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By Emily Dougan

Written by Emily Dougan, submitted in partial requirement for the

Environmental and Earth Science degree at Willamette University, May,

2014.

Conservation in Context An analysis of conservation practices at Zhangjiajie National

Forest Park

Abstract:

This project focuses on the evolution of management practices at Zhangjiajie National

Forest Park in Zhangjiajie, Hunnan, China. Literature review and field research were conducted

to analyze the changes in management practices regarding environmental quality, economics,

education, and equity from 1998 to 2013. In 1998, the park was criticized for its unsustainable

management practices, and a new park management strategy was created. The purpose of this

project is to see if these practices had been successful in improving not only environmental

quality, but the quality of the economic system, the educational infrastructure of the park, and the

equity of the people living within or near the park; the “4 Es” of sustainability. The park was

analyzed in how successful it has been in balancing these four areas of sustainable management.

Data was collected from the consultation of scholarly articles and from independent field

research conducted onsite during the summer of 2013. New park management strategies were

found to have significantly improved environmental quality, and were seen to be promoting

sustainable environmental education. While park economic goals had been refocused, these goals

were found to be interfering with the livelihoods of residents in and around the park. Suggestions

for future research and management strategies are proposed in the conclusion of this study.

Table of Contents Introduction: .................................................................................................................................... 1

Objectives: ...................................................................................................................................... 2 Background of study area: .............................................................................................................. 3 Methods: ......................................................................................................................................... 5

Environment:............................................................................................................................... 6 Economics: .................................................................................................................................. 7

Equity: ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Education: ................................................................................................................................... 9

Further considerations: ............................................................................................................ 10 Results: .......................................................................................................................................... 11

Environment:............................................................................................................................. 11 Economics: ................................................................................................................................ 13

Equity: ....................................................................................................................................... 14 Education: ................................................................................................................................. 16

Discussion: .................................................................................................................................... 17 Environment:............................................................................................................................. 17 Economics: ................................................................................................................................ 18

Equity: ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Education: ................................................................................................................................. 20

Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................... 21 Resources: ..................................................................................................................................... 23

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Introduction:

When the Communist Party took control of China in 1949, only 9% of the total land area

was forested (Marks, 2012, 276). Since this time, large scale reforesting and conservation

projects have been implemented, and as of 2004 more than 2,000 forest reserves had been

created, accounting for nearly 14% of China’s total land area (Marks, 2012, 294). In addition to

natural scenic areas and forests, the nation has also taken measures to preserve cultural

landscapes, especially in cooperation with the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO). Conservation and sustainability require a careful balance of several

components, namely a balance between the environment, economics, equity, and education

(McShane et al, 2004). At Willamette University, these components are known as the “4 E’s”,

and the balancing of these is the basis for sustainable practice at the University. Various other

institutions and businesses have similar models for pursuing sustainability, and these components

have been used in many definitions of sustainability (ULSF, 2001). Additionally, several

UNESCO national parks balance and promote all of these components in their management ethic

(Yellowstone State of Conservation Report, 2012; Olympic National Park State of Conservation

Report, 1992).

Balancing environmental, economic, equity, and educational goals is difficult for even

the oldest national parks, and as the national park system is young in China, this balance

becomes even more difficult as park regulations are new and park officials have less experience

managing natural systems. Studies have been done comparing the economic goals of Chinese

national parks to those in the West, but little analysis has been done on the impact of integrating

equity, education, and environmental goals, in addition to economic goals, into park

management. It is important to understand how these components are weighted, as focusing too

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heavily on the development of one component can often impact the effectiveness of the others.

For example, if a park focuses too heavily on the development of a tourist economy and bringing

in visitors, then the natural environment of the park is impacted from overuse. Examples of

developing a tourist economy is the construction of hotels, hostels, and retail stalls and stores

(Zhong et al, 846, 2008). If a park focuses solely on the environment and conservation, and

removes local people from the landscape, then equity can be compromised. If park management

sees the presence of local people within the park as stressful on the environment, these people

may be removed from the park, which displaces residents and local cultures.

Objectives:

This paper will analyze how Chinese National Parks balance the “4 Es” using Zhangjiajie

National Forest Park, located in northern Hunan Province, as a case study to demonstrate how

these four components are integrated into conservation practices, and the impact of this

integration. Using Zhangjiajie National Forest Park as a case study, this paper asks how

Zhangjiajie National Forest Park management practices have changed over time and are any of

the “4 Es” prioritized at the park at the expense of others, currently, or has a balance emerged?

This paper also seeks to understand the impact international organizations have on the

conservation practices of developing countries, like China, and whether or not the practices used

can be considered appropriate for the context of individual nations. Using primary source data

collected during field research at Zhangjiajie in the summer of 2013 and secondary source data

this paper will answer these questions and indicate the potential impact management practices at

Zhangjiajie could have on other Chinese National Parks.

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Background of study area:

Zhangjiajie National Forest Park was established as China’s first national park in 1982.

The park is part of the Wulingyuan National Scenic and Historic Interest Area that stretches over

26,000 ha in the Northwest of Hunan Province. It is considered a place of great geologic and

natural beauty, with over 3,000 narrow sandstone peaks and pillars, many of which measure over

200 meters high (IUCN Summary, 1992). Additionally, the area contains several waterfalls,

ravines, caves, and is home to the two tallest natural bridges in the world; Xiarenqias (the Bridge

of the Immortals) and Tianqiashenkong (Bridge Across the Sky). The area is a conservation site

for over 3,000 native Chinese plant species, and many protected and endangered species, such as

the spotted leopard, the musk deer, and the giant Chinese salamander (IUCN Summary, 1992).

Zhangjiajie has been called the “Yellowstone of China”, a “Gene Bank of Plants” and “a

laboratory to study ecological systems and a classroom for environment education” (Wulingyuan

Periodic Report 2002). When the park was first nominated for natural and cultural heritage site

designation in 1992, UNESCO inspectors said that it “...has undeniable natural beauty with its

spectacular jagged stone peaks, luxuriant vegetation cover and clear lakes and streams...The site

thus meets criterion (iii) for natural areas and satisfies the related conditions of integrity” (IUCN

Summary, 1992).

Zhangjiajie is a symbol of national pride and beauty. Every year, millions of tourists

throughout China and the world come to visit the site. However, in 1998, during a State of

Conservation investigative visit, members of UNESCO found that the park was “overrun with

tourist facilities, having a considerable impact on the aesthetic qualities of the site” (UNESCO

Wulingyuan SOC report, 1998). Between its founding in 1982 and the 1998 report, park

management had constructed massive infrastructure, such as the Bailong Ladder, a 326 meter

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elevator, and several shops and restaurants. The impacts of this build-up are demonstrated in the

map below (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map showing the rapid development of built-up area in Shuiraosimen in the middle Zhangjiajie Park

between 1987 and 1998. The white areas indicate the presence of built-up, unnatural infrastructure, and the grey

indicates forest cover. Shuiraosimen is a river basin where four rivers meet. It became a first class conservation

priority in 2002 due to environmental damages from build-up. (Zhong et al, 2007)

In response, the Wulingyuan People’s Government drafted a report detailing ways in

which they planned to remedy these impacts. In the 2002 report, the Wulingyuan People’s

Government reported that they had moved out “377 households...and 1162 persons” living in

Zhangjiajie in order to reduce human impact on the land. Additionally, the government and park

operators planned to demolish and move out an additional 169 households after 2002

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(Wulingyuan Periodic Report, 2002). The report also included a map indicating areas of priority

conservation (fig. 2), which include practices like reforesting and water quality management.

Figure 2: A map released by the Wulingyuan Peoples Government indicating areas of Zhangjiajie that require

increased conservation efforts. The areas in pink are designated as “first-class conservation sections”, meaning they

are high priority areas.

Methods:

Before analyzing how Zhangjiajie balances environmental, economic, equitable, and

educational sustainability, and how their management practices have evolved since 1998, it is

first important to define these criteria. Defining these was done through consultation of

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secondary source material. Secondary sources were found via management and tourism journals,

as well as Chinese academic journals. After finding suitable definitions, how each category is

practiced in Zhangjiajie was analyzed by consulting various secondary source documents on the

current state of conservation at Zhangjiajie, and through research conducted on an independent

project in the summer of 2013.

Environment:

In their 1982 paper, Tivy and O’Hare defined environmental sustainability as the

“management of a resource for maximum continuing production, consistent with the

maintenance of a constantly renewable stock”. The World Conservation strategy defines non-

sustainable environmental management as the “overharvesting of a plant or animal to the

point…when the species is so depleted that its value to man will be severely reduced or lost”

(Brown et al, 1987). Essentially, in order for management practices to be considered

environmentally sustainable, the economic practices must not overuse or harm the natural beauty

or resources of a place. In Zhangjiajie, UNESCO representatives saw tourist economic activity as

doing exactly this: overuse of the area by tourists was degrading the natural environment. In this

study, sustainable environmental management will be deemed to exist if there has been a

significant improvement in the state of the natural world at Zhangjiajie in conjunction with a

refocusing of economic goals.

Extensive research has been conducted on the state of the environment in the park. In

2003, after the publishing of the Wulingyuan Periodic Report, a study was conducted on the

current state and health of vegetation in the park (Deng et al, 2003). Another report was

published in 2003 on the soil and biological health of the park, and a follow up study was

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conducted in 2007 to see if improvements had been made since the last survey (Yichun, 2007).

Data from these sources has been collected, and trends in the environmental conditions have

been analyzed by looking for improvements in the physical environment (eg: reductions in the

instance of plant trampling, tree cover loss, and the status of the Threat Intensity Coefficient

released yearly by UNESCO).

Economics:

Pirages (1977) explains that sustainable economic development is “economic growth that

can be supported by physical and social environments for the foreseeable future.” This means

that, much like environmental sustainability, a sustainable economic system is one that does not

grow uncontrolled and does not damage the physical environment, or impede the lives of the

people living in an area. The consideration of the social environment is also important, as a

sustainable economy should also take into account the social structure of the context it is being

applied to (Pirages, 1977).

Publications on the economic goals of Zhangjiajie National Park are numerous. Since its

opening, several tourist attractions and technologies have been added to make the park more

accessible, such as the creation of a cable car system. Because of this, much research has been

conducted on the impact tourist infrastructure has had on tourism development in the park.

Examples of such publications include an analysis of the stages of the tourist area life-cycle

model (Zhong et al, 2008), and in depth analyses of the economic goals of the park (Wang et al,

2012). Additionally, many of these publications discuss the interrelationship between economics,

equity and environment, and highlight many of the issues in balancing these three (Li, 2007; Ma

et al, 2009).

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To analyze economic trends within the park, data from these secondary sources was

gathered to look for signs of a reorganization of park economic priorities. Examples of such

trends include historical data on the resource management of the park, and where such resources

are being allocated currently. Additionally, historic data on the number of tourist facilities was

added to data collected in the summer 2013 on the number of tourist facilities found at

Zhangjiajie currently. Data was collected this summer by recording the number of tourist

facilities in the park by hand, comparing them to historical data.

Equity:

Farrow (1998) defines environmental equity in an empirical sense, determining that a

system is equitable if all groups are receiving equal economic opportunities and are living in

similar environmental conditions. While specific data on the equity and treatment of local

peoples in Zhangjiajie is somewhat sparse, analysis of this does exist within literature on the

economics and the environment of the park. For example, in their discussion of the tourist area

life-cycle of the park, Zhong et al. (2008) describe the impact tourism has had on local people in

Zhangjiajie, and highlights their attitudes towards tourists and policies affecting their livelihoods.

Using secondary resources, policy reports from the Wulingyuan government, and my personal

qualitative research observations on the displacement of peoples in the park, I have made an

analysis of how equity is portrayed in the policies of the park. Secondary sources provided

surveys of the attitudes of local people in Zhangjiajie to park management practices and tourists.

These and their potential implications are discussed in the results and discussions sections. For

further in depth analysis, I will also compare this research to studies that have been conducted on

the equity of other Chinese national parks and parks throughout the world. An example of such a

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publication includes West et al’s (2007) paper comprising discussions on a variety of equity

issues in national parks throughout the world.

Education:

In 1991, the IUCN, UNEP, and WWF (or the International Union for Conservation of

Nature, the United Nations Environmental Program, and the World Wide Fund for Nature)

published the World Conservation Strategy – Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainable

living. In this report, the groups called for an increased focus from institutions and organizations

around the world to promote environmental education. The group defined environmental

education as education “that would enable citizens to understand, appreciate and implement

sustainable practices” (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991). Thus, if an institution or organization is truly

promoting environmental sustainability, they will follow the definition set by these groups.

The education component of conservation, especially within Chinese national parks, is

the least studied and understood. Thus, existing literature on how education is used and

implemented at Zhangjiajie is essentially non-existent. For this analysis, personal data collected

during the summer of 2013 from a research visit to the park and policy documents published by

the park management are used. Data collected from the summer of 2013 consists of a comparison

of the amount of educational signage and educational opportunities (eg: museums, guided tours,

classes) present at Zhangjiajie as opposed to other national parks in China. Data from other

Chinese national parks was collected through a comparative study conducted through an

independent research grant. The 2002 Wulingyuan Periodic Report details the plans set at that

time to implement the educational component into the park, and field data is compared to this

policy to determine if it has actually been carried out. Secondary source data of the effectiveness

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of park educational programs from other areas (with static signage and guided tours) has also

been included to support the analysis. While literature on this subject is scarce, there are studies

on the impact signage has on wildlife protection in areas like Tasmania National Park in

Australia (Mallick et al, 2003).

Further considerations:

The culmination of this data from the various outlets in which environmental, economics,

equity, and education are played out at Zhangjiajie has allowed for an understanding of the park

management’s current conservation priorities by identifying which categories of sustainability

and conservation is currently most promoted in the park. An indication of “priority” is defined as

when one or two components is highly developed (or successful) while others are not being

practiced, or practices are unsuccessful.

An important part of this analysis is in understanding the explicit and implicit

management goals of Zhangjiajie National Park and UNESCO. The “4 E’s” is a model that was

developed by Willamette University and is how the institution chooses to pursue sustainability

efforts. While these components are never explicitly mentioned in the management policies of

Zhangjiajie or UNESCO, they are implied in other ways. UNESCO works to understand “the

way in which people interact with nature, the fundamental need to preserve the balance between

the two”. Additionally, as is explicit in the name of the organization, major goals of the

organization are the promotion of education and the preservation of culture. UNESCO seeks to

promote education and culture in the framework of natural landscape conservation. Finally, the

organization recognizes the need of the host countries to pursue economic development, so it

also seeks to balance this criteria.

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The “4 E’s” model is exactly that, just a model. It was chosen for this study as it is an all-

encompassing model of the aspects of a sustainable system. However, given that it is a model

used by mostly Western institutions, it is very possible that using this model introduces some

cultural bias in to the study. This bias is important to recognize in going forth in this study and

has not been underestimated by the researcher.

Results:

Environment:

In 1998, UNESCO representatives stated that the natural environment of Zhangjiajie had

been degraded by tourist activity. With this criticism, the Wulingyuan People’s government

included in their 2002 Periodic report ways in which they would assess this problem. Practices

included the abolishment of coal burners and a switch from diesel fuel to petroleum for vehicles

in the park to improve air quality (WHC, 2002), the investment of 50 million yuan

(approximately $8 million USD) to create a sewage treatment system to protect the integrity of

the Gold Whip Stream, and outlawing public vehicles on the premise. In the summer of 2013, a

sewage system had been created, the only vehicles running were park-operated buses and these

buses ran on natural gas (personal data, June 2013). In 2002, the park, with the aid of the security

department, confiscated 446 guns to decrease hunting within the park (WHC, 2002).

However, conservation and protection of vegetation is still questionable and in need of

improvement. A study conducted in 2003 found that, despite replanting and reforesting

measures, soil degradation, plant and tree loss still present a problem, likely due to a failure to

stem tourist activities (fig. 3) (Deng et al, 2003). For example, average tree height in the used

area of Gold Whip Crag was only 4.5 meters, but was 16 meters in unused areas.

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Plant health in used versus unused areas

Scenic Spots Types Dominant Species Number of Species Average height (m) Average diameter (m) Density Seedlings

Gold Whip Crag: Used Trees ~ 1 4.5 8 1 0(0)

(12.0 m2) Shrubs ~ 5 3 1.5 15% ~

Ground Cover ~ 8 0.1 ~ 10% ~

Gold Whip Crag: Control Trees Chinese Fir 1 16 15 3 3(0)

(12.0 m2) Shrubs ~ 11 4 2.5 75% ~

Ground Cover ~ 13 0.5 ~ 98% ~

General Rock: Used Trees Chinese Fir 1 17 18 2 0(0)

(4.0 m2) Shrubs ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~

Ground Cover ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~

General Rock: Control Trees Chinese Fir 1 17 20 4 2(0)

(4.0 m2) Shrubs ~ 5 1.8 1.5 20% ~

Ground Cover ~ 12 0.3 ~ 95% ~

Treasure Box for Celestial Books: Used Trees Chinese Fir 1 10 17 21 0(0)

(100.0 m2) Shrubs ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Ground Cover ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Treasure Box for Celestial Books: Control Trees Chinese Fir 1 12 21 24 62(5)

(100.0 m2) Shrubs ~ 13 1 2.5 30% ~

Ground Cover ~ 21 0.6 ~ 100% ~

Figure 3: Table showing the relative height and health of plants and trees in used vs. unused areas in Zhangjiajie.

Plants and trees in unused areas tend to be higher and healthier (Deng et al, 2003).

A later study from 2007, however, stated that after a comprehensive analysis, the state of

conservation in Zhangjiajie was found to be “mainly in good condition, and natural environment

conditions have significant influences on the environmental quality for tourism” (YiChun, 2007).

Additionally, as of 2013, the Threat Intensity Coefficient of Zhangjiajie was reduced to 0 from

its highest point at 15 between 1998 and 2002 (fig. 4). UNESCO uses the Threat Intensity

Coefficient to analyze the health of biological systems, air, and water at their national parks. The

coefficient is calculated based upon the number of reports regarding potential environmental

harms to a park that UNESCO receives each year (UNESCO).

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Figure 4: The World Heritage Committee defines the Threat Intensity Coefficient by the number of reports it

receives regarding potential environmental harms in an area. Since 2002, the number of reports per year received

regarding Zhangjiajie has fallen to 0.

Economics:

A 2009 study conducted by Ma et al aimed to measure the efficiency of Chinese National

Parks in promoting practices that focused on environmental conservation by investing economic

resources into these policies. Parks that were deemed as successful in doing so were given a

rating of 1. Of the 136 parks studied, only four received a score of 1. Of these four, Zhangjiajie

was deemed to be using economic resources efficiently, investing them in conservation practices

such as implementing air quality monitoring stations (Ma et al, 2009). Thus, from this study, it

could be assumed that Zhangjiajie park management is seriously investing much of their

resources in environmental conservation. This is also evident in the park’s investment of $8

million USD in a sewage treatment system, and the implementation of natural gas buses.

Additionally, when data collected from the summer of 2013 on the quantity of family owned

hostels, stalls and stores is added to existing information from the Zhangjiajie National Forest

Park Administration, a decline in the number of these tourist facilities is seen (fig. 5).

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Changes in Tourist Infrastructure from 1982-2013

Year Beds Hotels Family Hostels Stalls and Stores

1982 260 1 0 20

1985 2590 25 18 45

1990 4020 32 60 190

1995 7080 42 76 280

1999 8585 49 196 326

2004 5005 35 125 302

2013 n/a 105 80 257

Figure 5: This table shows the fluctuation in the number of tourist facilities at Zhangjiajie between 1982 and 2013.

While the number of hotels has significantly increased since 2004, likely due to increased tourist influx, the number

of family hostels and stalls and stores has reduced. Data from 1982 to 2004 was provided by the Zhangjiajie

National Forest Park Administration. Data from 2013 was collected from field research in June, 2013.

Equity:

In the 2002, the Wulingyuan People’s government removed 1162 local residents from

the park, adding up to the displacement of approximately 337 households. After this, 169 houses

were demolished in the scenic area in an attempt to restore the natural scenery. While

compensation was provided to those removed, “a significant number of residents remained

reluctant to” the move, saying that they were unsatisfied with the relocation compensation and

because of the strain the move put on their ability to work in the agricultural sector (Li, 2007).

The tourism life cycle model was developed by R.W. Butler in 1980. In this model, parks

and recreational areas pass through several stages of development. In the first stage, exploration,

the park is not well established, with only a few tourists visiting the area. In the next two stages,

involvement and development, respectively, local people and state governments become

involved in creating a larger consumer and tourist base for the park, and in helping to develop

infrastructure. In these stages, tourists numbers rise and the park begins to see some decline in

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overall aesthetic quality. In the fourth stage, consolidation, tourist numbers are not growing and

tensions begin to build between park developers, tourists, and locals. The final stage, stagnation

involves a stemming in the number of tourists, which leads to either rejuvenation or decline

(Butler, 1980). In their 2008 study of the tourism area life cycle model at Zhangjiajie, Zhong et

al determined that the park is currently in the fourth stage of the tourism area life cycle model,

consolidation. This process is generally played out through the re-organization of labour. In

Zhangjiajie, this is being done by making a switch from an agricultural economic system to a

tourist economy. While this switch improves biodiversity, by increasing soil nutrition, and the

tourist economy, by creating a better aesthetic, it disrupts the livelihoods of local residents by

forcing them to give up their traditional economic practices for new ones. In Zhong et al’s 2008

study, it was found that “60.8% of local residents’ incomes were primarily from tourism” (Zhong

et al, 2008). As Zhong et al demonstrate, this tension between local residents and park

developers indicates that Zhangjiajie is in the consolidation stage.

Local residents of Zhangjiajie have expressed their discontent with tourists. In a survey of

tourists visiting the park, only 7.7% found the local residents to be hospitable or friendly (Zhong

et al, 2008). Additionally, ethnic tensions are present in the park as the majority of residents are

Tujia, Bai, and Miao, which are recognized minorities by the Chinese state (Mackerras, 2003). In

an attempt to highlight these cultures, the park has opportunities for tourists to dress in

“traditional” Tujia garb, or watch ritual dances. While the intent may be honest and pure,

practices like this are seen by scholars as commodification under the guise of cultural protection

(Wang et al, 2012). As discussed earlier, a system is only equitable if it benefits all members

equally (Farrow, 1998). Given the practices of consolidation and displacement happening at the

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park currently, all members are not being benefitted equally, with some becoming actually

disadvantaged.

Education:

Zhangjiajie provides a high concentration and broad diversity of educational signage. On

average, three signs for every one kilometer were in place. While most signs were informational,

giving visitors a summary of what geologic or biological features were in particular sites, many

were instructive promoting things such as recycling or discouraging smoking. In comparison to

other Chinese National Parks, Zhangjiajie does well in providing consistent signage (fig. 6). The

park also has several educational programs in place, such as guided geology and nature tours.

Additionally, the park funds the Giant Chinese Salamander Biological Science and Technology

Museum, which provides extensive information on the protection of the Giant Chinese

Salamander, an endangered species that resides in Zhangjiajie.

Comparison of Educational Infrastructure in Chinese National Parks

Park Name Location Guided Tours

Available?

Signage

Provided?

Average Signage Per

Kilometer

Hong Kong Global

Geopark

Hong Kong Yes Yes 1 per km

Guilin Lijiang

National Forest

Guilin,

Guangxi

Yes No n/a

Zhangjiajie National

Forest

Zhangjiajie,

Hunnan

Yes Yes 3 per km

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Shilin National

Scenic Area

Kunming,

Yunnan

Yes Yes 6 per km

Figure 6: A comparison of the average number of educational or instructive signs per kilometer. Zhangjiajie

averages three signs per every kilometer. This data was collected from field research in June, 2013.

The educational infrastructure at Zhangjiajie is intended to help visitors understand and

appreciate the natural world, while simultaneously implementing sustainable practices, such as

recycling. It should be noted here, however, that just the existence of signs does not necessarily

indicate their effectiveness in actually promoting sustainable behavior. Still, in even attempting

to create an educational environment within the park, Zhangjiajie is taking action that other

Chinese national parks are not.

Discussion:

Environment:

The environmental conditions at Zhangjiajie have improved drastically since UNESCO’s

1998 criticisms. The park management has taken tremendous strides in maintaining the natural

environment and remedying damage done by uncontrolled economic practices. The drastic

improvement in ambient biodiversity, ecosystem health, and air and water quality is shown both

through independent studies on environmental health and the Threat Intensity Coefficient

decline.

Perhaps most interesting is the confiscation of guns in the park to stop hunting. Illegal

forestry, harvesting, and poaching have historically been problematic in other Chinese national

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parks. For example, at the Yancheng Nature Reserve in Jiangsu province, a park also under

UNESCO guidance, instances of the harvesting of shellfish and poaching of other animal species

were recorded within the actual conservation area (Harkness, 1998). The park’s attempt at

combatting this historic issue shows some maturity in the management practices.

In 1998, it was apparent that economic development was the priority at Zhangjiajie. Now,

it seems, the park management has taken to heart the importance of preserving and protecting the

natural environment.

Economics:

Sustainable development of an economic system is an incredibly important part of the

management of natural areas. If revenue cannot be generated through tourist activities, then the

area will not be able to afford to pay for the conservation practices, and the area will degrade. On

the flip side, if too much emphasis is put on developing an economic infrastructure then the

natural environment will be in peril. In 1998, UNESCO justifiably criticized Zhangjiajie for

putting too much investment in an uncontrolled tourist industry. Since then, however, the park

has again made great strides in curbing these activities while still generating income. The

consolidation of tourist facilities, such as retail stalls, has reduced the strain on the natural

environment.

This economic refocusing has not, however, been socially sustainable. As discussed

previously, the park is currently in the consolidation stage of the tourism area life cycle model,

meaning that the park management has forcibly changed the economic practices of the residents

within the park, changing their economy from mainly agricultural to tourist-focused. This has

resulted in many losses for the residents, including for some the loss of their homes. By Pirages

(1977) standards, the park is thus not economically sustainable. Even though economic growth

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has adjusted to be sustained by the natural environment, it is not sustaining the social or cultural

environment. Until this changes, economic practices at Zhangjiajie cannot be considered

completely sustainable. A potential refocusing of management strategies to better compensate

and include local residents in the conservation practices is recommended to address this problem.

Equity:

While sustainable environmental management is now practiced in the park partly due to

refocuses in economic strategies, the park is not equitable. However, this is not an uncommon

problem in protected areas. In their comprehensive paper “Parks and People: the social impact of

protected areas”, West et al (2006) review the negative effects of conservation practices on

people throughout the world. The paper cites the commodification, exploitation, and even of

sexualization of indigenous cultures in protected areas in North America, Africa, South America,

and Australia, practices that are very similar to the commodification of Tujia culture at

Zhangjiajie. Just as local people have been removed from the park limits at Zhangjiajie, the

Wanniya-Laeto peoples were removed from protected forests in Sri Lanka as they were seen as

damaging to the natural environment (West et al, 2006). West et al explains these practices, often

initiated by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that work with local park management, as

an outward display of the Western ideal that humans and nature are separate when for many

cultures this division does not exist. Thus, as George Honadle (1999) explains, organizations like

UNESCO should take into consideration the cultural context when working with local

governments on conservation projects. While in the West it may seem appropriate to completely

remove humans from a natural landscape, the context of another culture might see this as

inappropriate or even detrimental to the area.

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The consolidation of economic practices at Zhangjiajie has also not been equitable.

Residents can no longer practice their traditional forms of work, and have not received

appropriate compensation for having their livelihoods disrupted. Consolidation has helped in

balancing economic and environmental goals, but has not properly considered the rights of the

humans living at Zhangjiajie. By Farrow’s standards, the practices are not equitable as not all

groups are benefitting equally.

Education:

As explained earlier, the existence of educational or instructive signage and education

programs in themselves does not mean that they are successful in creating sustainable behavior.

Studies on their effectiveness are sparse but in their 2003 study, Mallick and Driessen analyzed

the effectiveness of “Keep Wildlife Wild” signs in Tasmanian national parks. In their survey of

visitors to the park, 92.2% of respondents said that they were against feeding of wildlife, and

84.6% of that group expressed that these signs had reinforced their opinion (Mallick & Driessen,

2003). This indicates that, to some extent, instructive signage can be important in deterring

harmful practices.

This being said, by just qualitative observation, anti-smoking signage was largely ignored

at Zhangjiajie even despite the threat of fines for smoking in fire-sensitive areas. This could

indicate a lag in park enforcement of such policies, but also indicates that these signs have not

been effective by themselves in influencing behavior.

In terms of educational programs, the park has done well. Educational signage is

thorough and clear, and experts from UNESCO have been included in the process of creating

these signs. Guided tours are available in multiple languages (namely Mandarin, English, and

21

Korean) by highly qualified guides. The park is used as an educational tool to local schools, and

the Giant Chinese Salamander Biological Science and Technology Museum provides an

excellent resource in learning about the conservation efforts for this endangered species. Overall,

while still a relatively young and developing goal, the state of sustainable education at

Zhangjiajie is good.

Conclusion:

As George Honadle (1999) explains in his book “How Context Matters: Linking

Environmental Policy to People and Place”, context is incredibly important in determining what

environmental policies should be implemented where. Conservation policies used in the United

States would not necessarily always be appropriate for Chinese national parks. This being the

case, it seems as though the park is beginning to follow a similar model of balance through the

“4 Es” that many other parks and institutions use. Zhangjiajie has made great strides in

improving park environmental quality since 1998. The park meets Tivy & O’Hares definition of

sustainable environmental management, the IUCN/UNEP/WWF prescription for environmental

education, and has created an economic system that is not abusive to the natural areas. The park

has not yet begun to balance equitable goals yet, but this should not be taken as a death sentence

for balanced, sustainable management at Zhangjiajie or Chinese national parks in general. Robert

Goodland (1995) explains that in practicing sustainability social equity is often the last

component to be considered, but as systems mature focus turns to equity and systems begin to

sustain and support the social groups within them. As more members of the community move up

the proverbial social ladder, becoming more economically secure, more attention, in theory, will

22

be given to marginalized groups and an attempt at creating a more equitable system will be made

(Pirages, 1977). Zhangjiajie is not currently supporting its social groups in an equitable way, but

the park is young. It is possible that as the park matures it will become better equipped to

manage equity in conjunction with economic, environmental, and educational goals.

Future research on Zhangjiajie National Forest Park is necessary to further track the

progress of sustainable management. Topics of research could include the future inclusion of

local peoples in park management strategies, continued studies on water and air quality,

biodiversity studies, and economic resource management analyses. To develop the understanding

of the potential impact of instructive and educational signage, surveys similar to those conducted

in Mallick and Driessen’s 2003 Tasmanian parks study could be conducted in Zhangjiajie.

The improvement that Zhangjiajie has made since 1998 is impressive. It has not only

improved the natural environment, but has continued to generate revenue and implement

educational programs. For this reason, Zhangjiajie should be used as an example of successful

and desirable conservation practices in Chinese National Parks. The parks ability to balance at

least 3 of the “4 Es” suggests the ability for these to be balanced in other Chinese national parks.

Zhangjiajie National Forest Park is a place of natural beauty and wonder and with the

restructuring of its management practices it will continue to be so.

23

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