a minimum of three years (Koyama, 2011). This is a
longitudinal study that reflects data from the 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 academic school years.
The data in this study was collected from four Central California school districts: Lodi Unified
School District, Lincoln Unified School District, Stockton Unified School District, and Calaveras
County School District.
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 6
The researcher conducted a secondary analysis of quantitative data provided by Legacy
Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring. The data explores student demographic, grade
level, the model of instruction, primary language, total hours allotted for tutoring, total hours in
ELA/reading, site of services, the assessment used, pre-test scores, post-test scores, and overall
change in K-TEA raw test scores. The students in this study received an average of 19 hours of
SES tutoring and approximately 10 hours of tutoring was spent in ELA/reading. All students in
this study received approximately one to two hours of SES tutoring per week.
The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA)
The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) is used to determine the pre-
test and post-test scores of SES students in this study. This test is designed to measure the school
achievement of children and determine what the students has learned compared to other students
of the same age (Kaufman et al., n.d.). The test focuses on reading, writing, and mathematic
skills. The K-TEA test results are compared with previously obtained standard IQ scores. The K-
TEA produces raw test scores (M=100, SD = 15) with a validity of .6 and a .9 reliability
coefficient. (Kaufman et al., n.d.). Improvement of reading, writing, and math skills is measured
by a positive change in K-TEA raw test scores.
Results
The following research discusses the average student demographic, primary language,
total hours allotted for tutoring, hours spent in ELA/reading, pre-test, post-test, and change in
raw test scores of all school districts in this study. The data represents an overall average of the
93 participants from four Central California school districts.
Student Demographic and Primary Languages
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 7
The majority (52%) of students in this study are Hispanic. Approximately 39% of
students in this study are White. A small percentage of students in this study are African
American or other (see Appendix A for more information on student demographic). Fifty-two
percent of the students in this study speak English as a primary language. Approximately 44% of
the students in this study speak Spanish as a primary language. Five percent of the students in
this study speak a primary language other than English or Spanish (see Appendix B for more
information on the primary languages of students).
Total Hours Allotted for SES Tutoring
The average total hours allotted for tutoring in this study is 18.69 hours and all students
in this study received an average of 9.53 hours in ELA/reading. It is important to note that
Lincoln Unified School District was allotted approximately twice as many hours for tutoring
than any other school district in this study. SES students from Lincoln Unified School District
were allotted an average total of 31.75 hours for tutoring and 16.25 hours were spent in
ELA/reading.
Model of Instruction
Students that participate in SES may receive one-on-one or small group tutoring
approximately one to two hours per week. The model of instruction is determined by the legal
guardian(s) of the student. The majority (90%) of students in this study received one-on-one
tutoring. The site of services for one-on-one instruction occurs in the home of the student. Ten
percent of the students in this study participated in small group tutoring. This model of
instruction takes place at the school site of the student (see Appendix C for more information on
the models of instruction in this study).
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 8
An Analysis of One-on-one and Small Group Tutoring
The average pre-test raw score for SES students that participated in one-on-one tutoring
is 28.66 and the average post-test score is 34.48; therefore, the average positive change in K-
TEA raw test score is 5.82 for students in this study that received a one-on-one model of
instruction. The average pre-test raw score for SES students that participated in small group
tutoring that occurred at the site school is 25.89 and the average post-test score is 35; therefore,
the average positive change in K-TEA raw test score is 9.11 for students in this study that
participated in small group model of instruction.
Overall Improvement
Ninety-four percent of the students in this study demonstrate improvement in reading
upon completion of SES (see Appendix D for more information on improved literacy of students
in this study). Improvement of literacy skills is measured by a positive change in the K-TEA raw
test scores. Six percent of the students that participated in SES did not demonstrate improvement
of literacy skills. Students that demonstrate a negative change in the K-TEA raw test score did
not improve literacy skills upon completion of SES.
The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for all SES students is 28.1. The average K-TEA
raw post-test score for all students is 34.58; therefore, the average change in raw test score for all
participants in this study is 6.48. The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for students that
participated in one-on-one tutoring in this study is 28.66. The average K-TEA raw post-test score
for one-on-one students is 34.48; therefore, the average change in raw test score for students that
received one-on-one instruction is 5.82. The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for students that
participated in small group tutoring is 25.89. The average K-TEA raw post-test score for students
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 9
that participated in small group tutoring is 35; therefore, the average change in raw test score for
students that received small group instruction is 9.11 (see Appendix D for more information on
K-TEA test results).
Statistical Analysis of Individual School Districts
The following research discusses the student demographic, primary language, total hours
allotted for tutoring, hours spent in ELA/reading, pre-test score, post-test score, and change in K-
TEA raw test scores of the individual school districts in this study.
Lodi Unified School District
Eleven students in this study attend Lodi Unified School District. Sixty-four percent of
these students are White and 36% percent are Hispanic. Forty-five percent of Lodi Unified
School District SES students speak English as a primary language; 36% speak Spanish as a
primary language. Eighteen percent of these students speak a primary language other than
English or Spanish.
The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Lodi Unified School District
is 15 hours; 7.86 hours were spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the SES students in
Lodi Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring. The site of services of one-on-one
tutoring occurred in the home of the student. The average pre-test raw score of SES students in
Lodi Unified School District is 25.45 and the average post-test raw score is 29.9; therefore, SES
students in Lodi Unified School District achieved a positive change of 4.45 in K-TEA raw test
scores.
Eighty-six percent of English-speaking SES students in Lodi Unified School District
demonstrated improvement in ELA/reading. Seventy-five percent of Spanish-speaking SES
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 10
students demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the students that
speak a primary language other than English or Spanish demonstrate improvement in K-TEA
raw test scores. Approximately 19% of the SES students in Lodi Unified School District
demonstrate a negative change in K-TEA raw test scores. Approximately 9.5% of the Lodi
Unified School District SES students that did not improve ELA/reading speak English as a
primary language and approximately 9.5% speak Spanish as a primary language.
Lincoln Unified School District
Eighteen students in this study attend Lincoln Unified School District. Approximately
56% of these students are White, 33% are Hispanic, and 11% are Asian. The majority (55.5%) of
SES students in Lincoln Unified School District speak English as a primary language; 33.3%
speak Spanish as a primary language and 11.1% speak a primary language other than English or
Spanish.
The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Lincoln Unified School
District is 31.75 hours and an average of 16.25 hours was spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred
percent of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring and
the site of services occurred in the home of the student. The average pre-test raw score for SES
students in Lincoln Unified School District is 33.72 and the average post-test raw score is 39.72;
therefore, SES students in Lincoln Unified School District demonstrate a positive change of 6 in
K-TEA raw test scores.
Ninety percent of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School District that speak English
as a primary language show improvement in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the Spanish-
speaking SES students in Lincoln Unified School District demonstrate improvement in
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 11
ELA/reading and 50% of students who speak a primary language other than English or Spanish
improved in ELA/reading. Approximately 5% of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School
District did not demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test scores speak English as a
primary language and approximately 5% speak a primary language other than English or
Spanish.
Calaveras County School District
Twenty-nine SES students in this study attend Calaveras County School District.
Approximately 45% of these students are White and approximately 55% of SES students in this
school district are Hispanic. The majority (52%) of the SES students in Calaveras County School
District speak English as a primary language and approximately 48% of these students speak
Spanish as a primary language.
The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Calaveras County School
District is 11 hours; an average of 5.5 hours was spent in ELA/reading. Approximately 69% of
SES students in Calaveras County School District received one-on-one tutoring and the site of
services occurred in the home of the student. Approximately 31% of SES students in Calaveras
County School District received small group tutoring as a model of instruction. Small group
tutoring consists of one to five students and the site of services for this model of instruction
occurs at the school site of the student.
The average pre-test raw score for all students in Calaveras County School District is
24.72 and the average post-test raw score is 31.41; therefore, SES students in Calaveras County
School District demonstrate a positive change of 6.69 in K-TEA raw test scores. Calaveras
County School District is the only school district that conducted small group tutoring as a model
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 12
of instruction in this study; therefore, it is important to analyze how SES students in small group
tutoring perform compared to the overall average of students that participate in one-on-one
model of instruction. The average pre-test raw score for students that received small group
tutoring as a model of instruction is 25.89 and the average post-test raw score is 35; therefore,
SES students in Calaveras County School District that received small group tutoring demonstrate
a positive change of 9.11 in K-TEA raw test scores.
One-hundred percent of the SES students in Calaveras County School District
demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading. This includes English and Spanish-speaking students
that participated in either one-on-one tutoring or small group tutoring. The majority (75%) of
students that received one-on-one tutoring are English speaking and 25% percent of the students
that received one-on-one tutoring speak Spanish as primary language. One-hundred percent of
the students that participated in small group tutoring at the school site speak Spanish as a primary
language.
Stockton Unified School District
Thirty-five students in this study attend Stockton Unified School District. Approximately
17% of SES students in Stockton Unified School District are White, approximately 63% are
Hispanic, approximately 11% are African American, and approximately 9% are Asian. The
majority (approximately 51%) of the SES students in Stockton Unified School District speak
English as a primary language; approximately 49% speak Spanish as a primary language.
The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Stockton Unified School
District is 17 hours; approximately 8.5 hours was spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of
the SES students in Stockton Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring as a model of
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 13
instruction. The site of services for this model of instruction occurred in the home of the student.
The average pre-test raw score for SES students in Stockton Unified School District is 30.74 and
the average post-test raw score is 36.89; therefore, SES students in Stockton Unified School
District demonstrate a positive change of 6.15 in K-TEA raw test scores.
Approximately 83% of English-speaking students in Stockton Unified School District
demonstrate improvement in K-TEA raw test scores and approximately 96% of students that
speak Spanish as a primary language demonstrate improvement in K-TEA raw test scores.
Approximately 6% of the SES students in Stockton Unified School District did not demonstrate
improvement in K-TEA raw test scores. Approximately 3% of the SES students in Stockton
Unified School District that did not demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading are White and
speak English as a primary language. Approximately 3% of the SES students in Stockton Unified
School District that did not demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading are Hispanic and speak
Spanish as a primary language.
Discussion
This study demonstrates an association between SES and improved literacy skills of low-
income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The most
effective model of instruction in this study is small group tutoring that takes place at the school
site. There is an association between improved literacy skills and one-on-one model of
instruction; however, the small percentage of students that did not achieve a positive change in
K-TEA raw test scores participated in one-on-one tutoring. The data provided by Legacy
Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring does not establish an association between a
negative change in the K-TEA raw test score and student demographic or primary language;
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 14
therefore, it is difficult to determine the potential factor(s) that may contribute to a negative
change in K-TEA raw test scores in this study.
SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received a total of 31.75 hours in
reading, writing, and mathematics; 16.25 hours of tutoring was spent in ELA/reading. Lincoln
Unified School District received approximately twice the total amount of hours allotted for SES
tutoring than all other school districts in this study. One may assume that more hours allotted for
SES tutoring will result in a higher positive change in K-TEA raw test scores; however, that is
not the case in this study. The average pre-test raw score for students in Stockton Unified School
District, Lodi Unified School District, and Calaveras County School District is 26.97 and the
average post-test raw score is 32.73; therefore, the average positive change in raw test score for
these school districts is 5.76. The average pre-test raw score for SES students in Lincoln Unified
School District is 33.72 and the average post test raw score is 39.72; therefore, the average
positive change in raw test score is 6 for SES students in Lincoln Unified School District.
SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received twice as many hours in SES
than SES students of other school districts in this study but the average positive change in K-
TEA raw test score of Lincoln Unified School District and SES students from districts that
received fewer hours in ELA/reading is relatively the same. The research suggests that the total
hours allotted for tutoring does not foresee greater improvement of literacy skills among low-
income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. One may
review this research to consider the association of improved literacy skills of SES students and
the models of instruction discussed in this study.
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 15
One-hundred percent of SES students in this study that participated in small group
tutoring at the school site demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test score and establish
improvement in ELA/reading. Ninety-three percent of SES students that participated in one-on-
one tutoring in this study demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test score and establish
improvement in ELA/reading. This research demonstrates an association between model of
instruction and improved literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific
Central California school districts. Small group tutoring that occurs at the school site is the most
effective model of instruction to improve literacy skills of SES students in this study.
The average pre-test raw score for students that participated in small group tutoring is
lower than the pre-test raw score of students that participated in one-on-one tutoring (see
Appendix E for more information on K-TEA raw test scores). The average post-test raw score
for students that participated in small group tutoring is higher than the post-test raw score of
students that participated in one-on-one tutoring; therefore, students in small group tutoring
began with a lower pre-test raw score than other students but achieved a higher post-test raw
score than students that received one-on-one tutoring. It is important to note that all students in
this study that participated in small group tutoring speak Spanish as a primary language. The
grade level of these students ranges from K-6 and all small group students attend Calaveras
County School District.
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
Sample Size
The sample size of this study includes 93 K-12 SES students from four Central California
school districts. Although this sample size allows the researcher to determine patterns and
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 16
relationships of SES and literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific
Central California school districts, a greater sample size would be beneficial to future research. A
sample size that includes all SES students in California may help to improve the credibility of
this study and establish new relationships of SES and literacy of low-income, poor performing
students in future research.
Small Group Tutoring
This study shows an association between SES and improved literacy of low-income, poor
performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. Small group tutoring is
deemed the most effective model of instruction in this study; however, all students that
participated in small group tutoring speak Spanish as a primary language. This research excludes
students that speak a primary language other than Spanish; therefore, the researcher cannot
examine how the small group model of instruction impacts a change in K-TEA raw test scores of
students who do not speak Spanish as a primary language. Future research should include a
population of students that participate in small group tutoring and speak various primary
languages. Future research should include data that is representative of multiple primary
languages in relation to the association of small group tutoring and literacy of low-income, poor
performing students.
SES and Performance in School
This study demonstrates an association between SES and improved literacy of low-
income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts; however,
this study does not include data to help to determine if the improvements demonstrated in SES
are reciprocated in the classroom. Future research regarding SES and the literacy of low-income,
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 17
poor performing students should incorporate the change in K-TEA raw test scores collected by
state-approved tutor companies and the academic records provided by the student’s school. An
analysis of this data will help future researchers examine the improvement demonstrated in SES
versus improvement in the classroom.
Conclusions
The research in this study provides an association between SES and improved literacy of
low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The
majority (94%) of students in this study demonstrate improvement of literacy skills upon
completion of SES. In order to gain an improved understanding of SES in relation to the literacy
of low-income, poor performing students, it is necessary to obtain data that examines a greater
sample size. Although small group tutoring is deemed the most effective model of instruction in
this study, the sample size population is not diverse in regard to student demographics and
primary languages. Future research should include K-TEA raw test scores provided by state-
approved tutor companies and academic school records of the student. This information will help
researchers analyze performance in SES in relation to performance in school.
One to two hours of out-of-school tutoring per week may help low-income, poor
performing students develop and refine skills that may reduce generational poverty. The link
between low-income students and illiteracy demonstrates a strong need to bridge the literacy gap
of low-income, poor performing students. SES establishes an equal playing field for students
regardless of socioeconomic and racial differences. It is important to examine the impact of SES
and improved literacy skills of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central
California school districts to understand how childhood illiteracy may be abridged.
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 18
References
Isaacs, J.B. (2012). Starting school at a disadvantage: The school readiness of poor children.
Center on Children and Families, 1-16.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (n.d.). Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement. Retrieved
April 24, 2016, from http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/KTEA/html. American
Guidance Service.
Koyama, J. (2011). Principals, power, and policy: Enacting “supplemental educational services”.
Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 42(1), 20-36.
Legacy Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring. Supplemental Educational Services
Data. April, 2016.
Matteson, J. (2013). The lives of margaret fuller: A biography. New York, NY: W.W Norton
Company, Inc.
Neuman, S. B., & Dickenson, D. K. (2006). Handbook of Early Literacy Research, 2, 1-34.
Walker, T. (2015, July 16). U.S. Senate Passes Every Child Achieves Act, End of NCLB Era
Draws Closer. Retrieved April 14, 2016, from NEA Today.
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 19
Appendix A
Demographic Information of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific
Central California School Districts
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 20
Appendix B
Primary Languages of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific Central
California School Districts
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 21
Appendix C
Model of Instruction of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific Central
California School Districts
SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 22
Appendix D
Improvement of Literacy Skills of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific
Central California School Districts