catalinadisomma.files.wordpress.com€¦ · web viewthe vocabulary of low-income students is...

Running head: SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 1

Supplemental Educational Services and Literacy of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12

Students in Specific Central California School Districts

Catalina Di Somma

California State University, Stanislaus

SSCI 4960

SUPPLEMENTAL EDUCATIONAL SERVICES AND LITERACY 2

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between Supplemental Educational Services (SES) and the

literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school

districts. The data in this study is provided by Legacy Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home

Tutoring and includes information from Lodi Unified School District, Lincoln Unified School

District, Stockton Unified School District, and Stockton Unified School District. The research

examines student demographic, grade level, model of instruction, primary language, total hours

allotted for tutoring, hours in English and language arts (ELA) and reading, site of services, the

name of assessment used to determine raw test scores, pre-reading raw score, post reading raw

score, and change in reading and raw score of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in

specific Central California school districts for the 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 academic school

years. The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA), SES, and raw test scores will

be evaluated to provide a background of the data provided by Legacy tutoring LLC DBA Club

Z! In-Home Tutoring.

Keywords: supplemental educational services (SES), literacy, tutoring


Supplemental Educational Services and Literacy of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12

Students in Specific Central California School Districts

“Today a reader, tomorrow a leader,” a phrase coined by American writer and

philosopher Margaret Fuller, is a profound statement that illustrates the the power of literacy

(Matteson, 2013). Basic reading and writing abilities are skills that many take for granted, yet

these skills are the foundation of academic and professional success. The link between poverty

and illiteracy suggests that equal access to basic reading and writing skills may reduce high rates

of poverty in the United States. Low-income students are more likely to lack basic literacy skills

compared to students of higher socioeconomic classes (Koyama, 2011). Students from low-

income families are also more likely to perpetuate the cycle of illiteracy; therefore, it is important

to examine resources that help to bridge the literacy gap of low-income, poor performing

students.

Factors that may contribute to the poor literacy of low-income students include but are

not limited to food and housing insecurities, poor health and nutrition, and limited exposure to

books. Neuman and Dickenson (2006) discuss the ratio of books for children of various

socioeconomic classes. There are approximately 13 books per one child in middle-income

neighborhoods; however, this number decreases significantly for children from impoverished

neighborhoods. There is approximately one book per 300 children in low-income neighborhoods

(Neuman & Dickenson, 2006, p. 13). Limited exposure to books means low-income students

cannot develop the basic literacy skills necessary to succeed in school and future endeavors. The

vocabulary of low-income students is typically 50% smaller than the vocabulary of peers from

higher income families by the time a student reaches the 1st grade (Isaacs, 2012). Students that


struggle to read and write cannot learn independently; therefore, illiterate students are expected

to perform poorly in school and continue the cycle of generational illiteracy.

It is more difficult for low-income students to become contributing members of society

than students of higher socioeconomic classes because low-income students often lack basic

literacy skills. All occupations, including low-skill, low wage jobs, require basic reading and

writing skills. It is important to bridge the literacy gap of low-income, poor performing students

to ensure that students of low socioeconomic classes have access to basic skills that may help lift

them from poverty. Many low-income students do not have access to the resources that may help

to improve basic literacy skills due to economic insecurity.

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) established various programs to meet the

financial and educational needs of low-income, poor performing students in the United States in

2001 (Walker, T). The era of NCLB came to an end when the United States Senate introduced

the Every Child Achieves Act (ECAA) (Walker, 2015). Programs that aim to improve the

educational inequality of economically disadvantaged students remain active under ECAA.

These programs include but are not limited to free after-school tutoring services.

Supplemental Educational Services (SES) offers free after-school tutoring to low-income,

poor performing students that attend Title I school and was “established to close achievement

gaps across social and racial differences” (Walker, 2015). SES tutoring is provided by state-

approved companies and includes one-on-one and small group models of instruction. Koyama

(2011) states that SES is a “reflection of an increased emphasis on efficiency, accountability, and

standardization in American schooling.” The goal of SES is to improve the reading, writing, and

mathematic skills of economically disadvantaged students; however, SES will focus most in the


area(s) or subject(s) that are most troublesome for the student (Walker, 2015). SES is unique

because it does not teach to the test. The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) is

used to assess the specific learning styles, weaknesses, and strengths of SES students.

Research Questions

The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship and patterns between SES and

low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The

research questions that will guide this study include: Does Supplemental Educational Services

help low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts to

improve their literacy skills? How does the model of instruction of Supplemental Educational

Services impact the literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central

California school districts? What recommendations can be established about the relationship

between low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school

districts and Supplemental Educational Services?

Research Methods

This study includes a sample size of 93 K-12 students. All participants are low-income,

poor performing students that attend Title I schools. A Title I school is a school that has not

made adequate yearly progress (AYP) for a minimum of three years (Koyama, 2011). This is a

longitudinal study that reflects data from the 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 academic school years.

The data in this study was collected from four Central California school districts: Lodi Unified

School District, Lincoln Unified School District, Stockton Unified School District, and Calaveras

County School District.


The researcher conducted a secondary analysis of quantitative data provided by Legacy

Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring. The data explores student demographic, grade

level, the model of instruction, primary language, total hours allotted for tutoring, total hours in

ELA/reading, site of services, the assessment used, pre-test scores, post-test scores, and overall

change in K-TEA raw test scores. The students in this study received an average of 19 hours of

SES tutoring and approximately 10 hours of tutoring was spent in ELA/reading. All students in

this study received approximately one to two hours of SES tutoring per week.

The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA)

The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) is used to determine the pre-

test and post-test scores of SES students in this study. This test is designed to measure the school

achievement of children and determine what the students has learned compared to other students

of the same age (Kaufman et al., n.d.). The test focuses on reading, writing, and mathematic

skills. The K-TEA test results are compared with previously obtained standard IQ scores. The K-

TEA produces raw test scores (M=100, SD = 15) with a validity of .6 and a .9 reliability

coefficient. (Kaufman et al., n.d.). Improvement of reading, writing, and math skills is measured

by a positive change in K-TEA raw test scores.

Results

The following research discusses the average student demographic, primary language,

total hours allotted for tutoring, hours spent in ELA/reading, pre-test, post-test, and change in

raw test scores of all school districts in this study. The data represents an overall average of the

93 participants from four Central California school districts.

Student Demographic and Primary Languages


The majority (52%) of students in this study are Hispanic. Approximately 39% of

students in this study are White. A small percentage of students in this study are African

American or other (see Appendix A for more information on student demographic). Fifty-two

percent of the students in this study speak English as a primary language. Approximately 44% of

the students in this study speak Spanish as a primary language. Five percent of the students in

this study speak a primary language other than English or Spanish (see Appendix B for more

information on the primary languages of students).

Total Hours Allotted for SES Tutoring

The average total hours allotted for tutoring in this study is 18.69 hours and all students

in this study received an average of 9.53 hours in ELA/reading. It is important to note that

Lincoln Unified School District was allotted approximately twice as many hours for tutoring

than any other school district in this study. SES students from Lincoln Unified School District

were allotted an average total of 31.75 hours for tutoring and 16.25 hours were spent in

ELA/reading.

Model of Instruction

Students that participate in SES may receive one-on-one or small group tutoring

approximately one to two hours per week. The model of instruction is determined by the legal

guardian(s) of the student. The majority (90%) of students in this study received one-on-one

tutoring. The site of services for one-on-one instruction occurs in the home of the student. Ten

percent of the students in this study participated in small group tutoring. This model of

instruction takes place at the school site of the student (see Appendix C for more information on

the models of instruction in this study).


An Analysis of One-on-one and Small Group Tutoring

The average pre-test raw score for SES students that participated in one-on-one tutoring

is 28.66 and the average post-test score is 34.48; therefore, the average positive change in K-

TEA raw test score is 5.82 for students in this study that received a one-on-one model of

instruction. The average pre-test raw score for SES students that participated in small group

tutoring that occurred at the site school is 25.89 and the average post-test score is 35; therefore,

the average positive change in K-TEA raw test score is 9.11 for students in this study that

participated in small group model of instruction.

Overall Improvement

Ninety-four percent of the students in this study demonstrate improvement in reading

upon completion of SES (see Appendix D for more information on improved literacy of students

in this study). Improvement of literacy skills is measured by a positive change in the K-TEA raw

test scores. Six percent of the students that participated in SES did not demonstrate improvement

of literacy skills. Students that demonstrate a negative change in the K-TEA raw test score did

not improve literacy skills upon completion of SES.

The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for all SES students is 28.1. The average K-TEA

raw post-test score for all students is 34.58; therefore, the average change in raw test score for all

participants in this study is 6.48. The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for students that

participated in one-on-one tutoring in this study is 28.66. The average K-TEA raw post-test score

for one-on-one students is 34.48; therefore, the average change in raw test score for students that

received one-on-one instruction is 5.82. The average K-TEA raw pre-test score for students that

participated in small group tutoring is 25.89. The average K-TEA raw post-test score for students


that participated in small group tutoring is 35; therefore, the average change in raw test score for

students that received small group instruction is 9.11 (see Appendix D for more information on

K-TEA test results).

Statistical Analysis of Individual School Districts

The following research discusses the student demographic, primary language, total hours

allotted for tutoring, hours spent in ELA/reading, pre-test score, post-test score, and change in K-

TEA raw test scores of the individual school districts in this study.

Lodi Unified School District

Eleven students in this study attend Lodi Unified School District. Sixty-four percent of

these students are White and 36% percent are Hispanic. Forty-five percent of Lodi Unified

School District SES students speak English as a primary language; 36% speak Spanish as a

primary language. Eighteen percent of these students speak a primary language other than

English or Spanish.

The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Lodi Unified School District

is 15 hours; 7.86 hours were spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the SES students in

Lodi Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring. The site of services of one-on-one

tutoring occurred in the home of the student. The average pre-test raw score of SES students in

Lodi Unified School District is 25.45 and the average post-test raw score is 29.9; therefore, SES

students in Lodi Unified School District achieved a positive change of 4.45 in K-TEA raw test

scores.

Eighty-six percent of English-speaking SES students in Lodi Unified School District

demonstrated improvement in ELA/reading. Seventy-five percent of Spanish-speaking SES


students demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the students that

speak a primary language other than English or Spanish demonstrate improvement in K-TEA

raw test scores. Approximately 19% of the SES students in Lodi Unified School District

demonstrate a negative change in K-TEA raw test scores. Approximately 9.5% of the Lodi

Unified School District SES students that did not improve ELA/reading speak English as a

primary language and approximately 9.5% speak Spanish as a primary language.

Lincoln Unified School District

Eighteen students in this study attend Lincoln Unified School District. Approximately

56% of these students are White, 33% are Hispanic, and 11% are Asian. The majority (55.5%) of

SES students in Lincoln Unified School District speak English as a primary language; 33.3%

speak Spanish as a primary language and 11.1% speak a primary language other than English or

Spanish.

The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Lincoln Unified School

District is 31.75 hours and an average of 16.25 hours was spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred

percent of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring and

the site of services occurred in the home of the student. The average pre-test raw score for SES

students in Lincoln Unified School District is 33.72 and the average post-test raw score is 39.72;

therefore, SES students in Lincoln Unified School District demonstrate a positive change of 6 in

K-TEA raw test scores.

Ninety percent of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School District that speak English

as a primary language show improvement in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of the Spanish-

speaking SES students in Lincoln Unified School District demonstrate improvement in


ELA/reading and 50% of students who speak a primary language other than English or Spanish

improved in ELA/reading. Approximately 5% of the SES students in Lincoln Unified School

District did not demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test scores speak English as a

primary language and approximately 5% speak a primary language other than English or

Spanish.

Calaveras County School District

Twenty-nine SES students in this study attend Calaveras County School District.

Approximately 45% of these students are White and approximately 55% of SES students in this

school district are Hispanic. The majority (52%) of the SES students in Calaveras County School

District speak English as a primary language and approximately 48% of these students speak

Spanish as a primary language.

The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Calaveras County School

District is 11 hours; an average of 5.5 hours was spent in ELA/reading. Approximately 69% of

SES students in Calaveras County School District received one-on-one tutoring and the site of

services occurred in the home of the student. Approximately 31% of SES students in Calaveras

County School District received small group tutoring as a model of instruction. Small group

tutoring consists of one to five students and the site of services for this model of instruction

occurs at the school site of the student.

The average pre-test raw score for all students in Calaveras County School District is

24.72 and the average post-test raw score is 31.41; therefore, SES students in Calaveras County

School District demonstrate a positive change of 6.69 in K-TEA raw test scores. Calaveras

County School District is the only school district that conducted small group tutoring as a model


of instruction in this study; therefore, it is important to analyze how SES students in small group

tutoring perform compared to the overall average of students that participate in one-on-one

model of instruction. The average pre-test raw score for students that received small group

tutoring as a model of instruction is 25.89 and the average post-test raw score is 35; therefore,

SES students in Calaveras County School District that received small group tutoring demonstrate

a positive change of 9.11 in K-TEA raw test scores.

One-hundred percent of the SES students in Calaveras County School District

demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading. This includes English and Spanish-speaking students

that participated in either one-on-one tutoring or small group tutoring. The majority (75%) of

students that received one-on-one tutoring are English speaking and 25% percent of the students

that received one-on-one tutoring speak Spanish as primary language. One-hundred percent of

the students that participated in small group tutoring at the school site speak Spanish as a primary

language.

Stockton Unified School District

Thirty-five students in this study attend Stockton Unified School District. Approximately

17% of SES students in Stockton Unified School District are White, approximately 63% are

Hispanic, approximately 11% are African American, and approximately 9% are Asian. The

majority (approximately 51%) of the SES students in Stockton Unified School District speak

English as a primary language; approximately 49% speak Spanish as a primary language.

The average hours allotted for tutoring for SES students in Stockton Unified School

District is 17 hours; approximately 8.5 hours was spent in ELA/reading. One-hundred percent of

the SES students in Stockton Unified School District received one-on-one tutoring as a model of


instruction. The site of services for this model of instruction occurred in the home of the student.

The average pre-test raw score for SES students in Stockton Unified School District is 30.74 and

the average post-test raw score is 36.89; therefore, SES students in Stockton Unified School

District demonstrate a positive change of 6.15 in K-TEA raw test scores.

Approximately 83% of English-speaking students in Stockton Unified School District

demonstrate improvement in K-TEA raw test scores and approximately 96% of students that

speak Spanish as a primary language demonstrate improvement in K-TEA raw test scores.

Approximately 6% of the SES students in Stockton Unified School District did not demonstrate

improvement in K-TEA raw test scores. Approximately 3% of the SES students in Stockton

Unified School District that did not demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading are White and

speak English as a primary language. Approximately 3% of the SES students in Stockton Unified

School District that did not demonstrate improvement in ELA/reading are Hispanic and speak

Spanish as a primary language.

Discussion

This study demonstrates an association between SES and improved literacy skills of low-

income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The most

effective model of instruction in this study is small group tutoring that takes place at the school

site. There is an association between improved literacy skills and one-on-one model of

instruction; however, the small percentage of students that did not achieve a positive change in

K-TEA raw test scores participated in one-on-one tutoring. The data provided by Legacy

Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring does not establish an association between a

negative change in the K-TEA raw test score and student demographic or primary language;


therefore, it is difficult to determine the potential factor(s) that may contribute to a negative

change in K-TEA raw test scores in this study.

SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received a total of 31.75 hours in

reading, writing, and mathematics; 16.25 hours of tutoring was spent in ELA/reading. Lincoln

Unified School District received approximately twice the total amount of hours allotted for SES

tutoring than all other school districts in this study. One may assume that more hours allotted for

SES tutoring will result in a higher positive change in K-TEA raw test scores; however, that is

not the case in this study. The average pre-test raw score for students in Stockton Unified School

District, Lodi Unified School District, and Calaveras County School District is 26.97 and the

average post-test raw score is 32.73; therefore, the average positive change in raw test score for

these school districts is 5.76. The average pre-test raw score for SES students in Lincoln Unified

School District is 33.72 and the average post test raw score is 39.72; therefore, the average

positive change in raw test score is 6 for SES students in Lincoln Unified School District.

SES students in Lincoln Unified School District received twice as many hours in SES

than SES students of other school districts in this study but the average positive change in K-

TEA raw test score of Lincoln Unified School District and SES students from districts that

received fewer hours in ELA/reading is relatively the same. The research suggests that the total

hours allotted for tutoring does not foresee greater improvement of literacy skills among low-

income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. One may

review this research to consider the association of improved literacy skills of SES students and

the models of instruction discussed in this study.


One-hundred percent of SES students in this study that participated in small group

tutoring at the school site demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test score and establish

improvement in ELA/reading. Ninety-three percent of SES students that participated in one-on-

one tutoring in this study demonstrate a positive change in K-TEA raw test score and establish

improvement in ELA/reading. This research demonstrates an association between model of

instruction and improved literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific

Central California school districts. Small group tutoring that occurs at the school site is the most

effective model of instruction to improve literacy skills of SES students in this study.

The average pre-test raw score for students that participated in small group tutoring is

lower than the pre-test raw score of students that participated in one-on-one tutoring (see

Appendix E for more information on K-TEA raw test scores). The average post-test raw score

for students that participated in small group tutoring is higher than the post-test raw score of

students that participated in one-on-one tutoring; therefore, students in small group tutoring

began with a lower pre-test raw score than other students but achieved a higher post-test raw

score than students that received one-on-one tutoring. It is important to note that all students in

this study that participated in small group tutoring speak Spanish as a primary language. The

grade level of these students ranges from K-6 and all small group students attend Calaveras

County School District.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Sample Size

The sample size of this study includes 93 K-12 SES students from four Central California

school districts. Although this sample size allows the researcher to determine patterns and


relationships of SES and literacy of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific

Central California school districts, a greater sample size would be beneficial to future research. A

sample size that includes all SES students in California may help to improve the credibility of

this study and establish new relationships of SES and literacy of low-income, poor performing

students in future research.

Small Group Tutoring

This study shows an association between SES and improved literacy of low-income, poor

performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. Small group tutoring is

deemed the most effective model of instruction in this study; however, all students that

participated in small group tutoring speak Spanish as a primary language. This research excludes

students that speak a primary language other than Spanish; therefore, the researcher cannot

examine how the small group model of instruction impacts a change in K-TEA raw test scores of

students who do not speak Spanish as a primary language. Future research should include a

population of students that participate in small group tutoring and speak various primary

languages. Future research should include data that is representative of multiple primary

languages in relation to the association of small group tutoring and literacy of low-income, poor

performing students.

SES and Performance in School

This study demonstrates an association between SES and improved literacy of low-

income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts; however,

this study does not include data to help to determine if the improvements demonstrated in SES

are reciprocated in the classroom. Future research regarding SES and the literacy of low-income,


poor performing students should incorporate the change in K-TEA raw test scores collected by

state-approved tutor companies and the academic records provided by the student’s school. An

analysis of this data will help future researchers examine the improvement demonstrated in SES

versus improvement in the classroom.

Conclusions

The research in this study provides an association between SES and improved literacy of

low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central California school districts. The

majority (94%) of students in this study demonstrate improvement of literacy skills upon

completion of SES. In order to gain an improved understanding of SES in relation to the literacy

of low-income, poor performing students, it is necessary to obtain data that examines a greater

sample size. Although small group tutoring is deemed the most effective model of instruction in

this study, the sample size population is not diverse in regard to student demographics and

primary languages. Future research should include K-TEA raw test scores provided by state-

approved tutor companies and academic school records of the student. This information will help

researchers analyze performance in SES in relation to performance in school.

One to two hours of out-of-school tutoring per week may help low-income, poor

performing students develop and refine skills that may reduce generational poverty. The link

between low-income students and illiteracy demonstrates a strong need to bridge the literacy gap

of low-income, poor performing students. SES establishes an equal playing field for students

regardless of socioeconomic and racial differences. It is important to examine the impact of SES

and improved literacy skills of low-income, poor performing K-12 students in specific Central

California school districts to understand how childhood illiteracy may be abridged.


References

Isaacs, J.B. (2012). Starting school at a disadvantage: The school readiness of poor children.

Center on Children and Families, 1-16.

Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (n.d.). Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement. Retrieved

April 24, 2016, from http://www.cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/KTEA/html. American

Guidance Service.

Koyama, J. (2011). Principals, power, and policy: Enacting “supplemental educational services”.

Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 42(1), 20-36.

Legacy Tutoring LLC DBA Club Z! In-Home Tutoring. Supplemental Educational Services

Data. April, 2016.

Matteson, J. (2013). The lives of margaret fuller: A biography. New York, NY: W.W Norton

Company, Inc.

Neuman, S. B., & Dickenson, D. K. (2006). Handbook of Early Literacy Research, 2, 1-34.

Walker, T. (2015, July 16). U.S. Senate Passes Every Child Achieves Act, End of NCLB Era

Draws Closer. Retrieved April 14, 2016, from NEA Today.


Appendix A

Demographic Information of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific

Central California School Districts


Appendix B

Primary Languages of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific Central

California School Districts


Appendix C

Model of Instruction of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific Central

California School Districts


Appendix D

Improvement of Literacy Skills of Low-Income, Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific

Central California School Districts


Appendix E

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement: An Analysis of Raw Test Scores of Low-Income,

Poor Performing K-12 SES Students in Specific Central California School Districts

catalinadisomma.files.wordpress.com€¦ · web viewthe vocabulary of low-income students is...

Documents