document resume rc 009 966 author gaumnitz, w. r.; cook ... · document resume. ed 142 334 rc 009...
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 142 334 RC 009 966
AUTHOR Gaumnitz, W. R.; Cook, Katherine M.TITLE Education in the Southern Mountains. Bulletin 1937,
No. 26.INSTITUTION Office of Education (DHEW) , Washington, D.C.PUB DATE 38NOTE 57p.; Not available in hard copy due to small print
size of original document
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Age Grade Placement; Average Daily Attendance;
Caucasian Students; Community Support; ComparativeAnalysis; Consolidated Schools; Curriculum; Distance;Educational Finance; Educational Opportunities;Educational Problems; *Educational Quality;*Efficiency; Elementary Secondary Education;Enrollment; Expenditures; Human Resources;Illiteracy; Low Income Counties; Private Schools;Public Schools; *Rural Education; School Conditions;*School Location; School Support; SocioeconomicInfluences; *southern states; State Aid; StudentTransportation; Teacher Characteristics; TeacherQualifications
IDENTIFIERS *Appalachia; *Georgia; Kentucky; North Carolina;Tennessee; Virginia; West Virginia
ABSTRACTExamined were the educational conditions and
efficiency of the school systems during the 1929-30 school year inboth the mountainous and nonmountainous counties of Georgia,Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.Information was obtained for five counties in each State which wereregarded as the most mountainous and five counties in thenonmountainous area of each State, for all of the counties of eachState commonly regarded as part of the southern Appalachian area, andfor each State as a whole. A comparison of conditions among areatypes indicated the extent to which mountain conditions affectededucational developments. Obtained from published reports and filesof the six State departments of education and directly from theschools, data covered the schools' availability and accessibility;grade levels; length of school term and'days attended; illiteracy;pupils' age-grade status; teacher qualifications; annualexpenditures; value of buildings, grounds, and school equipment;estimated taxable wealth available for school support; State aid;human resources as a factor in school support; types of nonpublicschools and their curricular offerings; and nonschool educationalactivities. Findings included: of the children 16-20 years old in themountain sections, approximately 2/3 did not attend school; in atleast 3 of the States, the disadvantage of short terms in the mostmountainous counties was aggravated by irregular attendance; andenrollment ratios in the first year of high school to those in thethird grade it,ere higher in the ncnmountain counties. (NQ)
Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished materials not available from other sources.. ERIC makes everyeffort to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal reproducibility axe often encountered and this affects thequality of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS).EDRS is not responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made fromthe original.
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United States Department of the Interior, Harold L. ickes, Secretary
Office of Education J. W. Studebaker, Commissioner
EDUCATION
IN THE
SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS
.P4pared by
W. H. GAUUNiTZSenior Specialist in Rutal Ed.t,cation Problems
Revised and edited by
Mrs. KATHERINE M. COOKChief, Division of Special Problems
BULLETIN 1937, NO, 26
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, 1938
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washnigton, D. C. Price 1 5 cents/
CONTENTS
FoRmwoltD
CIIAPTER F, INTRODUCTIONThe Southern Ilighlands-- 1 fa% ()rift theme of neus and fictionExtent and character of thy Southern I lighlandsAbility 'to Support schoolsSocial and economic eonditions _ _
1
:3
CHAPTR FL Sonoot, CovarrioNs Sot-T1H,RN P1'11,1(111
Plan of the stini 9
The edueationat problem in torms of numbers 12
Availability and accessibility of schook- goneral 1 IProportion of childron attending school 14
Elemontai y and seeondary school onrollinents 1 5
Aroa ixr school in smuiro milos and transportation v\pendhures 1 7
Sonic 1i-tonsures of the animmt and quality of schooling 1 9
Grado levels attaincd_ 19
Length of $chool term and da s at tondod 2 1
21
Age-grado status of pupils_ ___ 29
Qualifications of touchers 24Financial 11 Ieasuivs. of educational opportunities_ 27
Avot age annual c pewit( arcs 27Value of buildings, grounds, and $chool equipment 29
Estimated taxable u.ealth avadahle for the support of schook_ 32
Financial aid for selmols from State sources _ :32
1 1 maim resources as a faetor in school support 31
Availability of schools in holected mountain counties_ 311
Plan and purposo of this phasa of filo study 3t1
Location and distribution of schools__Distances childi en live front _ 40
Relationship of school attendance to availability 4.5
CnArrEa 111. DENOMIN ATIONAL AND INDEPENDI..NT NON 4CII001.N... 47
Introductory statement _ 47
Typos of nonpublic schook _ .17
Curricular offeringsNonschool educational actiN 50
FIGUR ES
I. Location and expanse of thy Southern Appalachian Mountains andthe counties selected for special study _ 3
II. Location and accossihility schook, 1 932, Luinphill Count, Ca __ 37
1 H. Wolfe Coun1y, 1., _ 39
IV. Macon County, N. C 10
V. Monroe County, Tonn 41
VI. Mercer County, W. Va__
4
TABLESPage
I. .1A erage farm income of mountain counties compared to totalties
2. Squaw miles in the various groups of counties and in those sections ofthe 'I'enttessce Nally\ Authority included in this stud_ _ 12
3. Population hy age grolps and hy the arionh group-, of counties _ 13
I. chiloren or elementary 211Id ,ovoltdury school ages per ,,quare1930 _ _ 13
5. Percentages of \\ hite persons of \ IiriUuii age groups attending any typeor school dui ing the period from April 1929 to April 1930 _ 15
.0. Percent. of entire public-sehoot enrollment found in elementary and insecondar grades _ 17
7. .Vverage number of square miles fo'r public school_ _____ 18
verage tApenditures for pupil transportation per public school 18
9. Ratios of pupils enrolled in si% th grade of the imblic element:to sehool,the llist ;Near of high school, and the last ;Near of high sulmol to each100 pupils in the third grade, 11/30_ _ _ _
2010. l'ernt length tool number of da h nib attled per pupil emolled in public
elementary schools ht 1930_ _ 21
11. Percentages illiterate lt age groups__ _ _ _ 22
12. Percentage of children ahoN e normal age for grade in NN nicht enrolled!pal ilie schools) _ 23
13. Number of ;Nears 10-N ear-old children tool 1 4-year-old children areretarded _ 21
I. Percent of teaching ;Thor lming high-sehool education or less and per-cent having 2 or more ems of college education 25
111. Percent of teachers new to 'the profes,tion and those having 3 or moreeas of e% perionee, 1930 27
lti. Orage affill1;11 salaries twill to teachers tool supervkors 27t7.Aeritge atuoulds spent for puhlic elemenbtry and secondary educa-
tion in 1930 by pes of areas_ 28I's. Average Nalne of buildings and gmunds and of sehool equipment per
teaeher emploed and per child mooned _ 2019. AN erage amount of \\ ealth estinuded to be available for taxation for
schoMs for 1930 by tpes of areas20. Financial aid per teacher employed and per child 7-20 years old con-
tributed front 144ate sources for the snpport of public education,
33
1930 35
Nunther of persons 21 :Nears of age mid alto\ e per child 7-15 years ofage and per adotescent 10 20 eats of age, 1930 _ 35
22. Nionber and percent of nontranspoited children liNing various dis-(alive-, from the schools they attend given by age groups tor (IN I. ofthe most mountainous counties 42
21. Distance helm eeu home and school of out-of-school children. Numberand pet vent of children_ 44
21. Number and percent of tiontranspoi ted children attending school thonumber of daNs indicated (hiring 1 :Near 45
25. Children of sehool age not attending school classified according'to agegrumps and higliet-t grade level,: reached NN hen last in school_ _____ 40
13
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EDUCATIONIN THE SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
THE SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS--
A FAVORITE THEME Or NEWS AND FIMION
ACCORDING to SR alahor and student of iiioun tain lire, there is 110section of our country of which them is "so much known that is nottrue" as of the, Southern Appalachian Mountain regions. INIucli ofwhat is "known" about the sou them hill country, its inhabitants, andtheir education, is derived from fiction and colorful newspaper andmagazine articles. In order to captiva te the interests of the publicor to arouse a desire to do soinething about prevalent conditions,writers dealing with such problems naturally portray the unusual andthe extreme. The. discovery in 1929, for exainple, of an isolatedmountain community in which educational opportimities were stillundeveloped suddenly became the subject of picturesque accountsspread far tuid wide by press and rostrum. Yet school conditions forthe county as a whole of which tlds particular ldll community was apart, were generally good. The people of the United States havedrawn from such sources and episodes the general and often mistakenidea tha t the conditions portrayed in these. unusual localities aretypical of the southern mountains as a whole.
A mountain worker recently voiced Ids complaint of tlds mistakenattitude toward this area as follows:
For many years the southern nmuntnineer luis been the butt, ofmuch highbrow ridicule. Ira has been scandalously misrepresentedand often. shamefully maligned. There are. two main reasons forthis treatment. What the outside world has known about us in thepast has been gained from reading books and magazine articleswhose, scenes are laid in our mountains. The writers of these bookslutve painted the mountain people as being feudists and !noon-sldners; as ignorant people living in fearful squalor and degradation;as descendants of criminak in whose bloody footsteps they stillfollow; as ignoramuses who iesent the least appearance of anything
.,ISO43 1
modern. Nfnuntain books, short stories, novels, pictilres, plays,and colleetions of ballads galore, have recently appearednearly allof which are, of an unsympathetic nature. The authors or thesoproductions chose. to write about exceptional and isolated cases, orimaginary cases, and brand them, without warrant or excuse, astypical mountain conditions)
Although fully reeognizhig the tendency of popular writers todepict the extreme and thus to overdraw the picture, it is, neverthe-less, true that school conditions in the southern moon tains constihdoa difficult problem. Reliable accounts of the type quoted below,calling attention to the neglect and failure to bring educa tionalopportunities worthy of the term to such communities, could be
Unattractive and uninviting though this bleak little school build-ing may be, to the mountahi folk it brings a contact with the out-side. Within, the barrenness was somewhat dispelled by brightpictures adorning the walls. But even their cheerfulness couldnot conceal or counteract the meagerness of furnishings and equip-M en t ; no teacher's desk or chair, no shelf or drawer for books andsupplies, five desks for sonic score of children, four rough benches(one. serving as teacher's chair and desk), a blackboard limited toOne wall, a map or the world (\lercator's projection), a defectivestove, a water pail, and a wash basin.2
i.4- Those of us who a l'e working in schools on the secondary
level appreciate the reasons that have caused our boys and girlsto be poorly prepu red for the work of the standard high school.We know that in literally thousands or the one-room schooh;throughout the mmintain counties the children do not have text-books. in Kentucky alone 30 percent of the. boys and girls in therural schools last year were without textbooks; in 111/11ty schoolsnot more than 1 0 percent were provided with schoolbooks. Inthese same schools there are no 511 pplenten tory readers, no charts,no maps, no mu terial for educational seat work. The blackboardsare so slick one can scarcely make tt mark with a piece of chalk,and pieces of old felt hats are still used for erasers. Under suchconditions we find great soul hunger and little food with which tosatisfy that hiniger. lt is perfectly apparent that boys and girls,whose. educational opportmdties have been such as these, have nothad a fair start in life. Their retardation is easily understood.Those of us who work in these schools, those of us who have studiedthe educational problems or this section in comparison with those ofother sections know that in the mountain counties boys and girlsdo not enjoy equal educational opportunities?.
Soutberland, E. J. The changing southern mountaineer 'Virginia Journal of education, September1080.
2 iiitCh, Margaret. Imre ln the Ridge iJttow Journal of geography, Mc lini1-323, November Mi.3 Baird, V . J. Ethical n,i Mounlam life and N, ark, vol. Ix, no I?, July Ian
2
EXTENT AND CH ARAM)°, It OF THE SOUTHERN H ICH LANDS
The area dezsignated as the Southern Mountains is composed of avariety of communities. The region recognized in a recent socialand economic survey of the Department of Agriculture 4 as theSouthern Mountain area, and considered in this bulletin, embraces
LI-114015
----- -NS
I5sI5 ALABAMA
OUTLINE or 7:VA.OUTLINE OF 205
MOUNTAINOUSCOUNT/ES'
30 REPRESENTATIVEMOST* /1//OUNTA/ N-oos Coon / riEs
30 REPRESENT-AT/yeNonwooN,771/NoosCoemrIes
Ftoultu -.1.4)Cat loll 21,1 I epa/ iSt.' of the Son horn Appalachian mountains andthe counties selected. fon t,peciat
205 counties. It lies within six States (leorgia, Kentucky, NorthCarolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and We:4 Virginia. (See fig. 1.)Smaller sections of -.NIaryland, South Carolina, and Alabama arefrequently classed as belonging to this general area but these unitsare not included in this study. The total arca comprises 55,375,580acres. It is larger by far than any of the six States of which theSouthern .Nlountains arc a part and is greater in area by 13,000,000
Economk. problom. ,u21 con,10 ion, 01 I is, sm0 horn 1_41rd:whom, \\*Amn2lon. S.Deportment of Vormulture. 1215 (AI eu wool- puhli) loon No 205 pp 1 2
3
9
acres than all the NOW Engbaid States combined. Its greatestlength is obout '100 miles; its greatest width 200 miles, The totalarea has a population of nearly 5,000,000.
As a whole the region is sparsely populated, Low populationdensity, as will lie seen later, is one of the elder difficulties to be metin providing such sociol sers ices ns public education, While sparsityof population is characteristic of the area there are two cities, -namely,Chattanooga and Knoxville in Tennessee, each with more than100,000 population. Six other cities, namely, Clorksburg andCharleston in West Virginio, Roanoke in Virginin, Asheville inNorth Carolina, Johnson City in Tennessee, and Ash laud in Ken-tucky, have popnlations ranging between 25,000 and 100,000. Thereare severol other cities stwli os Charlottesville ond Bristol in Vir-ginin ; Bluetiekl, Fairmont, und Nlor:antown in West Virginia; andRome in Georgia, each of \N hiCh hl1S o population of more than 15,000.Nloreover, there ore \sithill the area county seats amt. minor MdustrialcenteN \Nith populations ronging between 2,500 and 1.5,000. In the.urban centers the educational services told facilities ore as a rule aswell developed ns in other urban communities of the Nation.
A.130,yry St-prowl' Scumit,s
In many collummities in the more sparsely settled mountainoussections, focilities for public educntion ore inadequate or entirelylacking. In large parts of the area the farms ore ext remelY Th
1930 almost one-holf of the farms4lt this highland region were less than50 acres in orea, Fully one-third Were letis How 20 acres, Their size,luck or fertility, hillside location, and eroded condition nutke for low
Dahl tire available from a variety of sources showing the prevailingsituation. The Department of Agriculture survey states:
On more tlum 50 percent or the 383,870 farms, the farnt value ofall farm proclucts sold, traded, or used by the farmer's fanfily wasunder $1100 per farm; on about 30 percent, the value per farnt wasunder $400, In about 18 percent of the minor civil divisions com-prising the Southern 1fighlunds the average value or the farm prod-ucts traded or sold was under $200 and in about 3 percent it wasunder $100 per farm.'The ontount given represents the gross production of the farms
studied. :Nfore thou. 40 percent, of the forms in the region were clossi-fied as self-suflicing, meaning Unit the volue of the products useddirectly by the farm fomily was equal to or greilier than the value ofmill erop=., live,,tock products, forest products, or other farm productssold or troded (luring the year. In other words, on. two Out of every
4
five farms all of the commodities produced were necessary to supplythe immediate needs of the family, leaving no cush with which topurchase the "all else" so essential to a good life. :Nloreover, theproducts evailable are so limited, in variety, if not in quantity, as toafford subsistence farm hiplines only a low standard. of living.
Table 1 shows the average income of fn rulers of the mountain coun-ties compared with that of all counties within tbe respective States.If certain mountain counties were sepnrated from the group averagefor comparison, the value of production per farm would be even less.According to a study of a group of representative mountain families inKentucky, "the total cash income * * * amounted to less fluin$45 per family * * the average dwellhig house was worth $110and the entire capital, including hind, buildings, livestock, tools, andother items of equipment was S551,7
'PAaLrl 1.---.1urrage far))l incomel of mountain counties compared to total counties
SItHe
Net proddue
oer+on
Allcon ti lies
u et ion Cash \Jimper farm 1 per farm11129 1929
Nfoun. A lllam i
coun countiesties 1
of sale.sperson
Moun-tain
counties
5
Georgia, - - $179 I $112 $126 $93
Kentucky._ . 200 115 La
North Carolina PI3 III 131 63
Tennessee - 190 128 112 70
Virginia 215 189 138 129
West Virginia_ 171 151 1115 85
1 Spillman, C O. Some eumotnic problems of mountain farmers NI ountam life and \\ ark, 9: 22-23,Jammry 1934.
Net prothietion (due Ale of e or) thing produced minus feed produced for Ihestoek.
The situn tion for one section of North Carolina lias been sum-arized as follows: 8
lii our imniedin to sections the average (annual) income of thesmall farmer is between $S5 and $90. The humor lois, of course,his garden and his hind front which he gets most, of his living, but$90 does not offer much margin for tuxes, clothes, books, education,seeds, fertilizer, etc. For a single trip from the county seat we paythe doctor $7. * * The topography and history of themountnin eountry explain why over large arells our elementnryschools have been very poor. While they ore improving greatly,aross, Joltfl .811 else. Nlonnlaln lar anti \% (irk, 01 10, July MIL
7 Nicholls, W. I), ranultes or, "Rhin annul land Mmintain 1de and a ark, 01 10, A poi 1931
g Campbell, Mrs. 011,e D. Adjustment to null industrial chAnge a all special reference to mountainareas. Proceedinga of the Natiotul Edneation limo, 137 SI 85, 1929.
Hwy aro ory inad,quate. miatt ." ha, c, kip, popola-tion ltiolt, if not actually illiterate, is Ivry limited in education,This population presents a special. educationa1 problem or which
xvoil, hilt whichWe hear much, mut wIdch must always be consulcannot he considered apart from the economie and social phases ofpoverty *
Evidence presented later in this stud indicates that the taxablewealth on W hich schools draw in large part. for support is less adequatein mountain than in the nonitiountain areas (see p. 32) of the someStates. A. number ur studios comparing State tax rosoluves indicatethat, the Southern States" \\ hick inclmle the mountain area are gen-erally less able economically to support, schools I han those in certainother seetions of the country. Since both local and State sources ofincome iire ininlegunte in; compared. with other areas, the mountain
a
Ilona. on tho road to ()hI Rag, \7t.
section appear': to ha \ double handicap from the point, of view ofschool. support.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDMONS
The enne,4 of backward social and economic conditions in thebout hem mountain areas have been discussed widely by manyauthors and nced not 10, considered at length here. Conditionshave been rapidl changing during the last 2.5 OliN. Improved
Vol IDujr.,,z 100.1,0 to 0 0.1 1.1wwlon ss, Oa% i> itevirch 1310-lettrl.ol Xl. \,, 1,
schools, public oml privote; roods; Imspitols; telephone and telegraphlines; electric light log ; 0 nd modern home convenienees are among theinfluences now ovrcoming isolation ond social bockw laciness.
The progrom nod netivities of (he Tennessee Vid ley Authority °hove recently given encourag,qoent to the people or Hi, southernmountains. Efforts ore being mode through its Division or Social nodEconomic. Development to study the resources of the 0 yea, developits potentialities, and pla11 a program of notion. 'Phis program isdesigned to improve the generol soviol ond economie, welfore of thissection or the Notion, os w ell os to exclude from eultivotion the por-tions undesirable for the maintenance of homes told community liro,The effects of these chonges upon educo (ion should be significant.
In on intensive study or 428 representotive families living in themountain areas of eastern Tennessee, eost ern Kentucky, and western
,
tom.--__111
HC
11(Jnle )f family of 10 which law hevo on relief fOr 18 months.
North Carolina, Prof, Lester R. Wheeler " gothered (iota showingchanges durilig the post 25 years in the home, community, nodeconomic life of the southern mountaineer. flu conctuded Holt duringthese years the overage mountoin fondly lois decreased in size from
10 .Ale!..er, Walter E. 'rule Tenue,ee V.3110 look -. to the future .1.atro31 of the N.Olooal le3IneallunA:-33,elat too, 23: 233 l,%. 1/eeemhpr 03 I
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(1I:\.PrPElt 1 1
SCHOOL CONDITIONS IN THE
SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS
P i,tx or vii E STUDY
Tam CHAPTER presents the following, information concerning educa-tional conditions awl efficiency of the school. systems: (1 ) The averageeducational practices in the live counties of each S'Izite which aregenerally regarded the most mountainous and consequently presentthe greatest difficulties in the development of public, Nhica tion;(2) the. average educa lion al practices in five representative countiesin the nonmountainous area of each State; (3) the overage educationalpractices in all of the counties of each of the States commonly regardedas forming a part of the Southern Appalachian area; 1111(1 (4) theaverage educationat practices ill each State as a whole. It is apparentthat the total mountain region of each State contains all gradationsof mountainousness and that the averages for the total mountaincounties will include the data for the most mountainous counties.Also the averages for the States as wholes include both the mostmountainous and the lionniotintainolis counties.
A comparison of conditions among type areas in each State will indi-ca te the extent, to which mountain conditions have retarded educa-tional developments. Tile comparisons will, of course, not be as sharpnor will the differences be as great when the measures are reducedto averages for groups of counties as if data for each county werepresen t NI sepli ra tely,
The statistics in this section were gathered in part from the pub-lished reports and files of the six State departments of educationwhieh exercise jurisdiction over tile Schools of the area, In somecases statistical adjustments in the data available were essen till I ill
order to secure comparability. In a few instances, additional datawere gathered directly from the schools,
The (Iota empl)yed lire for the most part for the school year 1929-30and pre-date the period of the depression. However, other studiesor educational changes indicate that. the scaling down of such publicservices as ed hiNi tion has been fairly proportional between limn tahiand nolimountain comminlities, the poorer sehool districts sufferingsomewhat grea ter refine t ions. Tile differences between the educationalsituations ill .1 929-30 and now are not, therefore, as great as one might
15011
expect. Ordinarily school conditions do not vary greatly from yourto year. The 1929-30 data have the advantage of being comparableto the data published by the Uni ted `-'s_tates Census Report, a sourcefrequently drawn-upon in this study. (The data (teai with edurationalconditions among white persons unless otherwise imlicated.)
Scope and Setting of Surrey.- The names of the entire group ofinountain counties as well as those of the comities selected. to representthe most mountainous and the nonmountainous sections are asfollows:
tl MIRO IA
\ lomitam I ffilitt
Dm tow ' Fannui \ I m ra:, 11 al ker*C;iloosa Floy .1 Peliens WhiteC ha tooga Gilmer Polk Whit fieldCherokee ((onion RabunDade I I abersham " rownsOass son *Lompkin l num
Nonmountaincount ie.,
FultonLaurensLiberty-PutnamRandolph
KENTUCKY
Ilell I I arhu Letcher Poe. ellBoy (I Jack",mi \ 1 cCreary Pulled. iBreathitt Johnson A !avail n Rock cast le
"Carter Knot t NI art m RowanClay Knox A tenifee Way II0Clinton Laurel Al organ IN hilleyElliot Lass retire *(),A ...ley WolfeEstill Le0 Perr;,Flo;. i I ' Lesdie Pike
l3arren-MUNIlas iess
Franklin(Inas es
NO RT I (' RO LINA
Alexander Cherokee Al eDoss ell Se. amA Ileghany Clay *Nlaeon Transy Ivania
'A she (les eland ' N lad Ison *WataugaAvery Graham A lit chell Wilke(Buncombe /lay s; eod Polk Y a iweyBurke llendemn Rut herfordCahlss ell Jackson Slim
BeaufortCasss ellColumbusA ImreWake
TEX:\ ESSE Fl
tielersou 1, ran Um Loudon Roane Bra IfordBledsoe Oranwer MeAl inn *Scott Das idsonI I fount ( }revile A I anon Sequa tell to lardinBradley (Iruntly .Mews Ses ier Henryt 'a rupbell I (midden 'Monroe :Wilts an LauderdaleCarter Hamilton ' A (organ Unieoi.Claiborne I laneoelc Os erton UnionCoeke I hex Isms Meisel t Vim BurenCoffee Jefferson Polk WarrenCumberland 'I ohnson Putnam WashingtonFent re,. Knox Rhea White
'he Beate:" counties selected to rein'esent the most mountainows sect ions of I hese States.
10
1 6
VI ftG IN IA
ountain count les Nontnountalncounties-
Albemarle Craig Loudon u Russell ChesterflehtAllegheny Dickinson Madison Scott Fair faAmherst b'ntatu ter Montgomery Shenandoah I MidasAugusta Floyd Nelson Smyth King WilliamBath *Franklin Page 'Penwell SouthamptonBedford Frederick 'Patrick WarrenBland `Giles Pulaski WashingtonBoutelourt Grayson Rappahannock Wise
'Buchanan Greene Roanoke WytheCarroll !fight:Ind RockbridgeClarke Leo Rockingham
W FIST 'V I RUIN IA.
Barbour Hardy :Mineral *Itinulolph CandiBerkeley I Iarrison Mingo Simmer a JacksonBoone Jefferson Monongen Taylor OhioBraxton Kanawha Monroe Tucker RitchieClay Lewis Morgnn l' pshur TylerFayette Lincoln Nicholas WayneGilmer Logan Pendleton WebsterGrant Id c Dowell Pocahontas *WyomingGreenbrier Marlon PrestonHive pabire 'Mercer Italetult
*Indicates counties selected to represent the most mountainous sections of these States.
The counties constituting the total mountain area included in thisstudy are marked out with a heavy broken line on a map of the south-eastern quarter of the. United States. (See fig. J.) On this map areshown. through distinctive hatchings, the location of the five countiesselected to represent the most mountainous sections, as well as thefive counties selected to represent the nonmountaMous areas of eachState. The former were selected from a group ranked by schoolofficials from each State as areas which are most mountainous and inwhich mountain conditions definitely influenced educational develop-ment. The latter were selected at random, care being taken that onecounty in each State contaMed one of the larger urban centers and thatall nonmeuntain sections of each State were represented.
The six States with which this study is concerned constitute an areaof 253,617 squcl, a miles (see table 2), 85,356 of which arc included in thearea known as the Southern Highlands. About two-thirds of this areais in three of the StatesWest Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee.
The area within. the Tennessee Valley Authority is outlined in figureI. It includes 23,477 square miles, or 27.5 percent of the total South-ern Highlands. More than three-fourths of the mountain section ofTennessee and about one-half of that of North Carolina are includedunder the Valley Authority.
11
T %DIA', 2. Square mdb. tit tin varLono (pimps of Coon/1(h and 111 Mom, striton8 ofTenness«. tneluded in this study
T). iv ()rare: ; corgh,West
\ I rta \'irainia
0 7
StState.,
S
5 most mountamous count tei,'Total I, 217
1
1, oils I, 01 I 2, 332 ' 2, 123 3, 117 12, S32
TVA _ 0 I, 010 I, WI 31 0 II, 171
5 00001oUnt inn count ies:Total __- 2, 021 3, 2, hs11 2, 366 I, .512 11, 771
1, 11.2 0 0 1,515
Entire mountain counties:Tot 710 12, 132 at s711 , 17, 223 , 10, l'ilI 13, 901 s5, 356
Tv k I, 332 ; 0 J 3, 12(i 1 13, 107 3, 112 (1 23, 177
Entire Stale:1
Total 72.5 10, IS1 (S, 71(1 II, 63 7 .10, 202 21, 022 253, 617
TVA 1, ;132 1,011 5, 12ti 22, 302 3, 112 0 33, -113
Percent of toad Slate lit moult- I
Linn are I 11 1 30 1 ' 22 '3 11. 3 IS 1 I 70. 0 1 31.6Percent of it, untain area in 1
TV k - 22 7 0. 0 10 1I 77 s1
10 0 1
Percent c( total SI ite In Tv k 2 I ) 2 I , I I I na 3 7 7 6 0 11 2
THE EDV't Ai1O>AL PROBLEM Lls. TERMS OF NT'.1IBEISS
The fiNt aspect. of education in the southern mountains to beexamined here concerns the number of children of school age living
the area. The age groups as given in the table roughly corre-spond to the periods of elementary and. secondary education. (Seetable 3.) In the 205 mountain counties of the six States, slightlymore than a million children 7 to 15 years of age and somewhat fewerthan half a million of those 16 to 20 years of age live. From the stand-point of potential school attetdance, therefore, approximately amillion and a half boys 'and girls are involvednearly 40 percent of thechildren of the designated age f.;Toups in the six States. About half asmany children of school age live in the most mountainous as in thenoninountain counties. The 'differences ;Ire particularly maTked inGeorgia and in Tennessee.
The data presented ill table 3 show also the distribution of the youthby age groups in the mountainous and nonmountainons sections ofthese States. The proportibn of children 16-20 years of age to the.total group is considerably greater ill the latter than in the former, thedifferences being greatest in Tennessee and least in Virginia. Thisindicates the tendency of older children to forsake the mountain com-munities to find homes tind Occupations elsewhere'. The differentialis not affected by persons 11ttending schools away from home becausethe children were enumera ted where they reside rather than wherethey attend school. The general tendency for children of the post-
12
18
elementary school ages to leave the mountain coinmunities is moreevident when the factor of sparsity is considered. than when populationdata only are compared. (see table 4.) The natural sparsity ofpopulation in the mountain counties and the tendency of the childrento leave home early together constitute one or the chief difhcultiesin making suitable school fncil it ies ava ila ble, pa rt icularly for secondary-school children. Of course it is possible that if better educationalopportunities were accessiNe, the mountain cltitd wotild not leave homeso early.
tBLE 3.-Population by age groups awl by the curious groups of countics1
Ageg by typo of arm I 0 emote }7,01-1311(1,.!,
\ ort hroulline we
I Wot3.ngd" Virginia I
Totel
5 6 t (ti
rnm.t mounleinmet eountiot4:t
7-15 _ 7, 511 14, 864 17,790 16, 5115 I 16, 929 25, 000 09, 562
10-20. _ 3, 657 6, 238 7, 977 7, 720 7, 604 12, 177 15, 379
5 nournountain count lei:7-15 - 10,1182 22, 00,1 29, 175 II, 609 15, 595 31), 152 180, 8(XI
10-20 23,811 11, 720 11,285 21,331 7, 5h1 10,211 100,915
205 inotintein eountle,:7-1616-20
57, 855
30, 112
176, 237
75, 083 f
151, 200
57, 971
212, 067
100, 712
1S2, 117
77, 803
249, 205
127, 210
1, 030, 010
478, 360
Entire ittato:7 IS 3))0, 361 481, 745 189, 876 , 179, 809 319, 0211 337, 561 2, 5IS,
PI 20 110, 272 230, 039 214 001 253, 169 180, 523 162, Cai I, 187, 862
Data from 1." :t( Centms Report, 1930
TABLm 4.- Children of elementary and secondal y school ages per square mile, 1930
teet: by pe of area
rtiOst, mount antoni count let-
imil4ult
1
3
!Teitnet-''et( I
4 5
gime
11
\V e,tVII.
ginie
7
6 02 9 3 8 2 6 5 7 0 )) 3
16 20 2 9 I 1 () 3 I 3 0
6 noturtountain Counties:17. 6 11 .1 8 0 15, 4 0 1 151.
....... _ ID 2 5 7 301 9 0 3 0 12 5
Entire mountein eountim
16-20
1)7,IS
11 56 1
13 9
5 312 36 3
III 3 I
1 0 0 7
Entire Stele:0 1 It 9 15 0 11 5 8. 7 0, 1.1 1 5 7 I 9 130 I 5 6 S
1
1:3
9
0 7
1431.10a3 ) puu 'I I, IIIII01113,) Iv1 \ 311 118 30 pimp, .).(1111)(11.mil OJIIIIh1.1 I1111111.11A 3,1.v% (mu 'I'M111)00M AN n(1111(0 011 t
( 1' ()N: 'ova) 111 1.1111(11 uIl1I,nllx Im:(314) '.101.1(1)11 oil I [(( m.)0011111.1(1 I) 11 id '4.11110 :11111111.41 31.1111
-ma N0( ) '11()1711m1,1,$) rm.( III umuoltpa rooll.),-.)111.111(1.ro
T 11101' '110111mIllr..1 11) Pn13 0113
ioloos 1l3P'. I (II «, ) 10(111.)3 : .1111111,1 ' 'IIIII%1111111I/0III 'UM 11%1I11)
011) 03 '411)11171(11100J 11%/11.1 III 3io11.1q Jo i'1111(11:111-1"11 '/1100110(9 pub Jl .111u0(111,;(1 'No« )
1110111110111 011) .1),1 Jfl.l),\1l 0Ill um)) .1011p) )1100.1031 9'7 [ (-;11.11 (1
351111 JO 50901100 111.1w10011111011 0111 lit 000 upu0 :10011y4 ur 110.100
01 pont1J 0:rly 1001105 XAI3111001010 Jo 110.1pini0 JAI) .,i.10..0 JO 000 Xialiou '.A..)1J111lI0N JO 5090000 upgunoul om .501u1 s 01111113 011) J0 3,01J0000
-101310nOurumr OA 11111 11J(0.1d0.1 0111 Jo 010111 1111111 .100p1 ..i.[100 1515000
loolps 111 1)01100110 loll 500!).10d0,131 011). '3401u1 ..: 01Z0111 Jo 4,110!400,5
suouttpunmu 15010 otl) :,--101111050,010.1 50!)01100 01) .10A .p0)13.01)11I
1001105 .0111 ...(-110..011)1001)03-4 1010111; 01 1)0111l1 11100.10(1 / .9) 0) /.3.: 1110JJ
),(1'.\\ UI .00ullpuoll 13 A:.10341ndl1o0 0111 A:31 p0)00,911 .A:103401a )34010 101.10c1
01)) `01:11; JO S.1110.4L .[; 01 L 110,11 1T 1 111 J1 11 30 111111 1 11111)1li -11)111) 0501111,
.1)01p0 15 X100010000 JO 031A). 11,010 III 1001105 III 11003) 0.1 WI po).1031.0,1
0011,1.0dRid 0111 .10,1 pu 00J 13o:Th:1000.10d poulquI00 0.10 11. 0:6111 j0 5.1110.S.
03 91 050111 1)111; 0.1.1u JO 5,1110S. [ L -000111110 JO .10q110111 10101 Oil) `3100,1'il
0:(11I 1030105 00900 0113 10,1 luotull0.010 1001105 JO N-.0pu! tin )0:71 0) Ill .S10A1100(150.1 `00!)1ionp0 1111101 J0 lI01J 011) UT S1.10,110 1)0'111111AR) S.1111
14111d 05'0110J 1)11l1 '001100 .101.1101 511131 10011034 '001 mu '1001105 X,1l)00lIr -010 01I1 p0111100551; XluoultuOJ sp01.10(1 Otl) 0) -.100 '.10,1 pH? S.1 130A: 1 7 pl 11 (97 9) / 531 00,1:ii 0.1-11! JIll .10,1 5110,111 JO
1It)(1X1 J1i.IJAOS JIlT 11[ 100405 )luiptl0))u 50034.10(1 JO 50:ilil)000.1031 :5111..0h15
1)0)0.034,11d 0.10 131119 ci 01(111) ..S1.0111010.1 1010) )0 lloapno 011 11111)
.10 0ITS.F.W..)J11 X111)00.1 0.111 F.1001[OL3 Jill 11111) 111101(1 A:H.1111413000U '1011 5001) )11J111[10,1 110 JO J01101/1A0 .01311qp1.11 0.01 510011034 0111 pawns
-S13 03.1 _Out `50l)p00110100 a01110 111 0501)) tu X.iq1l00A0J 0.013110w 5(100.0-1 111,10.A.0s 0t1) J0110110 015009.10(10A 001 J .X1r1uplius )0040s
JO 0.01suour 1110!)011,131 11 P0.101)15000 s'T 1030105 p0110.1110 01111 10011JS JO
110,11)11110 JO 11011;10110A 011,t, 700//dS fig!pil qin U Hpll/p J.() (1(q1/Odod( [ .00!)u).10(Esuu.l) JOJ 0.01)ip1Imlx0 pd0d-.10d
0q) put; :100(105 ..019)0000s .10(1 p11 11 X.11l)00111010 ood 50pur 0.0011)5 JO Jog -1111131 0:Th3.10A11 5,010m;r1 ..0lIpu0005 1)1111 .1..111)110111010 01F1 11-1 S1110111110.1110
0.111 11,1 od1110.) 0111 100110:-: p0110.010 0:11l 1001105 Jo thump JO 110!).10d0,1(1
011-1 00001100 ,c011,1, '110111111115 0111 Jo 0.,!)3),)!pul 51: 1)0) 0050.01 `.10.OA011
,,-10011211! 11111,11.1pri1i,5 111111,10.) op!.0.01 11001.\ 11111(1 0101.111111,11; lOU iinp.011.S1.400011 100110S 1111,11 M10001100 1101:111111.10,111T 0A1S110140.1d11101)
r'N01(111100 1)1111 X,111111( 0.11) 1101)14011h situ ur 1)0.110.1 UT 1-,10)00,1 0011 .5010011
53110,Ipwlo 011) Jo 5001.11111- 011111110S110.1 1111111.11. 01(111111AB 51001105 0.1 1?
0.10111 1011 a 0 .1011)011. Jo 1101)14011h 011) 51111111111011E 11.1011)110S OM 111 511013
11)1100 100110S 01 .7111111110.1 1101)11,10p1111100 111111.10(11111 P-40111 0111 14(11111.10d
',.I '11,)INN1.1 !) s'10011,)t,..; ,k.1,1'11111SW..1..).)"\ (INV l.1.11111r11V.1
counties, closely paralleling the percentages in the same age group inthe nomnountain sections of the other five States studied. The non-attendance was more than 10 percent in the most mountainouscounties of all of the States except West Virginia,
Percentages I of while persons of earionS age groups ottetuling (tug lupeof school florin(' lhe period front 1929 la .tpril HMO
Kel North ; Tenni).-%. go, groups by 13, pe of area 'e"rgin tuel:y Carol um see Virginia We'tVirginia
2 II 7
5 Mast, mountainowi emu le,7-15 9,91 903F 95 9 87 0 81 3 93. 210-20._ _ 29. 1 29. 7 34 2 32.5 28. 6 30. 3Tot al, 7- 20.. 09 S 05. 3 72 7 70 3 67. 2 75. 0Over 20 1.1 1 3
nournountainous couutie,7-15.. _ 93 3 ! 92. 9
1 1 1 2
02.5 52 0
1.1
01 2
1.4
94. 310-20 .12 2 3113 39.9 31. 0 31,8 35 6Total, 7-20 71 9 73.8 75 2 71. 1 72 8 71. 1
Over 20 I 1 1 II 1 3 1. 1 0 1. 3
Entire StaM7-15 _. SO 1 ha 1 91 8 90 3 90 4 92. 316-20 . 32 0 31.9 33 9 31 2 12 7 32. 5Total. 7-20 .1. 14i 7 70 N 72 7 70 0 70,7 73 0Cher 20 1 t 1 2 1 0 1. 3 1 1 1.4
I For the United States the folios% ing percentages att elated school front the se% eral age groups; 7 to 15,93 3; 10 to 20, 35.0; 7 to 20, 71329; over 20, 1 I. Data from S. Census Report, 1030.
Of the. children 16 -20 years of age in the mountain sections of theseveral States, approximately two-thirds did not attend school duringthe period. This compares fairly closely with percentages found forthese Southern States as wholes, as well as with percentages for theentire Nation. But when the percentages for the most mountainousand the nonmountainous counties are compared, substantial differ-entials may again be noted in favor of the latter, West Virginia againproviding the exCeption. Among persons more than 20 years of age,the percentages show relatively small differences among the varioustypes of areas.
The differences between the percentages for the most mountain-mis and nonmountainous sections of the various States are, lessmarked among older children. They are no doubt able to walkgreater distances. Those going to colleges no longer travel daily thedistance from home to school, Moreover, some of the schools forpupils of high-school age are boarding schools, especially in the inoremountainous sections. Private &Ind philanthropic enterprises makea great effort to bring older persons from the more backward com-munities into contact with educational opportunities.
Elementary and secondary school enrollments,--Accossibility should
be considered also from the standpoint, of the grade levet attained.Data prc,s,ented in table show that only a small proportion of childreriof the more mountainous sec tio ns are enrolled in high school, Wldle
School consolidation and accessibility must contend with roads like these.
the figures upon which these percentages are based do not includedata from the missionary and philanthropic schools, it does notseem probable that the inci ision of children enrolled in them wouldmaterially alter the situation.
16
2r 2
tn every state the nomuoun to in comities show much larger per-centages of the entire puhlic-school enrollments a ttendhig high schoolthan the mountain comities. if all the children old enough to attendthe last, 4 years of the public schools were enrolled in these grades, thepercentage should approxinuite 30. That this percentage is seldomreached is indicated by the fact that the Nation's schools as a wholeaverage only 17.1 In city school systems it tends to approach moreclosely the maximum than in rural conununities. This fact accountslargely for the 30.0 percent of the school population found in highschool in the nomnountain counties of Georgia. Fulton County, Ga.,contains the city of Atlanta, in which enrollment in high school is highcompared to that in other areas of the State.TABLn rcent of entire public-school ehrollment found in elementary awl
in secondary grackst
Types of schools by type of art% Georgia;
2
Kph.,Itcs;
3
! North! Terme.,
,Caronna see
1 5 !
!
6
yestirgium
7
5 most mountainous mutates.Elementary 93 89 1 51 7 I 52.1 86 7Secondary.. 1 0 1 6 10.6 s 3 1 70. 13,3
5 nonmountam counties'Elementary... 11)9 I 'Y.) 0 1s3 1 80.0 83 3 83, 6Secondary_ _ 30 6 n 0 16 0 11 0 Jr, 7 10. 1
Entire mountain munties.Elementary... 89 8 93 s 8tl 1 80 I 80 1 88 1Secondary 10 2 6 2 13 0 10 11 13 9 11. 9
Entire State:Elementary. - t 89 2 1.27J 87 7 81 1 87 5Secondary., . 17 6 1118 1(h 3 24 16 6 12. 5
I For the l'n:ted Sta) es as a ,s hole 82 9 percent of the publie,school enrollment w,(s in the elententar,grades ith 1930 amI 17 1 percent Was In the seemalary grades, The se«milary grades are here defined as I helast 4 grades of the tatblfc-school organisation.
Comparatively few or the children iii school in the itiost mountaMouscounties, particularly in Georgia, Kentucky, or Virginia, attend highsclwol, unless they go to nonpublic schools or schools outside of theirhome counties. Opportunities for secondary Nlucatimi tire probablynot available in the home counties. While fairly high percentages ofthose 10 to 20 years of age arc attending school (see table 5), manyare evidently still in the grades, and ore, either marking time becauseno high schools are available or are retarded.
Area per school in square miles and transportation exy,nditurrs.--Further evidence that the opportunity' to obtain a secondary schooleducation at public expense is not generally provided in the mostmountainous sections of these States may be found in the data showingthe average area per high school (see table 71. It seems reasouable to
15015°-- 35-4 17
assume Hint, honing the use of boarding and transportation facilitiesas means of overcoming distance from school, the overage urea servedby the secondary school or a giveil eommunity should 110 t be muchgreater thon the area served by the elementory school. The areasper elementary school ore, therefore, likely to represent closely themoximum attendance areas of the high schools. It my be, noted(see table 8) that in the mountain counties comparatively little moneyis spent for pupil transportation, thus indicating that tlw occessibilityof the schools provided is not materially improved through this means.And, so fur us is known, provisions ore seldom mode from public fundsto pay the board of pupils who at tend high school 11 wny from hOlne.If, therefore, the basic assumption is granted, it is clear front the datapresented thnt comparatively wide areas of the most mountainouscounties are liot within reach or school, ofreiiwz high-school work,
TA B LE 7. Iii rage number al square mile,: t 11 ihtie school
4,f .4,1,001, 1,5 1% pc of anva (1«,rgia North'arolina
Teitne,-.ee Virginia N(.1Virginia
4 5 II 7
11104 nenintattlon, emluttex\ II ,chool. 0 1.7 (1.8 0.3 7. 3 5.0
17', 1 100 5 115.0 115. 9 105.1 55. 65 nannuntritain counties:
All ,:chook . ....... 13 7 17 1 8,1 15.8 3. 2
High schools 13. 7 51 0 7 61.0 98, 6 11 7Total State:
All 1 s 3 5 I 11 8, 3 11. 3 3.9Men 17 0 55 0 IliC 65, 3 07. 53.8
\BLE 8.--.1 wrap' expendilum for pupil lran8porlalion per public vchool
"tate5 unea
mount:un-ion; countie-
5 non-mouninnteountiei
Total Stale
3 4
Genrat 1 $26 $253 $453Kentucky I 2 .51 38
North, Carolina 135 606 616
Tennewe .. 63 MI I 159
Virginia I 61 , 455 273
\Vest Virgin( t 52 ' 100 85
Stine( spent f0r pupil Er InspOrl 01011 N5,116 pub,1115 slun tled e5pentliOlre., rrp0r041 far auxiliaryagencies
The a vernge area in square miles served by all schools in the non-mountain counties is greater in Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia
2
than in the inountain counties of these States. However, the non-mountain counties in these States show unusually large expendituresfor pupil transportation. In the other three States the average areasvary comparatively little for all schools. The area per high school is,however, considerably greater for the mountain counties of all sixStates than for the nonmountain counties. In Kentucky and Tennes-see the average area per high school is nearly twice and in Georgiamore than three times as great in the most mountainous counties asin the nonmountain counties. Even if the secondary schools werecentrally located and if the children could travel to and from suchschools in a direct line "as the crow flies", those living farthest awaywould obviously have to travel long distances to school. In the mostmountainous counties of Georgia, for example, the distance mightbe more than ti'f: miles each way. High schools in the mountaincounties are as a rule in villages not often located in the geographicalcenter of the respective counties. Moreover, the, more mountainousthe area, the more likely it is that a given point can be reached onlyby a circuitous route.
Although the data presented thus far aro somewhat general andindirect in character, they indicate that public schools, especially highschools, are not as available in the mountain as in the nonmountainareas of the States in question and that inaccessibility is more seriousin the most mountainous counties. It also appears that manychildren of high-school age attending school are still in the elementarygrades.
SOME NIEASURES op"rtIE AMOUNT AND QUALITY OF SCHOOLING
Grade 1ere18 attained.Table 9 presents data concerned with thegrade levels to which the children in the different types of areas areretained in school. Taking the third grade as representing 100 per-cent attendance, percentages were computed which show, the extentto which the children are still in school when the sixth grade, the firstyear of high school, and the last year of high svhool, respectively, arereached. The third grade is used as a basis because, by the time thechild roaches this grade, he is normally 8 or 9 years of age. Ile is oldenough to withstand the hardships entailed in traveling reasonabledistances to school and not old enough to be kept home for work or tostay away from school because he thinks himself too grown up toattend.
The data indicate that there are about two-fifths as many pupils inthe sixth grade of the schools of the most mountainous MID ties ofKentucky as in the third grade. In the nonmountain counties of theState fully two-thirds of the pupils are retained to the sixth grade.
19
25
97:
o
-,)1)11.1:11.1,111.71111 .)11) 01 sH(111(1 ,1(1)111 0.1 1(1 si).10.)0.1.1,MNI Atalls.qpniSTSUO,) 01011.11. 0 slt l0l 11I) Jo 11,)11,) Jo s100(1.):4 '211lplUJ(1.s
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111 Js01 SO9111103 Slhoupounour o.40111 si0Oilis J114 `101110.1u0 414.10N
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oAy JO 0.,s,s4 00(10 Xplo qoppo, ill iJ4114 s, ..!s J114 ui sonun0J U104101010 JImim all; 0.10 111 'OAT4011.1J14J.1(1.11 all? ()I JI(1114 1.1! i)y1110sJ.1(1 114 111)
0111 JI '1..10911J1).1 1)(111(1 110(111 'SSOU)1101110)1111011.1 Jo 4JJJJJ 0114 .1011)4
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put I 7.; 'I ' ii01)).),),1,01 '0111,DM:I MO 404 11 II ,13 UM )1:N (O ,01111 'A In) 10011.),)11.11111 0111 .10e1
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1'11 IlL V 01 1 DI opt.13 111\114
uplunalu 0.2111.11,1
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ft ';' 11 F..;
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u).111 JD otl 141,(.11t.), %al ',(1(u) )
() m p.11111.11/I III x 11 11 d 00 yao,) o yBpi ff1 dl»fi No/ pu yhtli fo dvafi p..11f di]
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St:1141110J 1.1 UM! BOW 110
Jill 114 1111111 ,)l11l.1. I11XW oti4 04 1 °cups sJ140110J sl100p4 -1111010 Jo sluind JO 1404 4.10d0R1 Jo21.09- 11 `.1.).JM0i4 '11ttlio.103
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L7.
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salmfo4IIIL JO of3lqua3ao(I ot!) 4.)1!J mil 'sloops otif jo cLriipoj qsud om Jo ootiop!so SI3 s)(1 Xu ii OZ", UIUj 4 Jam() 5u0s.1od jo
S.JUIJNII JILL .5100m5 ofil JO ,i1cpq!suod5oa tioso.fd ofu 51? JO ,41111ooto
og -tutu o:ths JO saflos: oz,- 5uosaod Jo Sou.hnlill %um, (.1 t oos) 51114 UI possnasw o.o; vitfp Solhhnrill JO 5ods4
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lou 0011r15 Jo Pm: s,n111 s palm I J111 jb, .1.00111, ong 00 'up JJ 10011.)s ,m1110 omuo mu
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fra 191 001
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9
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.saortma 001utunnuOn 0(10,1 10(1 ilainhvoll sS141
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I/
opoi haup na q,) onglid Ill pdllo.tud Lubod .11(1 /min( Kalif/ to :ilt17101( [17(11 Ififil(31 tif.(1,1,-
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alp Sq poAl000d uollondlsol. Jo popod polloy JILL SSlf!) F,J,I Jolly! of!) u! SlItomou SSI!!) 1111 110 1)1103 1 II 191(1101 01j4 .10111.10.1
q ) U '.10.7i1101. Sill 110111 .Vlauou 5S19) 0, I 110(10 0.111 Sotuf so9ulloo iffulonounfou dAf./ u! 100. dod 5Sup f,! JO 011.10A11 If 1? 110d0
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trE0111I0 10.1 AMT. '014,1110,) JO `pilIn.\%. oql puoSog podoio.sop
stomps otil lit 501 ais ouros .O1O11.\\ 11 51; 1101,1 11y. doJ ploloj 014011) Am(aq S1911.101)15110.) o.of '51lo,of uptionouroou oil] In poso (10010s
UT poup110,1 soAultio.mod NOON- otm, 4,111(1 1:40111 0111 .IOJ 0111
SJOUNOVp onp ;4[0.\ 100q,4-01.11 ',strotl,hw op/Immo ofil toffo
shown for the younger age group is in every case very much lowerthan for the older group, indicates that a greater effort is behig madethan formerly to achieve some education,
TAMA.: I 1. Percentages illitcath l by age groups
Ken-Ago groups by type of area 1 teorgia ,
I ,
link)
5 most mountainous mutates10-20 yeam.Os er 20 ) ears_
nonninuntain comities:10-20 years -Over 20 years,
Entire mountain Counties:10-20 yeare._Over 20 _
Nntire State:10-20 yearsOver 20 ) ears
I 6
5 2
3
North Tonnes' VirginiaCaroilna ! sot,
_
1
9 3 013. 3 10. 0
2 5 2. 1
Is 7 0 6. 0
2 3 I. 2 2. 66 3 11. 7 9
1 7 2 8 2 0II 10
1. 612 I
I. 2
3 t
2. 88. 4
2. 57 7 6. (1
a
5 5
2.38 0
3.
8.
2. 4
5. 0
WestVirginia
7
1, 56. 3
1. 0
3, I
1. 5
(1. 3
1, 4
b. 6
For Ole white popolatlon of the United Slam, the perceotom %sere, respeettvely, 0 nod 5,3. 1Mtafrom 1. S Celeim, Report, arm
Data for both age groups are favorable to the nonmountain coun-ties. In the niost mountainous counties of Kentucky, 'Virginia, andTennessee, approximately 1 in 20 of the children of school age werereported as illiterate in 1930; of those over 20 years of age in the.most mountainous counties of 4 States, more than 1 in 10 were unableto read and write. There is some evidence that the more backwardcommunities are now improving more rapidly than the nonniountainsections. In any event, the. data presented in table 11 do not showas much illiteracy in the most mountainous sections as the generalreports from these regions would lead one to expect. Due to the highliteracy rate of Fulton County, contaiMng the city of Atlanta, thenonmountain area of Georgia. is the only type area included in thisstudy in which the illiteracy now "in the making" is lower than thatof children 10 to 20 years of age for the Nation as a whole. Thenonmountain counties of four of these States, however, show a smallerpercentage of white adult illiterates than the average for the Nation.In all but one case, the illiteracy percentages of. the six States, takenas wholes, are considerably higher than those for the Nation,
Age-grade status of pupds.A measure commonly used as an indexof the effectiveness of schools is tile age-grade status of the pupils.Assuming that a child 6 or 7 years old should be in the first grade,one 7 or 8 years old in the second grade, one 8 or 9 years old in thethird grade, and so on, table 12 shows that the percentages of children
22
28
who are above normal age for their grades are higher in the mostmountainous counties than hi the nonmountani counties of the respec-tive States. Retardation is apparently nearly as great a problem inthe high school as in the elementary grades. No data wholly com-parable are available, for the Nation as a whole, hut a sample study,based upon data for 1927 ' involving 110,651 white pupils in theelementary grades of 70 representative. city schools located in 35States, showed 13.4 percent over age; another study made in 1028of 7,632 pupils in the elementary grmles of 45 representative consoli-dated schools showed that 15.2 percent of the children were a year ormore retarded; still another study made in 1930,6 including bothelementary and secondary schools located in the rural communities of22 counties of 5 representative States, showed that of the 52,574pupils involved, 17.6 percent were 1 or more years retarded.
TABLE I 2.- Percentage of children above twrotal age for grade in which enrolledI
Typos of schools by 0 po of AR%Kon..
tuoky Carolina
3
'rennet:.see
4
vireun
5
11 most mountainous eountieivElementary . 47.5 30.9 62 2Secondary__ _ 36. 1 1)1. II 48. I
5 zit/mountain counties;Elementary - 36 3 40 0 20.3 48. 8Secondary_ 21 0 43.0 36.1
Entire mountain counhe,iF.lementitry I3 9 42. 1 41.7 47.7Setondary 31 3 IS. 0 42.9
Entire State:Elementary. 36 7 37.0 37 2 41.8Secondary 20. 6 43 9 35,1
I No dela os ni,nhio for ( 1 eorgat and 55 est Virainm or (or secondar) saw s of Tennessee.lialifax County mottled because of apparent inaceuracy of data reported.
Table 13 offers additional data concerning retardation. It should beread as follows: 04 percent of the 10-year-old children of the mostmountainous counties of Kentucky are retarded. Of these, 23,6 per-cent are retarded 1 year; 21.1 percent, 2 years; and 19.3 percent, 3 ormore years. In the nonmountain counties of this State, 37.8 percentof the. 10-year-old children are retarded; 19.4 percent, 1 year; 10.9percent, 2 years; and 7,5 percent, 3 years or more. It is significant to
4 Mose, , and Segel, I./15 id The school life e5pectancy of failures in the elemental y grades AmericanSchool Board Journal, match 1933.
Mose, D. T. An age-grale 51 nits of 7,632 elementary pupils in 47 consolidated :Moots Washington,(3 m (rumen). Printing Office, 101n. (C. S. Depar) tnent of the Interior, Office of Eilueation, Pamphlet,No. 8 )
flaumnito, W IL. At inlabilit;, of piddle edueation in rural communitie,. Washington, GovernmentPrinting (Me, 1930. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin MO, no. 3 I.)
23
29
note that the differences between the percentages for the two types ofcommunities become. greater as the -number of years of retardationincreases. The pmportion of the children retarded as well as the-number of years they are retarded is considerably great N' among the14-year-olds than among the tO-year-olds. Not only are larger pro-portions of the children retarded as they become older, Mit the numberof years the average child is retarded increases as lie becomes older.These facts prohably account to a considerable degree for the compara-tively small -number of pupils shown by table to reach the uppergrades of the school. There is a tendency for rtanINI children tobecome discouraged and Ica e school.
T A I 3 VH ih fit I 11). grin -,11b1
ate ir turd( ,1,111,1 I ;-lica, 1 ,1,11,1, xl
1:ento. 1,3 North Carotin t TentleL.L.eu VitiOnia
VC"il , ccoili. 5 Ino,1 5 non- 5 Ino,l 5 non- ! 5 :nod.. 5 non- I 6 :toed1
non-' 'Willi, : Illoi111- i
: upon,. t tam ,
I . di II- , Colin- .
Wolin- I1 Ilinoll, iColin-
iii01111- :noon- , inoon- L :noun-Witt 1.011011, r LIIII [ LIIIIOILS
omit- onin- ; coin,- Conn-
Mona-Linn
iff, , in, I
1
tit, 1 k.. lies lie:, ties1
tied
6 ' 7 r,
_
10-9enr-ola (.1,11,Iron 1.613 2, 622_
2,113 3,1,15 1,1122 5, 610j
1, 975 1, 091
Priassit rnf 10191 rel.irficfl 0 1 '37 SI 5o 2 i 12 II I 11 5 30 I 60 6 0
1 }en' 23 11 L 19 I '22 9 23 0 19 6 15 U 30.3 19 02 3 ears 21 1 L 10 0 L 16 6 125 119 571 236 11 23 years or more 11 3 7 5 10 7 7 1 501 5 , 7 2 s
- -
Total 11-3 ear-ohl children 1.255 2, 190 1. olS I 2, 777 1, OSS1 2, tifil I, 89: 967
Percent, of total retarded
1 year
SI 1 17 3 ,
'21. 9 17 1
77 Li
26 0
60 0 f',2 8 62 7 81 I
21 3 ltUI 22 3
6.1 0
21 n2 3cars_ II 2 II 7 i 22 '2 11,7 1s 0 17 2 26 3 Is. Li
3 3 ears _ Is 0 7 9 L 13 7 12 3 11 0 10 S 1 IS 1 10 I
301-8_ Ii 0 5 5 s 3 i; 1 7 1 11.5 o 7 .1 55 }ears or more _ 11 0 5 1 5 1
I1 6 7 5 1 3 11 10 7 L1,3
Qualification8 of teach II 8. Educatm.s generally agree that the mostimportant factor in school efficiency is the teacher. Other things beingequal, the teacher most thoroughly trained should,he the most success-ful. It follows that the quality of the education provided by the schoolis to a degree deterndned by the amount of training the teachers havereceived. In order to examine, tlds aspect of the education provided inthe southern mountains, da ta are presented (see table 14) to show,first, the proportion of the teachers serving these schools who havehigh-school education or less and, second, the. proportion who have 2years or more of college education. Those in the first group are above
2 t
'3 0
the level of the generol population of these communities, but inade-quately trained for teaching. The second group have troilling nowwidely accepted as a, minimum stondard for teaching certificates,
TABLE 11.Pcreent of teaching staff haring high-sehool education or andpercent haring 2 or wore !liars ef college education]
Amount. of ethical ion by type of area (icorin K en- Non Ii Tentit%s- WestWeis} Carolina see ' Virginia
most mountninoui countiesnigh-school graduation or
1
77 7 75
4
33 1 12 5
5
2S 7
7
21.52 years college or more__ _ 9 11 in 41 1 31 7 26. 2 55.2
5 nountountain counties:1111;h-school emanation or less 10. 7 21.3 2 7 5 31. 6 3. 1 2 22.32 years' college or more__ 7s. 3 37. 7 72. Ii , IS, 2 56 4 43. 1
Ent Ire mount titi counties;11105,,chool graduation or less 60 3 26 1 16.2 16 1 13.'3 2 19.7
2 }ears' college or more.. . 23 ii 57.8 53 2 25.11 15. o 31 7.1.1-11dre State:
II igtbschool graduation ot 15,5 37 4 2 211 0 S. I 17 32 years' college or more. . 11 I 7. 3 71 7 15. 1 39 6 31 2
1 According to tbe Nat an511 Stirs 0 of the Educate, 1 a Tenehers, only 1 2 per«,in of all the leathers ofelementary and secondary public schools reported I yelr, of hiclisseboo I education or less; SI 2 percentreported 2 years of college or more,
2 Lass tiain 1 year In college.
'3.
Mountaia school and teacher's cabin,
With the exception of West Virginia the differences between thetraining of the teachers of the mo-d, mountainous counties ond of thoseof the tionniounhiin counties ore fovorable to the, latter. (See table14.) In the most mount:litmus counties of Georgia and Kentucky,for exoniple, more Hum three-fourths of the, teachers have a high-school eduention or less, ill the former, the pereentoge of teachers
31
with this training is more than seven times as great in the most moun-tainous counties as in the nonniountain counties. In 'Virginia thepercentages of such teachers in all types of areas are smaller than inany of the other States, but in the .most mountainous counties theproportion is nearly six times as great as in the nonmountain counties.
In the nonmoun ta in comities of the Sta tes having the best record inteacher prepara tion a considerable proportion of the teachers are com-paratively unprepared and nearly one-half fall below the acceptedstandard of 2 years of college education. The recent oversupply ofteachers is resulting in raising the certification standards and con-sequently inlowering the percentages of undertra Med teachers. Whilecomprehensive conipara Live data are not available, progress along thisline in the most mountainous counties appears to be less sa tisfactorythan in the nonniountain counties as indicated in the table.
Experience is usually also considered an important measure of theefliciency of teachers. Studies of experience as a factor in teachingefficiency verify the general observation tha t especially during thefirst 5 years of sprvice in the schools a teacher gains in knowledge andskill through professional rending, contacts with fellow teacheN, andsimilar types of experiences. Although the differences are compara-tively small, the percentages (see table 15) show clearly that in all ofthe six States, except Virginia, the schools of the most mountainouscounties employ a larger proportion of beginning teachers than thoseof the nonmountain counties. Conversely, the n011mountain countiesof all but West Virginia attract and hold a larger proportion ofexperienced teachers. A study of 150,182 7 teachers employed in 1930in schools located in centers of 2,500 or fewer population in the UnitedStates revealed that 17.4 percent were teaching their first year, while68.4 percent had taught 3 or more years. For the most part, theavailable data show that stability of the teaching foce does not differwidely in the six States from that in the Nation as EL whole. Theslight advantage shown by some of these States in this respect wouldprobably disappear entirely if, as in the Nation-wide study, data fromcity schools were excluded.
Another factor which determines to some degree the quality, train-ing, and fitness of the persons employed as teachers is the salary paid.The average annual salaries of teachers and supervisors of the varioustypes of counties in 1930 are shov ri in table 16. The average teacheremployed in the most mountainous counties of Georgia was paid $436per year; in Kentucky, $510; in Virginia, $588; in North Carolina, $654;in Tennessee, $716; and in West Virginia, $988. The salaries are
7 thIUM1111.1, \V. U. Stain.; of lonelier, and primp II,. ernplo!,ed cri the rural ,whook of tlw United( states.Wiethinpon, lie% eminent Printing (Mice, IIM2. (I: S. Department ct the Interior, (Brim cit Edueation,
lite2. So, 3
26
32
higher in the nonmountain counties in all States, thnitting Georgia,the differentials range approximately from $2.90 t o $400.
TAR L16 t5.Percent of tiochers new to the profession owl those hoeing3 or worc year: of experience, 1930
Teaching experience by t pe of area (leoritia 1. en-(leis}
`,;ortil 1 rennes- , est Vir-Cirolinn I see r41111.1 ,
7
5 most mountainous countlesFirst ye ir 16 7 21. t 0. 0 11 3 10 5 10.9
3 or more ) ears. _____
ii nonmoutitaln counties:60 0 55 1 71. 1 57 1 66.6 72 5
First ye _ h 1 7 6 13 0 12.5 7.2
3 or more years, - 8,1 81. 9 76 t t36, 7, at, S 64.9
All mountain counties:First year 13 '2 17 8 11 3 0.2 9.6
3 or more years (13 6 54. 9 (17 2 91 3 71.6 71. 5
Total State:First ) ear_ 15. 2 2 8 1 11 2 s 2 9.6
3 or more years 77 5 61. I. - 79 3 3 73 0 73.8
I Portion) N1011.11481 1 18 hue and Negro.
TABLE I (5..1.ve, age annual salaries pant to leachers and supervisors
Ken. North 'relinesType of area turky Carolina see \
rVaeistia
3 4 7, 6
5 most mountainous eounties 8436 $310 $651. $716 $589 8988
5 nonniountain counties 1, 712 878 1, 051 1, 12.3 836 1,358
Entire mountain counties 535 760 911 778 I, 052
Entire Stale... 516 998 032 960 I. 099
I The average annual salary of all tesehers and supervisors of public schools in the Coned 7J,tates,Including
Negro schools, waS $1,12010 1930
FINANCIAL EASURES OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Areraye annual expenditures.Inen the educational opportunitiesof two or more communities are compared from a financial viewpoint,two major considerations are: The amount spent annually to supportthe, public-school program; and the money invested in housing andmaterial equipment. To secure measures whereby the various groupsof counties may be compered, annual. expenditures for the, publicschools for whites, except funds inN-ested in new- sites, buildings, andequipment, were totaled by counties and by groups of counties. (sec
table 1 7 . ) These were then divided ( I ) by the total number of whiteteachers employed in the schools, (2) by the number of white children
6 20 years of age living in the respective counties, and (3) by the num-ber of pupils enrolled in the public schook for whites.
TABLE 17.- .locrage amounici spent for public elementary and mmodary editeallonin 1930 by types of areas
nit of fill'i4,1111` I yr of arca
1
ieareat Ken-tuck
3
NomI %indult'
Tema,.;we
5
\ inia
6
Vireinin
7
5 nimst mountainous counties.Per t(audiel $320 $011 $1103 ,' $270 $702 $1, 200Per census eluld 14 13 10 10 ' Is 41
Per pupil enrolled ill IS 21 25 22 51
11 notunountaln eount test
Per teacher 2,007 1, 130 I, 121 I, 51U 1, 212 1, 000Per census elahl 72 21 32 30 30 33
PM' pupil enrolled 63 d 1 12 11 12 71
All mountain countles,Per teaeher mo 4051 1, 22,1 1, 112 ,t 1, 011 1, 130
Per eensus elnid 1 i 15 2s 21 , 22J
41Per popil enndled 20 22 37 Xi 30 31
Total States, 1Par teacher 1,1181 1,31 2 1, 373 1, 1040 1, 333 1,150Per eetems ehild 25 , 21 31 27 31 12Per pupil enrolled 33 32 11 35 12 50
rompuied on the tollo0 Inaba:et, Per teacher employ ed in public elementary and high schools, per child0 to 20 years of ge hving in each i pe of area indicated, and per Chihl cm oiled In public selmols Dida arefor Whites only, 'reneherq, as 1 Ile lerm is here used, means the entire I nstruetional staff and includes teachers,supervisors, and principals
Comparable per capita figtin", tor the rolled States as a 0 hole are, respectiely , $2,215, $51, and $77,
while each type of divisor luis its 01%'11 peculiar significance as apleasure of the amount and quality of education provided, the annualper-teacher cost is probably the best, of the three 1110115111'es of financialsupport in a given colliniuty. It. overcomes S011lewlItl t the differencesdue to sparsity of population. Ill one-teacher schools it is roughlyequivalent to till the money spent for school purposes.
The measure of comparative costs most commonly employed inthe Irnited States is the average expenditure per pupil. Since thismeasure does not consider the children of school age who livegiven area but are not attending school, the per-capita costs werecomputed also on the basis of all children 6 -20 years of age who livein Mil group of counties as given by the Irilited States censusreport. The three types of data lire presented in table 1 7.
Great variations in public-school expenditures among the Statesand betw.en similar types of communities are shown in the table.In each case, except for the nonniountain group, Georgia shows thelowest amnial expenditure for public education; West Virginia thehighest. The schools of the most mountainous counties of Georgiaand Kentucky spent less than half as much on education as those of
3
West Virginia. Insohir as greater expenditures mean better schools,comparisons between the most mountainous and the nonmountaincounties reveal significant differences in favor of the hitter. Thedifferences in expenditures shown are from 45 percent higher in WestVirginia to nearly 300 percent higher in Georgia. When comparisonsare made to the United States as a whole, even the highest averageexpenditure found in these six States falls below the national average.
Value of buildings, grounds, and school eguipment.Data to showthe amount of money per teacher and per child 6-20 years of ageinvested in school buildings and sites and in permanent school equip-ment fire presented in table IS. The value of school property reportedby local school officers is in part estimated. IIowever, it is believedthat the counties in question follow the same method of determiningand reporting the amount of money invested in school property. Thedata are therefore assumed to be comparable among the several States.
1
.1. No
Modern high school loca.ted hi the county seat of a typical mountain county.
Certainly they permit comparison between the groups of countieswithin each State. In the case of West Virginia separate data forwhite and Negro schools were not available for either the value ofschool buildings and grounds or for the equipment. Hence the datapresented for this State are for both races. The same is true ofequipment values recorded for Kentucky.
The five most mountainous counties, as well as the mountain coun-ties as a whole within each State, have, apparently invested compara-tively little in school buildings and equipment. If it is assumed thatthe averages for the nonmountain counties represent the amount acommunity should invest in school buildings and equipment, it maybe concluded that the more mountainous groups of counties fall farshort of the need. In Georgia, for example, the most mountainous
29
3 5
counties report an average investment in buildings and grounds of lessthan MO per teacher as compared to more than $5,000 in the non-mountain countiesa ratio of I to 6. la Kentucky the most moun-tainous counties show an investtnent less than one-fourth that of thenonmountain counties. In Tennessee and West Virginia the differenceis less striking. But even in these States the nonmountain countieshave invested nearly i times as much money in school buildings andgrounds per unit of measure as the most mountainous counties. Theentire mountain counties of the several States, with the exception ofTennessee, show consistent and marked disparities when the averagevalues of school buildings and grounds are compared with those of the
TABLE 18.--Iverage value of buildings and grounds and of school equipmentpH- leacher employed and per child 6-20 years of age'
Buses by t) pa of area
(.1 mod mounlainuas mantic:1
Buildings and groundwPer teacher..Per child._
Equipment:Per lonelier.Per child
5 nonnsonnlaln mai« a
Buildings and grounds:Per teacher._Per child
Equipment:Per teacher.Per child
Entire mounlainconntiea
Buildings and ground':Per teacher., _
Per child__ _Equipment:
Per teacher_Per Mid_ . _
Entire .strile
Buildings and groundsPer teacher_Per child_
Equipment:Per teacher_ .Per child _ .
I , _ 1 North ,T"ne.s.ce Virginiawm Carolina 'West
Virginia t
3 4 5 6 7
$702 $711 $1,
17 15 1
112 2 166
3. 1 I 2 3. 0
710
10
223
5.3
$2, 47754
264
5. 7
$1, 60236
191
4. 1
43,
5, Oal 3,032 5, 033 :3, 178 3, 200 5,
126 , 111 114 68 81
219 2 332 Sin 318 3690. 1 2 7. 0 1S. 2 O. 2 0.3
1, 018 1, 793 4, 380 3, 402 3, 220 3,
40 33 00 75 71
208 2 218 437 357 308
1.3 2 4. 6 9, 8 7, 5 6. 7
2, 901 2, 909 4, 991 3, 335 4, 259 4,
96 65 112 71 98
337 2 321 51111 327 116
7. 7 211 5 12, 7 7.3 9. 5
685121
075151
48614. 4
910
112
492
14.0
035
1111
521
15. 0
1 Comparable figures for the %% lute schor la of I he ['tilted Stales as a whole are, respectively, $7,013 and$604 per teacher, or 8178 and 815 per child 5-20 years of age.
2 Includes data for both d%,1fites and Negroes.
30
3.6
States taken as wholes. Compared on the per-child basis, thedifferences are greater than on tho per-teacher basis.
Generally speaking, both in the value of school buildings and groundsand in the tunount invested in school equipment, the mountaincounties fall below Ste to standards as well as below those maintainedin the nonmountain counties of the respective States. When nationalaverages are taken as standard, these shortcomings of the mountainschools are still more apparent. Averages do not, of course, showextreme conditions. In some commutlities visited there were no public-school buildings; church buildings and beaches were used for schoolpurposes. Equipment consisted of the few books and materials tbechildren brought from home, or which were. provided through_ theresourcefulness of the teacher. Many public schools observed in theremote mountain communities aro plain square buildings in poorrepair, containing very little equipment.
Under the local system of financing public education, widely prac-ticed in the. United States, the presence or absence of educationalservices, and the conditions of the schools in general, are found tobear a very close relationship to the wealth of the' communities inwhich they are loco ted.8 Since. the economic conditions of the southernmountains are below standard, the school buildings and equipmentprovided ore also unsatisfactory.
Estimated taxable wealth arailable for the support qf schools.---Someidea of the differences in taxable wealth among the types of com-munities in the States studied may be obtained front table 19, show-ing the estimated wealth per teacher employed and per child 7 to 20years of age. The data include figures for both whites and Negroes.
The differences between the average estimated wealth per teacherfor the most mountainous and the nonmountain counties are for themost part significant. The differences are somewhat less when com-puted on a per-child basis than when computed on a per-teacherbasis. A comparison of the average expenditures and the per capitawealth suggests that the several groups of mountain counties levyslightly higher taxes for school purposes than the average of therespective State of which each_ is a, part. Similar comparisons betweenthese States and the Nation reveal, however, that school tax rates aresomewhat lower in the six States than in the Nation as a whole.
Financial aid for schools from State sources.lt is of interest in thisconnection to note the extent to which schools in the States studieddraw upon State funds to supplement or equalize the funds availablefor school purposes from local tax resources. Information is presentedto show the amount of money contributed to the public schooN fromState sources computed on the basis of the number of teachers em-
0 Cowden, timie E. They Don't l'ay Taxes Journal of the National Education Amociation, 21: 250-91,November 1032.
31
37
rt
Howard's School hi 192-1.
'"
Howard's School in 1933.
No repairs were made until 193 \\hen Federal relief finals were lased.
32
Played and on the basis of the number of children 7--20 years of agelivingin the various counties. (See table 20.)
TABLE 1 9.-Average amount of wealth I estimated to be available for taxation forschools for 1.930, by types of areas
mint of meagnre by type of area tleorgia Ken- Nort h Tennes Westlucky Carolina see I
Virginia Virginia_
1 2 4 I 5 8 7
8 most mountainous counties:Per teacher ...... $19, 311 681, 457 $107, Ws S118,1107 5111,456 5130, 015
Per child 1, 151 1,463 2, 708 2, 770 3, 133 6. 311
5 notunountain counties:Per teacher ..... .113, The 2031, 043 192, 188 470, 188 107, 315 266, 138Per child_ 0, 118 4, 573 4, 320 9, 592 3,478 8, 166
Entire mountain counties:Per teacher 107, 121 too, 671 186, 514 210. 760 212,777 182, 217
Per child.. 2, 320 2, 182 1, 467 4, 887 5, 029 5. 570Entire State: I
Per teacher 166, 317 22s, 619 206, 636 210, 733 220, 603 188, 546Per child 3, 421 !1, 937 4, 65.3 5, 612 5, 254 5, 822
1 Estimates of NC ealth shown aro tor both whites and Negroes and NS ere computed on the following bases:(a) Estimated true wealth per teachers employed In all elementary and secondary reboots. and (6) theestimated wealth per child 7-20 years of nge living in each typo of area.
An effort to find comparable estimates for tho Nation as a whole malted in 6236,3 tl tasable wealth perteacher and $6,235 per child,
In West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia aneffort is being made through State aicl to offset the limitations of the
et
Alyludonment of old clapboard buildings.
33
39
mountain counties due to inadequate taxable wealth. n WestVityinia, and probably also in North Carolina, the favorable differ-ential in State aid enjoyed by the most, mountainous counties fullyoffsets the unfaN'Orilble differential in per-capita wealth. In Virginiathere are comparatively snuill differences between mountain and Dull-mountain conmutnities in estimated taxable IN ealth. In the otherthree States the aids pro ided from State sources for the schools ofthe most mountainous counties do not appear to offset the disparitiesiD their ability to support schools. la lientueky, for example, Stateaid per capita ir anything, greater in the notunountaill counties
Replacement by new consolidated schools. ,
despite th e fact that tlte per-rapita wealth is moN' than three timesas great as in. the five most mountahmus counties.
In recent years much progress has been ntade ill the equalization ofthe educational opportunities through the use of State funds; West,Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee are examples. If compara-tive data were avaihible showing State aid in mountain and non-mounhiin counties for a date later than here presented, clumges in thesituation would probably appear in tliese States.
HU n l'I'8011r0 8 (18 a .firetw. n 8eit001 uppart. 'Phenitio which thenumber of adulk 21 years of age and older bears to the number ofchildren and youth to be NluentNI is sometimes considered as a factorin a conununity's ability to stqmort srhools, Table 21 shows the
34
40
number of adults 21 years of age and above per child 7 to 15 yearsof age and per adolescent 19 to 20 years of age.
TABLE 20.-Financial aid per teacher employed and per child 7-20 years old con-tributed from Stale sources for the support of public education, 1930 1
Unit of measure by type of area
1
eorg,111 Ken-tucky
3
NorthCarolina
1
'Peones-:4re
5
Virginia
6
vr:geistiti
7
5 most mountainous counties:Per teacher I $421 00 5)00 00 $113 00 0,351.00 13(2. (X) 4172. 00Per child 3 03 6 91 11 10 0. 26 5.21) 0. 27
5 noninountain counties:Per teacher,. - . , 2112. IX)
l'er child 13
307 0011. 07
250. 011
5 03232 00
.1. 07
03 009. 01
57. 0(1
1, 81MI mountain counties:
Per teacher 325 00 310. 00 315 00 '255, 00 350. 00 127. 00Per 7, 13 119 7, 51 11. 07 8 29 3 50
Total State:Per leacher_ . 311 00 334. 00 267.00 273. 00 389 00 112.00Per child 6 40 7 21 11 03 0 35 8 25 1-17
1 A mounts of financial aid contributed includes data for both u bite and. Negro schools,vPho comparable figures for the United States nro $1175 per teacher and $0.57 per child.
TA LI LE 2 L.-Number of persons 21 ycars of ago and above per child 7--.15 years of ageand per adolescent 16- 20 years of age, 1930 1
Age group" by ty110 of area Ifleorgla
1
Ken-tuck y
3
1 7I. I
NorthCarolina
1
2. 04
Tonms-see
2. 04,2
Virginia
6
1, 9
I. t
1 ITntiir.- -
7
2 24. 6
5 most mountainous mantle,:7-10 ............. 2. 210-20 ill
5 nonmountain countieg:7-15.. _ _ 3 7 2. 9 2. 4 3 4 2, 7 3.270-20 6.4 5. 7 1 0 0. 5 5, 5 0, 0
Entire mountain counties:2 3 1 0 1 7 2. 1 2,4 2. 3
10-20. . . 1 3 1. 1 I 5 1.7 5,6 4. 5Entire State:
7-15 2 11 2 7 2 3 2 1 2. 8 2. 510-20.. 1 9 5 0 1 7 4 5 5. 1 5, 1
,
I For the United States as ti r% hole eomparable ratios of adult %% bite ,. are 3 It to ehR ken 7 11)3 ears of ageand 6.54 to those 114 20 z, ears of ace. Data from If 5. Consui Report
In each of the six States there are substalltially more adults-poten-tial producers-per child of school age in the nonmountain countiesthan in the most mountainous counties. In the nonmountain coun-ties of Kentucky, for example, there are 2.9 persons 21 years old orolder to every child 7-15 years of age; to every child 16-20 years
35
old, 5,7 adults. In the most mountainous counties, however, theratios are I child to 1.7 adults for the younger group of children, and1 to 4.1 adults for the older group. In the nonmountain counties ofthis Stale there ore, therefore, 1.2 and 1.0 adult producers more perchild of elementory school oml high-school age, respectively, than inthe mountain counties. (leorgio and Tennessee show very shnilordisporities. If the effects of this factor on the inequality in abilityamong the various types of counties to support On adequate schoolprogram are added to those previously mentioned, the lack of edu-cational progress is more easily understood,
Rupert B. Vance g points out the significance of this factor in hisstudy of the relationship of regional resources and human adequocywhen lie calls ottentior, to the fact that 11 of the Southern States,with less than one-quat ter of the Notion's poptdation, hove fullytwo-fifths of the Nation's children to rear and educate. If only thochildren living on farms are considered, it appears that the rural areasof these I I States 110 \V rear and educote nearly two-thirds of all theform children 5 20 years of age of the United States,
AVAILABILITY OF SCHOOLS IN' SELECTED MOUNTAIN COUNTIES
Plan awl purpose qf this phase of the shuly.----Tn. order to get a close-upview of the whole question of the accessibility of schools in the South-ern Appolachians, a detailed study was undertaken of a number ofselected mountain counties. Data are here presented ill the form ofcounty maps (see figs. II to VI and tables 22 to 25), which are supple-mented with statistical data collected directly from individual schools.The five counties named below, witl, the Stale in which each is located,furnished the ihformotion necessary for this port of the study: Lump-kin, (Ia.; Wolfe, Ky.; Nfacon. N. C.; NIonroe, Tenn.; and Mercer,W. Va. These counties may he thought of as fairly typical of themost mountainous sections of these five States. They represent,therefore, those ports of the mountain areas in which the problems ofmaking public educational opporttudties readily accessible to all ofthe children are the most difficult.
Factual data presented in this section were collected directly fromthe schools and the county superintendents of the counties in question.The purpose is to provide, by way of illustration, answers to the fol-lowing questions: Just how ninny and what kinds of schools are therein the most mountainous counties? Ilow are they distributed overthe area to be served? Ilow far are the elementary schools from eachother? The high schools? flow far do the clalren live from the
_
9 Valice, Rupert 11 I lumin geouriphy of the South niser,11) of North Carotin t l'resq, 1932 Wukversity of North Carol)) Soerd Study
36
12
schook provided? What, provisions ore nunle for transporting chil-dren? How mueh schooling do Ow children of the niore mountainouscounties get annually? To what, age and grade level are they retainedin school? 10
Obviously there is a mnximtun distance beyond which n child can-
LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY
OF SCHOOLS, 1932
LUMPRIN COUNTY,GA.
TYPES Or SCHOOLSi6/erne/wary schot/ with 7 or 8 yrodes1/ernen!ary schoor.,117 7 or 8 yrades,co/oredSchoo/ trullueny joinIty ownea'
cil 5/emenlary school ..qth 4 year /ngh rtnoolACCESSIBILITY AREA
--- `To .schools
OGURes REPA(SINT NUMB!, oflACflfl 1..CH.5CHG. FL4CI.N5 iNOICATCO ON AVG,' slot
CONTUUR 4.4.0 PEEP
FIGURE ILLocation and acce;-,sibilit, of ;-chools, 1939, Lillupli in Count y, Ga.
not reasonably be expected to walk doily to and from school. 1 t isclearly more tlmn a matter of miles. Other important, considerations
10 Data t,ommr hat complete lint IIIII r in y pe %%ere proented for I other thountawous eounoeq,viz, Leslie, K Jithrthou, Tenn ; isuchnunn, Id ; Lind Or Liii, W Va.; in an earlier study. Econoune audSocial Problems and (%ontiniom of the southern Ainmlavin inq, Op. lt , PP. 1,13-IU.
37
4 3
are; The time required and the effort expended in traveling to andfrom school, These, vary with climate, topography, road conditions,the age of the child, cooperation of parents and tlm like, In surveysof city school systems, the practice followed in certain recent studiesis to fix one-half mile as the maximum distance a cldld should walkto school. Tlie maximum distance fixed in studies made, by ruraleducators and by- the compulsory education laws of most of the Statesis usually either 1 1..; miles or 2 miles, A maximum of 2 miles is thebasis used for purposes a this section.
Location and distribution qf schools, -The schools witlibi the fivecounties were loon ted on t113 county maps as accurately ns possible,with the help of the county till perintendents, and a circlo drawnaround each school upon a 2-mile radius, No home, within a givencircle is more than 2 miles from the school located at its center.The actual distance, children walk to school mny, of course, be greater.Atountain roads tend to wind in and out with the valleys and creeks.Precipitous mountains often net as barriers. Even where there areareas of fairly level country, the route from home to school will seldomfollow a straight line.
The circles placed around the schools, together with the symbolsshowing that, they servo the elementary or tho secondary grades, orboth, will afford smne idea of the distances the schools of varioustypes are from each other. (Figs. [Ito VI,) The, schools are usuallylocated in valleys and on bottom lands. In areas in which the con-tour lines arc farthest apart, indicating little clumge in elevation, thecircles overhip considerably; in areas in which the contour lines areclose together, indicating mountainous terrain, there is compara-tively little overlapping. Indeed, parts of the more mountainousareas are not included in any of the circles, indicating that such areasare located 2 miles or inure from the nearest schools, The smallcircles, squares, and other symbols locating the schools, and the num-bers within these symbols, show that almost all of the elementaryschools are of the 1- and 2-teneher type. The high schools usuallyemploy three or more, teachers, indicating thnt they serve as centralschools for several elementary school districts. 1n Lumpkin County,Ga., for example, there is only one. high school in the entire county.
Transportation to either the elementary or the secondary schoolsis provided in comparatively small portions of these communities.One reason for the absence of transportation is that roads in the niecemountainous sections are. as a rule undeveloped. Where school busroutes are. maintained, peculiar markings have been placed on themaps to hulicate whether they servo the elementary pupils, the high-school pupils, or both. Lines paralleling the few existing bus routeswere also marked out to show the territory located willtin 1 miles
of these routes, the assumption being that, children who live withinmiks of such routes may be thought of as being accessible to the
schools to which these bus routes lead. Symbols are used to showwhite schools, Negro schools, and nonpublic as well as public schools.
Although. these circles show that, even in these more mountainouscounties of the Southern Appalachians, the number arid distributionof the schools are such as to place practically all areas within 2 miles
''-; , .
t'., '-=- ,......:sr.v...,.....
Elementary school with 7grades or more
(J. Elementary school and4-year high school
Ez Elementary school and4-year /ugh school,church owned
A7',/unior-8en/or 17/9-1ischool, church owned
--Bus route to privatehigh school
= Access/key area to ,or/-Vale bus route
--Accessibility area to eachschool
figures show number of,teachers: Left, elemen-tary right high school
Flaunt) 11f,Loention and acco8sibi1ity of schools, 1932, Wolfe County, Ky.
of some sort of an elementary school, there are areas in each countywhich fall outside of these circles. In bumpkin County, Ga., andMacon County, N. C., nonschool areas are comparatively numerousand large. Mercer County, W. Va., on the other hand, has practicallyno such areas. The question of whether children of school age livewithin the areas outside the circles is very important. If these areascontain no children they are of little interest to us so far as the problemof the availibility of schools is concerned. Data were gathereddirectly from representative schools within these counties to show
39
the actual distances the children live from their schools. Most ofthe schools furnished information showing the distances betweenhome and school of both the children attending school (see table 22)and those of school age who are not attending school (see table 23).It may be assumed that those reported as living more than 2 milesfrom school live outside of the circles. The data given in the tablesconcern only the children walking to school because provision fortransportation involves changes ill the problems' of school accessibility.
Distances children lire from school. In each of the five countiesthere are some children both in and out of school who live more than
LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY OF SCHOOLS.1932
MACONCOUNTY.
N.C.
TYPES Of SCHOOLS(I) thhnontory school wIth
1 or 8 grodesClehttatony school with
7 or 8 grocies, coloredflernolloni school wfth
4-yeor /ugh schoo/SUS LINES
lughschoof pupasFor OnntnIcrry pupas
- For hophSchoot ond efernennvypupdsAccCssmIure AREAS
school's.212 To bus Imes
fau4cs ICACM(41(. rolveschvoc700.01111OINC1719 AI,. 7110t I
500
Fiouni IV,Location and accessibility of :,chook, 1932, Macon County, N. C.
2 miles from the nearest schools provided. (Table 22.) Of thoseattending school in these counties a total of 1,098, or 9.2 percent, livefrom 2 to 4 miles, and 143, or 1.2 percent, live 4 miles or more fromthe school. Of the out-of-school chihfren in the live mountain coun-ties there are 489 children living front 2 to 4 miles from a school and48 living 4 miles or more; or in percentages, 30 and 2.9, respectively.There is good reason to believe that many of: the out-of-school childrenwere not reported by the schools and that the proportions unreportedvary directly with the distances they live from the schools furnishingthe information. If all of tlie out-of-school children were included,
40
4 6
the percentages of children living beyond the 2- and 4-mile rangeswould probably be much larger than those given. (The data available
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL OF 7 GRADES OL MOLL(FIGURE SHOWS Holm OF TEACHERS)
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND HIGH SCHOOL DEPAPS-tirn. Etunituy Acias; Awn, Histi6 ELEMENTARY Sc WOOL AND RPYEAR. HIGH
SCHDOL.40fEAR. HIGH &Hoot. AND JUNIOR COL-
E GE ^ COVRCH OWNEDOELontrITARY SCHoOL OF 7 GRADES OR
MORI,-- JOINTLY OWNEDEC ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND HIGH SCNOpL
DERARTMERT foL Co LoiLED.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL OF 7 Go..AoEsOR- MOIRE COLORED,
(72)JUNIOR-SENIOR HIGH ScHOOL--PILJVATE
2-MILL ACCESSIRILITY ARIA TO EACHScHaot.
Bus Root-- ELLMENTApy,2-MILC ACORRSIDILITY ARIA TO
BUS R..OuTE.
FIGURE V.Location and accessibility of schools, 1932, Monroe County, Tenn.
indicate that a large number of children live in the areas which falloutside of the 2-mile limits fixed by the circles on the county maps.)
41
The distances reported for a few of those older than 12 years livingmore than 2 miles tit, ay were probably the distances to the nearesthigh schools. Since this is the level of education from which they couldprofit most, the distance. to high school is, for such children, the truemeasure of accessibility to school.
In bumpkin County, (ia. (sce, tahle 22), one child in seven of thechildren 5 to 12 years of age reported in school lives 2 or more milesfrom school; of those 12 yenN or older, nearly one in three lives 2miles or more from school. In Macon County, N. C., the proportionfor the younger age groups is somewhat greater than in bumpkinCounty; for the older children it is much smaller, duo to the fact thattransportation is provided to high schools. For a. large number ofchildren in these counties, no school is available within 2 miles of theirhomes.
TAIII;F: 22, mit( r awl percent (,f nontlanNpartr d child1 en living cal ions distancesfrom the schools 1h(71 attend given bg age grou ps for 3. of the 1001(1 mountainous
counties
1-41111111,111 '
Colin14."I'
VVolle'mint} ,
K.} ;
N1,leonl'olin1}, ,
N
(N..(1,1hiirrilrIT.,
Tenn.
.,l,t(1,111(1.8;r.
W . yti'rola]
DiNtanees by 0.3P Vrolip
\;(00-1 \ ant- Num., Num..; Per- .Nam- Per- Nnuo Ver.(ier Veil) r ber CPIII '1 er evo4 her cent tier rent
3 I 5 G ; ; s 9 19 II 12 13
Total } ()Linger than0 years PO; MO 01 173; 010110 I, 090 MO 0, 9.'0 ' I00 0 1, 339 100, 0 4, 229 100.0
,
S.8,0 110 SI; 0 1, 32s; 90.2 3, 922 92 7Less Ohm 2 miles, ._ 401' 91 1 sral ssS' 112 11
210 I infles 11; 10, 0 .2,, 9 q (39 23 9, 119 7 2! 11; 8 'al, 0. 9
1 miles or more . ...... 9 2 01 11 0 . I
--. I 1, . 1 01 0 II( . 1.
Total 9 to 12 }ears1
ot ago 909 100 0 970 MO 0' 1, 200 100 0 I, 1291 IAXI (I, 1, 1210 100.0 L3'97, 1)0.0; --- -4 ----
Les. than 2 inMe, 117' 85 S' 921. 9I :',' I. 0:i3, 3,4 9; I. 002 s:, sj I, MO' 9s 0 1,41S' 90. 2
2 to 1 Mikis .
1 miles or more...5s
1 11
it I
2 s19
0
s 51 toti0 t 3
11 (1'
.2,123
I ,
10 ta
3'
29! 2 0(I, 11
MS' 9 4211 .4
'rola] 12} ear. of areor more 101,, 1110 0 3o0
1
MO 0 ,..70
I
100 0 1,33,,
!
MO 0i ,
517: 100 Di 2, sril , 100.0
Les-i than 2 miles 491 NI 9 .122 ss 2 71..s1 S7, s 011' SO 1 170' 92. I' 2,3991 81 0
2 to 1 mile. 1,3 I I 3 13 n .,, Ivo' hi I 0,., IS I II 7 9 317 12. 2
4 miles or more. 72 19 s 0 I 7 s 29 I 5 0 0 1 Ilisi 3.8--
Tot il all ages I 121 100 0 I. 113 100 Oi 3, 1301 IN) 01 2, 720! MU 0; 3. 2S0j 100. WI], 1)771 ma 0- -
Le:, than 2 miles 1. 10 sI 9 t I. 29,1 91 5 9.1,3,1 SS 0; 2, 31,01 Ss 0' 3. 2011 97 110, 73111 89.0
'210 1 anti,: 11,9 II 9 141) s 9 Ns II 0 2a0, 10 1,1 s1 2 5' 1, 09s; 9, 2
1. miles or more .. 95 1, I, 0 11 . t 37 1 1 0 0 j IN 1,21
-12
The data presented also reveal that some children of all ago groupsmust walk long distances to school. The percentages living 2 milesor more from school are higher among the older children. The
wits
WHITE limo
0 SO ELNENTAILY SCHOOL Or Ws THAN7 GLADES 'Rama VON su scsc, Tactirks,
ECENCHTAILY SCHOOL Or 7 GLADESOL MOU
DID M, CLEMEATAILY SCHOOL MO tam HIGH&Hoot. IIFT CLEPVitAPY, Pan JHS T:grtus)
61.1 6?zj LVAUTAY SCHOOL MD HIOHSCHOOL
CJ IJUHIOFL limn Smut. Onerrt Mon SCHOOL Otil.Y.
(!) Joirmy Orins Os. Rtufts
111100 NO011.11110,00
sfellm.1.110OM
2-MILC Acassusturr All.E.A TO
EACH SCHOOLBus RourEs
ELEMENTARY MD JUNICM. hon .ELEMENTANy AND Non Same:ELEMENTARY AND Hisn ScHooLTNESRO,HIGH SCHOOL.JUMoL HIGH AND Hion SoHool,
Hum Sctioot,2-Mu AccESSINTLITY AREA To
Bus P..ousts.
FEMME V1.--Location, and aceessibility of schools, 1932, Mercer County, W. ya
differences may be partially accounted for by the fact that, as the.distances increase, fewer of the younger children attend school.
Many children of school age in these counties are not attendingschool at all. (See table 23.) Taking into account only those
43
49
children who have at one time or another attended school, data weresecured for a total. of 1,030 out-of-school children 5 to 20 years ofage. Of these, 1,503 were (3 years of age or older. Most of themhad probably discontinued school. However, as will he seen in table25, fewer than half of them had reached the seventh grade beforeleaving school ; nearly a fourth had not gone. beyond the fourth grade.Nearly one-third of all of these out-of-school children live 2 miles ormore from school. In general the, proportion of the out-of-schoolchildren living long distances frotn school is greater thatt that of thoseattending school. ..lany of the older out-of-school children livinglong distances from school are most likely not in school because thereare no high-school facilities near their homes; others, as will be seenpresently, have because of the long distances and other reasons,attended school so irregularly that retardation and lack of interesthave resulted in their discontinuing school before reaching high school.
nu; 23.---Distance between home and school of out-of-school children;number and percent of children
Dk(ance,, by nee group
'Numi
1 I
IA10'11'0;11) WolfeCounty , County,
Ky.
Per- INtun-i Per-ber coot her cent.
2 .1 4 3
MaconI County,; Ky.
Sum-I Per-ber t cent
8 7
NIonroeCount),
Tenn.
Num-1 Per-ber ' cent
S 9
SfercerCounty,W.
Num-ber
; 10
Va,
Per-cent
11
Total
Num-ber
12
Per-cent
13-To( al y ounger than U
ears 1 3 100 1100 0 100 , 7 100 0 0 0 21 100. 0
Less than 2 miles 100 0 ; 73,0 0 0 I 4 57.1 0 0 15 71.42 to 4 Mile-5 _ 0 0 2 23 0 1 10011 2 28 6 0 0 5 23.8-1 miles or more 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; 1 11 3 0 0 1 4.8
Total 9 to 12 years of age 100 0 27 ,1110. 0 22 100.0 32 100.0 17 100 0 108 100.0-_ -----
Ix:, Um 2 miles ti ' 73.0 20 I 71 1 0 30. 1 I 17 53 1 12 70 0 63 59. 12 to 1 tulles. .. 2 ' 25. 0 7 , 23 9 13 59 1 1 8 25 0 4 23.5 31 32.14 miles or more_ I
,0 ; 0 0 I 0 1 1. 5 7 21. 9 1 5, 9 9 8.5--
Total 13 years of age ormole __. _ . 117 ,100 0
I
151 , RX) 0 007 100 0 205 100. 0 330 1001, 0 1,303 lin 0
Less lhan 2 mile, SO 115 I I I I l 71 0 109 i fih. 7 101 78 5 231 711.0 1,015 67, 52 to 1 mtles . 37 :11 I, 30 1 21 7 272 , 39 0 41 21 5 59 17 0 450 30.0I miles or more 0 I 0 2 1 1 .i 16 I 2 3 0 0 20 0 1 38 2,5
All age groups. 130 100 0 1,41 WO 0 720 1100 0 211 1100, 0 317 100. 0 1. 030 100.0_Less than 2 miles. 51 70 0 In) I 71 1 1(7 57 9 102 1 7.1 6 203 75 8 1, 093 07.12 to I miles .1') 30 0 17 21 9 2011 ; 39 7 5 t 22 1 53 18. 2 4811 30. 01 miles or more 0 0 2 1 0 17 2 t 3 3 21 8 0 48 1 9
I 'told t eti Ito 11,11,5 111.,0 er attended sehool are omitted.
60
Relation 41,i,j) y school oltHulance to orailability.--Distance fromschool probably influences the number of days per year and the totalnumber of years children attend school as well as enrollment. Tables24 and 25 concern, respectively, the actual number of days attendedby the designated groups of 7,152 children in school and the gradelevels reached by 1,604 out-of-school children at the time they leftschool. An examination of table 24 indicates approximately two-thirds of the sampling reported attended school 130 days or fewer;two in seven attended 50 days or fewer. The median days attendedranged from 90 in Wolfe County to 142 in Lumpkin County, Of thesampling of out-of-school children reported (table 25) all but 100were 13 years of age or older. Of the latter, approximately one-halfwere in grades 3. 6 when they last, attended school; a few had been ingrades 1-2 tmd the remainder had reached the seventh grade whichprobably was the highest grade offered in many of these mountainschools. Both the poor attendance and the fact that so many of thechildren fail to continuo in school beyond the sixth grade suggestpointedly the effects of long distances and related influences.
TABLE 24.Nautber and percent of nontransported children attetuling school thenumber of (la13 indicated during 1 year
Number of_day8attended
LumphmCounty,
(Is.
Nulni, Per.ber rent
Wolfe 1 MaconCounty, r County,
Ky. N. C.- -N11111-1 Per. 1Ntun-1 Per-
ber cent ber cent_ 1
1
MonroeCoun1;%,Tenn.
Nuln-, Per-1 wr cent
'MercerCounty,W. va
N0111.- Per-her cent
Total
Num-ber
Per.Cent
3 4 5 G 9 111 11 11 13-^1
30 or fewer 133 , 25 I 76 6 0 50 '2 I 215 10 8 91 4.6 388 8.271 12.2 103 8.2 1 101 48 93 8 6 50 2.4 121 5 U
61-70 II 1.8 1116 13.2 1 131 6 1 112 In 3 58 2 8 413I 6 715 2 5 276 21 0 ,1 181 8.8 78 7.2 70 3 8 632 h, 8
01-110 ..... 21 1 3.1 3'33 26 I 1 171 22.3 St) 7.1 222 10 6 1.130 15
111-130._ 16 '2 6 230 18 2 , 681i 32 7 193 1 17.8 426 20 3 1,351 21 7131-160 25 ; 4 2 1 0 0 1 160 8 0 133 12 1 487 22 2 7011 11.2161-170..._ 30 6 I 77 6 1 1163 9 5 112 13 1 461 22 0 018 12 8171 pi mingt... 253 , II 8 1 0 , () 1 101 1 9 1 37 1 3 1 239 II 4 633 8,9
:-Total.. 609 100 0 4.201 1100 0 2.101 100 0 1,085 1100 0 2,096 1100.0 7,132 100 0
_ -Median. 112 90 113 MI 135
1
One recognizes the difficulties involved in providing adequate schoolfacilities, elementary and secondary, to children living in remote,isolated communities, especially when those resulting from sparsityof population are aggravated by the presence of mountain conditionsand an inadequate economic basis of school support. A permanentsolution probably involves ,'undamental reorganization of the system
45
of administration and support hi addition to initiative on the part ofofficials responsible. While some of the difficulties inherent in thephysical conditions indicated may be. overcome by more immediateremedies such its adequate school funds and a more practical programof studies complete solution will doubtless await the reorganizationindicated.
TAlthrl 25,- -Children of school age not attending school classified according to agegroups and highe:st grade levels reached when last in schooll
leven reached,by age group
Lumpkin I Wolfe , Macon 1 Monroe MercerCount3, County, ' County, County, County.
(la Ky. N. I'. Tenn W.
Num- Per- ;Num Per- ;Num- Per- Nuni-' Per- Num-ber.' cent ber (a 01 , ber cent 1r
her 1 cent her
l'a.
Per-cent
Total
,Num- Per-' ber cent
5 r, / s 9 la II 12 13
'Polal, 5 12 3 ears of age._ ii 100. 0 27 100 0 22 100. 0 20 100. 0 17 100 0 100 100. 0
5 1 02 5 I I 31 5 16 72 7 101 73.1 10 58.5 04 N. 03 1 112,01 10 37 0 3227 1 15 1 3 17 0 33 23.05 I 12 5 3 11.2 I 1 0 '3 11.5 3 17.6 11 11, 0
7 or higher I 12 5 0 0 I 11 0 01 0 1 0.0 2 2.0
Total, 13 }ear( of ago ormore _ 117 WO 0 154 100.0 1317 1191 0 205 i100 0 331 100. 0 1,504 100.0
1-2 13 11 1 3 3.2 23 I 3 3 17 I 8 3 0 1 8 61 4.33-4 37 31.6 16 20 8 118 1 10 0 41 2111 30 10.0 281 18.7
37 31.11 31 20 2 240 , 33 0 611 32.2 101 31 1 468 31.1
7 or Ingher 30 25. 7 72 40 5 326 40 5 75 1 35 0 155 4 53. 0 Col 13.0
! Data 1, r 5 of the most mountainous count1o5. Children e. ho had not begnn school Were omitted
46
('HAPTER III
DENOMINATIONAL AND INDEPENDENT
NONPUBLIC SCHOOLS
INTRO]) TCTOR Y STATEMENT
IN MANY southern mountain communities where there are no publicschools, or in which for many yeas there were none, missiomuy andother philanthropic organintions have established schools. Reliabledata, showing how many ehildren and youth are attending suchschools are not available. lt is, however, well known that sonice ofthe outstanding successes in providing an education suited to theneeds of these isolated groups must be credited to private and de-nominational schools. One has only to think of such well-luiowninstitutions as Berea College, of Berea, Ky.; the John C. CampbellFolk School, of Brasstcmn, N. C.; the Asheville Farm School, of Ashe-ville, N. C.; the Berry Schools, of Rome, On. Two excellent studiesrecently made of these nonpublic schools describe and evaluate theirservices.
Types of nonpublic schools.- According to the studies indicated,within the 205 counties constituting the mountain area included inthis survey in 1932 there, were 162 nonpublic. schools. Of these,143 furnished information on the levels and types of educationprovided. Fifty offered both elementary and secondary work and 44elementary work only, a few of these extending through the juniorhigh school grades. A total of 21 limited their program to thejunior-senior or to the regular high-school grades. Fifteen othersoffered junior college work and 12 more offered a complete 4-yearcollege prognun. One, the John C, Campbell Folk School, of Brass-town, N. C., rendered services to mountain youth without regard tothe. graded system of education. About 85 percent of these schoolsnutintain dormitories. Tho majority, however, serve day pupilsfrom nearby homes as well as boarding pupils. From the data show-ing the. inaccessibility of schools in numy of these mountain com-munities it may be concluded that the opportunity to live at theschools is an important service bectwse it helps to overcome the, ever-present distance factor.
t Dunn, Fannie W. Al e,ninary LTLd planahropie ,vhook In Itelanon in the Inahland, by ElizabethHonker, pp. 213- 300 la Nem York, 'I he Home\ 1,,ion Conned, 1033.
Waller, E, C. stirs ey oft It hureh ;old Independent sehoob ;aid vollege, it t he :..outhern A iipakwhinns,Knox% Me, Tenn. 'rho Author, MO A laiumha A tmiI, PM.
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people. 'Most, of the industrial enterprises have as one purpose theproduction of commodities needed in the bmnediate operation of theschool, in tt few eases they serve the community also. Earningsfrom such industries go into the maintenance of the schools. lc isobvious that, both the routine duties connected with running a school,home, and form, as \\ eli as those connected with the other usefulindustries, have poss'ibilities both in the educational growth of thechildren touched by th.em and in the improvement of the social andeconomic life of the people. The important thbig is, of course, thatthe duties connected with such activities be rotated in keeping with
J1 ,s4p44--J., ,
X7/
A church in the southern mountains.
sound educational principles and that the chihlren he not, overworkedby the participation required of them.
Nonschool educational actiritics. There are also maintained in themountain communities a large number of nonschool educationalservices." Usually these services are in the, nature. of commundyactivities directly associated with the nonpublic schools. Some-times, however, such services as hospitals, home nursing, libraries,agricultural an(i home extension activities, 11 ild other social welfareactivities are provided at mountain outposts remote front the school
Or Dunn molt. r !for) 10 ha ,n1IN by "tate, and h5r ununtn, Iteligion in theBight tn./. >11
5 6
centers. In sonie centers Sunday schools and similar religious servicesare maintained in communities not included in the Tegular churchorganizations. The reguhir church prograin is, of course, also recog-nized as an important Nlucational force, The presence or absence ofwell-developed chureb services is a subject too large to be even brieflyreviewed here. This problem has been thoroughly studied and fullyreported iii other studies!
In approxhnately a score of different communities some effort ismade by philanthropic or missionary enterprise to stimulate activityin handcrafts.8 These crafts are not only affording opportunity forartistic expression and cultural development in mountain communitiesbut, their products have in many cases become an important source ofincome. Considerable social work is being carried on in more than60 localities through settlement houses and community centers main-tained by private agencies. Such centers help to distribute and re-model clothing contributed for the needy. They serve as repositoriesfor circulating libraries, provide health and first-aid services, serve asgeneral meeting places for the social life, of the communities in whichthey are located, and provide other services. In a number of local,ities they foster definite instruction in homemaking and in agriculture-Such services, so important to the more backward mountaiui homes.are promoted by philan thropie and missionary enterprise. outside of theprogram comnlonly associated -with the schools.
The Frontier Nursing Service ° with headquarters at Hyden, Ky.,is an example, of this kind of service. Its major purpose is to preparetrained nurses and midwives for the mountain communities of Ken-tucky and the adjoining States where medical services are inadequate.This organization maintains hospitals, clinics, nursing centers, andrdidwifory schools where mountain people may not only obtain healthservices, but traiming adapted to the peculiar conditions and needs ofthe more isolated and destitute mountain homes.
Ilook 3r, Elizabeth. Religion in the llighIamk, New York, The Dome Mission Conned, 19:33 Thechurch Situation. In Economic:and Som II Problems and Condition,: in the Southern Appalachian,. Opcit., pp 1633 S2.
Ntenburg, Berth 1 2t. Potent iii earning po9er of southern mountaineer handcrafts. II ashincton,Govermnent Printing 1921. , - Department of Labor, Worrien't3 Bureau, No, Pls
Poole, F.rnesk. 'Nurses on horse!, tek. Ne9 York, The AI manakin Co , 19:32
Wilford. M B. Income and health in remote rur d areas A study of 190 funnily, in IA..110 County, Ky.Docbir'e theids, Columbi i CniNersilY,
Buck, Dorothy T. The frontier nursing son op AI ountnin Life nod Work, ol 9, January 1221.
a
31
5 7