document resume - ericjames g. ross 0 russell r. pate the information from ncyf5 ii suggests that...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 292 780 SP 030 045

TITLE Summary of Findings from National Children and YouthFitness Study II.

INSTITUTION Public Health Service (DHHS), Rockville, MD. Officeof Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

PUB DATE 87NOTE 49p.PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Children; Community Programs; Elementary Education;

*Exercise; Parent Role; *Physical Activity Level;*Physical Fitness; *Physical Health; ResearchMethodology

IDENTIFIERS Child Health

ABSTRACTThis report is based on a survey of 4,678 children

aged 6 to 9, examining their exercise habits at school, at home, andin community programs. The survey is the second in a series carriedout by the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Thefirst report found that fitness has declined for 10- to 17-year-olds.In an Pcfort to better understand why adolescents' fitness levelshave declined, this national study was undertaken to learn thefitness status of younger children. The study shows that youngchildren in America are fatter than children la years ago, are notgetting the right kinds of exercise, and spend more time watchingtelevision than in physical activity. The better performers on thefitness tests participate in more vigorous and organizedcommunity-based activities, watch less television, and have a higheractivity level. The research process and results are described inarticles which include: an introduction (J. M. McGinnis); a summaryof findings (James G. Ross and Russell R. Pate); "Study Proceduresand Quality Control (James G. Ross, et al.); a sample design (MichaelT. Errecart et al.); "The Modified Pull-Up Test" (Russell R. Pate etal.); and "Home and Community in Children's Exercise Habits" (JamesG. Rose et al.). (JD)

***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

***********************************************************************

9203

Summary of Findings from

National Children and Youthitn u II

oor-c%1Cr%c.1 t-

A

+.1

4,4,4.1,1

r.

;4

411r47,,g

- !-If 4.024,1116r.e

a.

'''' 4,#ki) ...r,'-' C . y

Office of Eiducahonal Research and Improvement- ... ..e4 ilk..., r." 11 : 1',,,,,,,,,,I. 'lo.,

AT y (.C.

.-44Z47.?,c71.4:i'a .

.:* :. .

A

.,, " 11;4 4 :'.0. -.. i :.4. 'a .. ',:i ...-0...,:4'''.. 2.4

0C13

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent official

0 Public Health Service OERI position or pOIrc1

ei. Office of Diseasc Prevention and Health Promotion

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

6 1 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

CI This document his irein reproduced asreceived from person or organization.:Algonating it

C Minor -hinges have been made to improvereprLdJction Quality

The National Children and Youth Fitness Study II

When the findings of the1985 National Childrenand Youth Fitness Study

(NCYFS) showed that a full third ofyouth were not physically activeenough for aerobic benefit, the na-tion was surprised and embar-rassed. Americans are accustomedto seeing themselves as a country ofOlympic champions, Super Bowlheroes, and rodeo stars. The impli-cation was that our children weregoing soft.

How could this happen? Sincephysical activity patterns and at-titudes are often influenced in im-portant ways by factors presentedbefore age 10, various educators,policy makers, and youth advocatescalled for a study of younger chil-dren to try to get answers. The Sec-ond National Children and YouthFitness Study (NCYFS II) wasundertaken by the Public HealthService in 1985 and, with this pub-lication, the first description ofhealth-related fitness for schoolchildren, ages 6 to 9, is available ona national probability sample ofchildren.

What we find with the initialanalyses of NCYFS II is that thehealth-related physical fitness ofyoung children is significantly as-sociated with certain physical activ-ity behaviors of the children them-selves P"d their parents. Thosechildren who watch more televi-sion, have less active parents, andparticipate less in community ac-tivities tend to score lower onhealth-related fitness measures.Overall, younger children weighmore and have more body fat thanthey did 20 years ago. While virtu-ally all early elementary schoolchildren fake physical education(97 percent), only about a third doso daily. Th;s is consistent withwhat we learned ?bout the older

60JOPERD/Nevember-Docember 1987

Introduction

J. Michael McGinnis

children.The articles which follow de-

scribe the research process and dis-cuss the results of NCYFS II ingreater detail. The data offer a sig-nificant contribution to the body ofknowledge about physical activityand children, making a good firststrike into the murky area of pat-terns and determinants of child-hood physical activity and the be-havioral patterns that are morelikely to carry over into adulthood.

We encourage secondaryanalyses by the research commu-nity in order that we can get furtherinsights into how to improve thehealth and fitness of our youngpeople. The data tapes of bothNCYFS I and NCYFS II will beavailable through the NationalTechnical Information Services(NTIS).*

Many organizations and individ-uals deserve recognition for theircollaboration in the design of thestudy: the American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recre-ation and Dance (AAHPERD); theNational Recreation and Parks As-sociation; the Committee on Evalu-ation Information Systems (CEIS)of the Council of Chief Stare SchoolOfficers; the Society of State Direc-tors of Health, Physical Educationand Recreation; the President'sCouncil on Physical Fitness andSports; the National Center forHealth Statistics; the Centers forDisease Control; many in the phys-ical education research commu-nity; individuals and other organi-zations involved in school cur-riculum development, physicaleducation programs, and commu-nity recreation, and, of course, thethousands of school principals,teachers, parents, and childrenwho cooperated in the study.

AAHPERD is to be commended

3

for helping to get the survey resultsout in a timely manner to those whocan best use the informationpracticing physical educators. Iwould also like to ..ommend thework of people wl 3 played keyroles in the success of the study: Dr.Robert Gold and Cheryl Damberg,the initial project officers with theOffice of Dis,ase Prevention andHealth Promotion who supervisedand directed the study; Dr. Greg-ory M. Christenson who helpedcomplete the project at ODPHPand helped prepare this insert. JimRoss, the project director, and thecapable staff at Macro Systems, Inc.executed the study.

Through the combined effortsof this team of individuals and or-ganizations, we have been able tomaintain the quality and integrityestablished in the initial NCYFSstudy.

Ultimately, the success of thesurvey will be measured by the de-gree to which it can stimulatechange and encourage progress.The data from NCYFS I and II willcontribute greatly in providingneeded baseline information as weapproach the time to set new exer-cise health objectives for the year2000. Success in meeting those ob-jectives, however, will depend onthe continuing support and contri-bution of all those who have partic-ipated in this initiative, the schoolsand education community at-large,and the families of this nation'schildren.*For information about the NCYFS I and IIdata tapes, contact Jim Ross, project direc-tor, Man) Systems, Inc, (301) 588-5484

J. Michael McGinnis, M.D., DeputyAssistant Secretary for Health andDirector, Office of Disease Preven-tion and Health Promotion, U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices, Washington, DC 20201.

NCYFS-2


A Summary of Findings

James G. Ross 0 Russell R. Pate

The information from NCYF5 II suggests that current programs may beinadequate to promote lifetime fitness. Study findings challenge policymakers, researchers, teachers, and community members to makeinformed decisions about actions needed to enhance the future fitnessand physical activity habits of our children.

Many people believe thatchildren are naturally ac-tive and fit. Yet, incon-

gruously, media pundits warn thatthe adult fitness boom has failedto trickle down to our children, asif children needed motivation tobe physically active. Althoughyounger school children rank phys-ical education as their favorite sub-ject (Gallup, 1985), high schooljuniors and seniors generallychoose not to take physical educa-tion as one of their electives (Ross &Gilbert, 1985).

Not long ago, it was widely be-lieved that degenerative diseases,such as atherosclerosis, begin inmiddle age. Now we know that suchafflictions have their roots inchildhood and that, by intelligentbehavioral choices, we can sharplyreduce our risks of degenerativedisease. Within the range ofchoices, participation in a regularexercise regimen is one of the bestways of lowering risk and reducingthe occurrence of degenerativediseases (Powell, Thompson, Cas-

NCYFS-3

persen, & Kendrick, 1987).While advertisers publicize the

association between their productsand an active lifestyle, statisticsshow that no more than 10 percent(Caspersen, Christenson, & Pol-lard, 1986) to 30 percent (Schoen-born, 1986) of adults participate inregular, vigorous exercise.

Are children naturally active andfit? For the sake of argument, let usassume that, until the age of 10 orso, they are. What changes as chil-dren grow older? As parents,teachers, and members of society aclarge, are we failing to nurture thishealthy inclination? Do schoolspunish children for being active,much akin to the process of break-ing a wild horse? As parents, do weuse the television too often to con-trol behavior? Are we intolerant ofa child's need for physical activity?Are we perhaps not pushing ourchildren hard enough to remain ac-tive? Are we perhaps not pushingour children hard enough? Or arewe pushing the few too quickly intocompetitive sports to the near ex-

4

clusion of the many? Do we offerchildren the right options? Areadequate resources for exercisemade available at home, at school,and in the community? Do we setthe right example by our own life-styles? Have we made it too easy forchildren to adopt a sedentary life-style? As children mature and be-come more self-conscious, is it nat-ural that physical activity take alower position on their list ofpriorities? In the final analysis, thisquestion must be addressed: Whatneeds to happen to foster a nationalcommitment to lifetime fitness?

Against this background, thesecond National Children andYouth Fitness Study (NCYFS II)was launched to study the physiclfitness and physical activity habitsof children ages six to nine. Specifi-cally, the study is the first to assessthe fitness of six- to nine-year-olds,to describe their patterns of partic-ipation in physical activity, and todetermine the factors affectingtheir fitness. This article describesthe impetus behind the study,

JOPERD/November-December 1987-51

methods of collecting data, andmajor study findings.

Impetus behind NCYFS IIThe original National Children

and Youth Fitness Study (NCYFS I),limited to 10-to 18-year-olds, wasdesigned to gather baseline data re-lated to national objectives in phys-ical fitness and exercise (Ross &Gilbert, 1985). The landmark doc-ument, Promoting H eahh I PreventingDisease: Objectives for the Nation(1980), set as objectives that 90 per-cent of 10- to l 7-year-olds will par-ticipate in vigorous exercise, 60percent will be enrolled in dailyphysical education, and 70 percent

52JOPERD/November-Dmember 1987

will participate in periodic fitnesstesting by 1990. Two other objec-tives call for data for monitoringpatterns of participation in physicalactivity and for evaluating theshort- and long-term health bene-fits of exercise.

There were three reasons for ex-tending the NCYFS I to youngerchildren. First, in the official mid-course review of the 1990 objec-tives for the nation, professionals inthe field argued that greater atten-tion to early elementary schoolchildren would improve prospectsof reaching older children and ado-lescents (Powell, Spain, Christen-son & Mollenkamp, 1986). Second,when findings of NCYFS I were

)

released in 1984, the general publicand the media repeatedly askedwhy younger children were ex-cluded. In essence, they argued forlifetime fitness. Third, the U.S.Department of Education's 1986report, First Lessons: A Report onElementary Education in America, ac-knowledged the importance ofphysical education programs inschools, "not only because theypromote health and well-being, butbecause they contribute toacademic achievement" (Bennett,1986).

Project historyNCYFS II began in October

1985 with the convening of twopanels to help design a battery offitness tests and a survey of physicalactivities. Fitness test and surveyprotocols were developed, exten-sively pilot-tested, and refined.Data were collected between Sep-tember and November 1986 from anationally representative sample of4,853 students in 19 states, ofwhom 4,678 participated. In addi-tion, 4,435 of the parents of partic-ipating students completed a par-ent survey. The participation ratesof over 96 percent for children aid.94 percent for parents are ex-tremely high for a survey of thistype.

Study questionsNCYFS II posed three general

questions about the fitness andphysical activity habits of Americansix- to nine-year-olds:

(1) How do children in gradesI to 4 perform on health-re-lated tests of physical fitness?

(2) What are the physical activityhabits of children at home, atschool, and in the commu-nity?

(3) What factors, includingexercise habits, affect mea-sured fitness?

The question about perfor-mance on fitness tests was primarilyintended to produce descriptivestatistics; i.e., fitness norms that de-scribe the population, provide abaseline for tracking changes overtime, and allow comparison of in-

NCYFS-4

dividual students against the popu-lation. Compared to national dataobtained in the 1960s, NCYFS I de-tected an increase in the body fat-ness of 10- to 18-year-olds (Ross &Gilbert, 1985). It was also intendedfor NCYFS II to examine whethersuch changes occurred in six- tonine-year-olds.

Several questions were posed re-garding physical education pro-grams: What percentage ofyounger children are enrolled? Dothey take physical education classeswith sufficient frequency? Whatpercentage take it daily? Do mosttake it from a certified physicaleducation specialist rather than aclassroom teacher? Are classes heldin a suitable physical environment?What types of activities are mostfrequently offered? Are the chil-dren periodically tested for physi-cal fitness? In testing, is the focuson health-related fitness or motorperformance? How do extracur-ricular physical activity programsfit into the picture? Are recessperiods used to supplement or tosubstitute for physical education?Most important, do physical educa-tion programs provide support forlifetime fitness?

Regarding home and commu-nity, such questions were posed as:What percentage of children makeuse of community organizations-such as sports teams, YMCA's,parks and recreation departmentprograms, and scouting-assources of exercise? In what ph-isi-

cal activities do children engagethrough such organizations? Doparents and teachers perceive chil-dren as being rather sedentary?Are children who watch greateramounts of television actually lessactive and less likely to participatein community organizations? Whatmodels do parents set by their ownexercise patterns? How often doparents exercise with their chil-dren?

Finally, it was asked: What arethe relationships of the child's ownactivity levels, the child's participa-tion in community organizations,parental exercise behavior, and theschool physical education programto the measured fitness of the chil-dren?

Data collection proceduresThe parents of the participating

children first filled out a survey de-scribing their own and the child'sphysical activity patterns. The sur-vey was administered in conjunc-tion with a parental consent formInformation about the school phys-ical education program was col-lected directly from teachers. Next,each of the 4,678 participatingchildren completed a set of fitnesstests. Cardiorespiratory endurancewas measured through a one-milewalk/run (age 8 and over) or ahalf-mile walk/run (under age 8). Asit-and-reach test using a specialapparatus measured lower back/hamstring flexibility. Upper bodymuscular strength endurance was

tested by a modified pull-up inwhich the student's heels remain onthe floor. Timed, bent-knee sit-ups, with the student's arms foldedacross the chest, measured abdom-inal strength/endurance. Finallybody composition (degree of fat-ness) was measured by triceps, sub-scapular, and medial calf skinfolds.

Testing procedures were de-sig- ed to maintain control over thequality of collected data. Well inadvance of the scheduled testingdate, teachers demonstrated all ofthe tests and provided studentswith an experience in paced run-ning. A roving cadre of trainedspecialists actually administeredthe tests to students one-on-one ex-cept for the distance run, which wasadministered in small groups. Therole of the teacher in data collectionwas primarily limited to assistancein administration of the distancerun.

The new normsNCYFS ii developed new

health-related fitness norms byage/sex and grade/sex for each ofthe fitness tests listed above.

The study marked the first occa-sion on which most of these testswere administered to a nationallyrepresentative sample of six- tonine-year-olds. The norms are c9n-sidered high!), accurate at everyfifth percentile. Average scores canbe seen in Exhibit 1.

Each of the five tests is intendedto measure one or more aspects of

Exhiblt 1. Avon. ewe Wiley' and GNI on the NCYFS N Mon Tests by Age

Ted aim-

Ohm ponshinn MeowsSum cd.Tnosps,Sub-soipdirindfanillil

`-(0114.11101141011.

Body Canadian

atenalh/

NCYF3-5

J.;

8Boys

7 8 9 6Gids

7 8 9

24.55 2828 28.91 32.07 30.55 32.25 38.11 39.18

13.23 13.19 13.03 12.81 14.10 14.37 14.09 14.05

18.41 22.38 2520 2729 17.79 21.42 23.89 25.49

7.28 9.18 10.58 11.51 8.84 8.08 8.58 8.92

11:04 1027 11:58 11:35

521 5:10 5:48 5:33

JOPERINNovember-Dscomber 10117-53

an individual's current health andpotential resistance to disease. Poorperformance on the sit- and -reachand sit-up tests indicates the possi-bility that an individual mightdevelop lower back or other mus-culoskeletal problems due to in-adequate flexibility and/or poorabdominal strength. Distance runsmeasure the generalized capacity ofthe cardiovascular system; main-taining a high capacity may reducean individual's risk of heart disease.A high degree of body fatness, asshown by skinfold thickness, helpsto predict vulnerability to a widerange of degenerative diseases, in-cluding hypertension, heart dis-ease, diabetes, psychological disor-ders, and impaired tolerance forheat. Upper body strength as mea-sured by modified pull -ups indi-cates an individual's ability to per-form certain functional tasksrequired in day-to-day living with-out undue exertion or risk of injury.

Changes in body fatnessPopulation-wide changes in

physical fitness are matters of sci-entific and practical concern be-cause they imply alterations in thecapacity to work and play, adjust-ments to the quality of life, andshifts in vulnerability to varioushealth problems. Efforts to assesschanges in health-related fitnessare largely limited to tracking

changes in skinfold measurements.Valid national data for most tests ofhealth-related physical fitness ic erenot collected prior to the mid-1980s.

Comparison of NCYFS II scoresfor triceps and subscapular skin-folds io data previously collected bythe National Center for HealthStatistics in 1963-1965 providesevidence that six- to nine-year-oldchildren carry more body fat thandid their counterparts of 20 ormore years ago. The median sumof the two skinfolds was two to fourmm thicker than in the earliersample. Further research is neededto verify and further define suchapparent changes and to interprettheir implications for the health oftoday's children.

Physical education programsNearly all children attend school;

therefore, the school plays a pivotalrole in influencing their physicalfitness and exercise habits. As ex-pected, virtually all first throughfourth graders (97.0%) are en-rolled in physical education pro-grams of one sort or another. Itcomes as a pleasant surprise thatthey take physical education an av-erage of 3.1 times weekly, with 36.4percent taking classes daily. How-ever, it appears that a two-class sys-tem has evolved at an early elemen-tary school level. The "haves" take

Exhibit 2. Ronk and Percent Repotting Physical Actiwitles MostFrequently Performed by Boys and Girls in Community *Wings,

Oradea 14am* % Rank % Girls

SwanningRadng/SprireingflosbudiSoccerlik*IngPissIng on a PlaygroundAniballisifissibel

ClealiteriseiBxerclPlIbillif 64NITIPESUna

Walking

1

23456789

101112131415

SwimmingRecing/SpeiningBicyclingPlaykig on a Playground

jeymnasticsINbldngBaskelbell

lambingHiling/BackpecidngLeeternejeor skis

Pislinli NfloPadW)

'Bober

Or SkiPPIrili RoPe'Bober SkiingSoccer

!Games (unspecified)I Ballet/Square/FoNc Dance

54JOPERD/NoPambow-Doosmber 1987 7

physical education daily while the"have nuts" (37.2%) take physicaleducation only one or two days aweek.

It is interesting that the fre-quency w ith which schools conductphysical education classes is in-versely ra.ted to the amount oftime the children are given for re-cess. This suggests that schools areinappropriately using recess tosubstitute for, rather than to sup-plement, physical education. Chil-dren need discretionary time just asthey have a need for physical edu-cation instructional time. This alsosuggests that schools are willing toallocate just so much time to physi-cal activity.

It came as a surprise that overthree quarters (76.0%) of childrennever see a classroom teacher forphysical education and that 83.1percent take class at least once aweek with a physical education spe-cialist. However, this finding alonemasks the fact that many specialists,perhaps as many as one third, donot hold a valid certification inphysical education. There is causefor concern that many Schools donot make the investment needed tohire a certified physical educationspecialist.

In this age group, only 39.3 per-cent of students typically take phys-ical education in a gymnasium.This is not in itself cause for alarmbecause schools in temperate cli-mates usually hold physical educa-tion on the school grounds. As aresult, children who take physicaleducation on school grounds havethe benefit of 50 percent more classmeetings per week than childrenwho take physical education in-doors. However, there is concernthat more than a few schools notproviding physical education spe-cialists appear to be unwilling orunable to support adequate teach-ing facilities.

Although 49.5 percent of stu-dents have the opportunity to par-ticipate in periodic fitness testing,schools generally test for motorperformance rather than health-related fitness. A major ( bstale isthat, by their own admission,

NCYFS-6

teachers are not aware of or do nutknow how to administer the newerfitness 'sts.

Only i8.9 percent of studentshave the opportunity to participatein extracurricular sports and phys-ical acti%'ty programs at school; thepercentage who actually do is evenlower. The most frequently offeredactivities, in declining rank order,are basketball, jumping or skippingrope, soccer, games (unspecified),baseball/softball, folk/square/ball-room dance, gymnastics, and trackand field (not running). Over thefour grades, priorities begin to shiftin grade 3, as competitive teamsports, such as basketball and soc-cer, replace jumping or skippingrope and rollerskating as top ac-tivities.

The most common physical edu-cation class offerings in grades 1-4are, in declining rank order:movement experiences and bodymechanics, soccer, jumping orskipping rope, gymnastics, basket-ball, throwing and catching ac-tivities, calisthenics/exercises,rhythmic activities, kickball, relays,running, and baseball/softball.However, grades 1-4 define aperiod of marked transition, asphysical education programs shiftfrom an emphasis on movementeducation toward greater interestin physical fitness and sports skills.By grade 3 or 4, movement experi-ences, locomotor activities, andthrowing and catching activitiesgive way to competitive teamsports, such as baseba!l/softball,basketball, soccer, and volleyball,which will remain the core of thephysical education programthroughout high school.

The dramatic shift toward teamsports in physical education and ex-tracurricular offerings as early asgrades 3 and 4 causes alarm. One ofthe key assumptions in the Objec-tives for the Nation related to schoolphysical education is that, 'schoolbased programs will embrace ac-tivities which expand beyond com-petitive sports." NCYFS I foundthat present programs for grades5-12 are not geared to this goal.NCYFS II provides evidence that

NCYFS-7

physical education offerings, test-ing programs, and extracurriculacsin grades 1-4 do not support a goalof lifetime fitness either.

Home and communityAlthough schools are important

to the child's exercise habits, onecannot overlook the roles of homeand community, which exert pow-erful influences in all phases of lifeamong children under age 10.Home and community contributein significant ways to the physicalactivity of six- to nine-year-olds.Nearly all children (84.3%) part ic i-pate in physical activity through atleast one community organization.These organizations include publicparks and r-rreation departmentprograms (65.3%), community -based sports teams or leagues(31.9'I), churches and other placesof worship (24.2%), YMCA's andYWCA's (13.9%), various healthdubs and private spas (18.9% ).scouting groups (14.6%). and farmclubs (2.1% ). Most community or-ganizations are equally available toboys and giC- at least by grade 4.

8

-re

The exception is sports teams andleagues, which attract twice asmany boys as girls.

The activities most frequentlyperformed under the auspices of acommunity organization, in declin-ing rank order, are: su imming, rac-ing/sprinting, baseball/softball,bicycling, and soccer. The next 11most popular activities, again in de-scending order arc: playing on aplayground, climbing, locomotoractivities and skills, walking,hiking/backpacking, gymnastics,playing (unspecified), basketball.calisthenics /exert ises, football, androllerskating. However, there aredifferences between boys and girlsin most frequently performed ac-tivities and in the relative impor-tance of the different activities(Exhibit 2). As in school programs,prioi ices change. Baseball /soft ball,basketball, football, and hiking/bac kpac king all move up in impor-tam e. Climbing. locomotor ac-tivities. and playground play de-c line.

I t is signif ic ant that feu zr than 30percent of mothers and fathers offirst through fourth graders partic-


ipate in moderate to vigorous execcise three days a week, which is theamount generally thought to be re-quired for maximum health bene-fits. Even more alarming is that ap-proximately 50 percent say thatthey never engage in vigorousexercise.

The frequency with whichmothers and fathers exercise withtheir children can be presumed tocommunicate to the child some-thing about the parental value as-sociated with exercise. Bothmothers and fathers exercise withtheir children less than one day perweek, on the average. The oneswho do are, in large part, the oneswho are already setting positiverole models by their own exercisebehavior. Mothers exercise withsons and daughters with equal fre-quency. Fathers, however, spendan average of 50 days per yearexercising with sons versus only 35days per year with daughters. Thisimbalance is most pronounced ingrade 4, suggesting the start of apattern thzt may last throughoutthe school years.

NCYFS II indicates that the av-erage child in grades 1-4 spends anaverage of two hours and two min-utes watching television on schooldays versus three hours and 26minutes on weekend days. Theseresults are markedly differentfrom some national studies, but areconsistent with others. Regardless.television watching does directlytake away from time that could bespent in other more constructiveactivities, including exercise. Chil-dren who watch greater amounts oftelevision tend to have lower activ-ity levels a nd are less likely to partic-ipate in organized sports or to en-gage in physical activity throughcommunity organizations.

Parents were asked to rate theirown physical activity levels andthose of their children againstsame-sex peers. Among both chil-dren and adults, the average malewas rated as somewhat above aver-age in physical activity level, w hilethe average female was rated asaverage for persons of the sameage and sex. This mathematical in-

- 58JOPERDINovembse-Daclwebet1987

congruity suggests that there is avery strong bias in how parents andteachers rate childrer. and in howadults rate themselves. Parentstend to view their male children asbeing only slightly more activecompared to same-sex peers thantheir girl children. However,teachers rate boys as much moreactive than girls.

Factors associated with fitnessThe relationship between physi-

cal activity pattet as and health-related physical fitness was studiedby :xamming the associations be-tween selected school, communityand home physical activity factorsand two fitness variables, milewalk/run performance and sum ofthree skinfold thicknesses. Analy-ses were conducted with third andfourth graders and were controlledfor the effects of age and sex.

The results indicate that thephysical activity patterns of chil-dren, as reported by their parentsand teachers, are significantly re-lated to their physical fitness. Chil-dren who perform well on the milewalk/run test tend to pavticipate inmove community-based physicalactivity. to watch less television, andto be rated by their parents andteachers as more physi-1,y active.In school, these better pc( formerson the distance run tend to receivemore of their physical educationinstruction from z specialist andhave the opportunity to participatein periodic physical fitness testing.

School factors tended not to besignificantly related to the bodycomposition of children. However,leaner youngsters tended to partic-ipate .1 more community-basedphysical activities and watched lesstelevision. These leaner childrenwere rated as more physically activeby both their parents and teat hers.It may be particularly importantthat parental physical activity wasassociated with body compositionof the children. The parents ofleaner youngsters were more activeand exercised more frequentlywith their c hildren.

i ()

Summary and conclusionsNCYFS 11 has provided informa-

tion never befiire available aboutphysical fitness, physical activitypatterns, and factors related to thephysical fitness of children ingrades 1-4. This information sug-gests that current programs may beinadequate to promote lifetimephysical fitness. Study findingschallenge policy makers, research-ers, teachers and members of thegeneral community to make in-formed decisions about actionsneeded to enhance the future fit-ness and physical activity habits ofour children. Attention needs to bedirected to interpreting the resultsof NCYFS H

References

Caspersen. C. J.. Christenson. G. M.. &Pollard. R. A (1986). Status of the1990 physical fitness and exercise()Diet tlyesevidence from NH IS1985. Public Health Reports, 101(6):587-592.

Bennett. W J (1986) First lessons: Areport on elementary education toAmenca. Washington. DC: Govern-ment Printing "Me.

Gallup. A. M (1985. September). The17th annual Gallup poll -if puhlw at-titudes toward the publw schools.

Poucll. K. E.. Spain. K. G.. Christen-son. G M . & Mo!lenkamp. M. P.(1986) The status of the 1990 obiet-mn for phssit al fitness and exercise.Publu Health Report', 101(1): 15-20.

}Nissen. K E.. Thompson. P. D.. Cas-persen. C. j.. & Kendrick. J. S.(1987). Physical activity and the inci-dent c of coronary heart disease. An-mud Revwc of Puhlw Health, 8:253-287

Ross. J. G & Gilbert. G. G. (1985). Thenational children and youth fitnessstuds: A summary of findings. Jour-nal of Physical Education, Recreation &Dance. 56(1): 45-50

Schoenborn. C. A. (1986). Healthhalms of U.S. adults: The "AlamedaSeven- iesisited. Public Health Re-ports, 101(6):571-580.

U S Department of Ileal!h andHuman Servo es. (1980) Promotinghealth Ipreventing disease Ohiectives forthr nation Washington. DC: Gov-ernment Printing Of fit c.

NCYFS-8


Study Procedures and QualityControl

James G. Ross Lisa A. Delpy Gregory M. ChristensonRobert S. Gold Cheryl L. Damberg

Documentation of these quality control methods should allow users ofthe data to focus on the meaning and implications of the results ratherthan on questions of how the data were collected.

In assessing the fitness andexercise habits of children,quality control techniques give

the tester confidence and, ulti-mately, those using the data, theconfidence that each child is mea-sured consistently and accurately,according to a common protocol.Quality control is especially impor-tant when test results will be useddiagnostically or to detect changesin either fitness or exercise habits.

Typical quality control tech-niques include pilot testing in-structions to ensure consistentinterpretation, spot checking ad-ministration of a testing protocol,monitoring the calibration of testequipment, and retesting a sampleof participants on key measures toestablish reliability.

This article explains how qualitycontrol was maintained in the Na-tional Children and Youth FitnessStudy II (NCYFS II). Every effortwas made to uphold the standardsof rigor set in NCYFS I (Ross &Gilbert, 1985). The discussion ismeant to be helpful to researchersas well as to others interested inprotecting the integrity of data.

NCYFS-9

Develop scientifically acceptableprotocols

The study protocol had to cap-ture the most current thought onmeasurement of fitness and physi-cal activity patterns among chil-dren. Two panels of experts (Exhi-bit I) in physical education andother fields were convened toprovide guidance in the develop-ment of scientifically acceptableprotocols.

The fitness test panel was to up-date the fitness testing protocolfrom NCYFS I and adjust it to thespecial requirements of youngerchildren. The panelists faced threemajor issues: ( I ) attempting to finda gender-free test of upper bodystrength; (2) assessing the need forsubstitute or supplemental skinfoldsites; and (3) determining the ap-propriateness of a mile walk/runfor younger children.

The recommended physical fit-ness test battery consisted of the fol-lowing test items for both boys andgirls: ( I) triceps, subscapular, andmedial calf skinfolds; (2) sit -and-reach test (with apparatus); (3)bent-knee sit-ups; (4) codified

10

(Vermont) pull-up; (5) mile walk/run for children aged eight orolder; and (6) half-mile walk/runfor children under age eight. Thepanel recommended adding themedial calf skinfold to provide analternative for the subscapular.The modified pull-up Is as includedas a test of upper body strengthbecause it is gender -free and nearlyall youngsters earn a score of atleast "I."

The panel recommended thathildren under age eight only run a

half-mile. Although there is nophysiological reason Is hy a six- orseven-year-old child cannot run amile, the panel stressed that mostchildren in the general populationhave not been trained to do so. Theyoung child's inexperience withendurance activity is compoundedby a relatively short attention span.Therefore, a mile walk/run wouldproduce data of questionable va-lidity. Moreover, if partic ipation infitness tests is intended to serve aneduc ational purpose, a half-miledistance on a walk/run would besufficient to introduce children tothe experienc c of paced, long-dis-

JOPERO/November-December 1987-57

tante i tinning.The physical activity survey

panelists were to (1) identify thepersons from whom accurate re-ports of a child's physical activityhabits and determinants might becollected; (2) select surveyvariables; and (3) identify specificquestions from existing protocols.The panelists recommended thatseparate surveys be designed forstudents, parents, and teachers.Furthermore, they recommendedthat these surveys be designed insuch a way to categorize physicalactivity by level of energy expendi-ture (e.g., time spent is vigorousexercise, exercise of lower inten-sity, standing and sitting). The rec-ommendations from both expertpanels formed the basis for NCYFSII.

/ISIArmors

Pilot test protocol to ensure clarityand ease of use

The pilot test offered the chanceto identify and revise ambiguousinstructions and inadequate direc-tions. The survey and fitness bat-tery had to be clear and easy to use.Instructions and directions thatwould be interpreted the same wayby virtually all administrators,teachers, parents, and studentswere required. A protocol that wasunclear (i.e., that would allow sit-ups to be performed in several dif-ferent ways) could severely limitthe usefulness of the resultantnorms.

Refinement of the data collectionprotocols was an important aspectof NCYFS I and II. The instruc-tions for administration of both thefitness battery and the surveys were

The panel recommended that children under age eight only run a half-mile.

58JOPERD/N3vernber-Deamber 1987

continuously scrutinized to ensurespecificity in directions and consis-tency in interpretation. Every prob-lem that arose was carefullyweighed and analyzed. Were theinstructions unclear? Did the ad-ministrator grasp the instruction?How likely was the problem to re-cur? How significantly does distor-tion of the directions affect themeasurement? Can instructions bewritten with more precision? Willfield staff and assisting teachersneed extra training to head off aproblem? Should the possibilitythat a problem might recur be in-corporated into monitoring proce-lures? Can a problem be con-trolled if the children are betterprepared for the tests? Examples ofhow instructions were revised arepresented for the sit-up test, the

NCYFS-10

modified pull-ups, the mile walk/run, and the physical activities sur-vey to illustrate the revision pro-cess.

The standard protocol for thebent-knee sit-up requires that thestudent's arms remain foldedacross and flat against the chest. Inthe up position, the student musttouch the forearms to the thighswithout pulling the arms awayfrom the chest. In the down posi-tion, the student's mid-back musttouch the mat. The buttocks mustremain on the mat, no more than12 to 18 inches from the heels. Inthe NCYFS I pilot test, severalvariations in the performance ofsit-ups were discovered. The mostfrequent variation was the ten-dency for students to push theirfolded arms away from their chests,sometimes in a vigorous, thrustingmotion. A second variation was atendency for students to lift theirbuttocks off the mat between sit-ups, producing a rocking effect. Tocontrol these and other problems,students were given advance warn-ings about what constituted accept-able performance. The testing pro-tocol required that instructions tothe student be read out loud orstated from memory by the tester.

The modified pull-up test is arelatively new, gender-free test inwhich a student begins in a supineposition and then lifts himself orherself as many times as possible toa level seven to eight inches belowan adjustable bar set just beyondthe finger tips. The back of the stu-aent's heels are to remain in contactwith the floor; however, no otherpart of the body may touch downonce the test has begun. The lowerback should stay straight through-out the test. In the pilot test, it wasquickly learned that some studentsdid understand what keeping a"stiff body" meant. Children al-lowed their buttocks to rest on thefloor, which resulted in a prema-ture termination of the test. To cor-rect this problzm, two steps weretaken. The first was to change theinstructions so that students weretold to "keep as straight as an ar-row" and "be like a torpedo."

NCYFS-11

Additionally, just prior to startingthe test, each student was asked to

get into a reverse push-up position,which provided them with the feel-

Exhibit 1. National Children And Youth Fitness StudyInstrumentation Panels

Panel #1: The Physical Fitness Test Battery

Dr. Oded Bar-OrChedoke Hospital, McMaster

University

Dr. Carl J. CaspetsonCenters for Disease Control, DHHS

Dr. Raymond A. CiszekAmerican Alliance for rleaith,

Physical Education, Recreation &Dance

Dr. Robert S. GoldUniversity of Maryland

Panel #1: Contributors And Reviewers

Dr. Margie HansonAmerican Alliance for Health,


Dr. Russell R. PateUniversity of South Carolina

Dr Sharon Plowman, Phi,.NorthwIstem University

W. James G. RossMacro Systems, Inc.

Dr. Ted A. BaumgartnerUniversity of Georgia at Athens

Dr. Charles B. CorbinArizona State University

Dr. Loma Francis, Ph.D.National Injury Prevention

Foundation

W. James LintonNational Assodation of Governors

Councils on Physical Fitness andSports

Dr. Timothy LohmanUniversity of Arizona

Dr. Raymond E. SparksVermont Governor's Commission on

Physical Fitness

Ms. Helen StemlerHoward County (Maryland) Schools

Ms. Unda VanderhoffMaryland Commkision on Physical

Fitness

Panel #2: Physical Activities Survey

Dr. Kenneth E. PowellCenters for Disease Control, DHHS

Mr. James G. 7-tossMacro Systems, Inc.

Dr. James F. SallieUniversity of California at San Diego

Mr. Len TritschOregon Department of Education

Dr. Tom BaranowskiUniversity of Texas at Galvestoi.

Dr. Jerome CalderoneNational Center for Health Services

Research, DHHS

Dr. Robert S. GoldUniversity of Maryland

Dr. Russell R. PateUniversity of South Carolina

Panel #2: Contributors And Reviewers

Dr. Robert PangraziArizona State University

Ms. Helen StemlerHoward County (Maryland) Schools

Dr. Thomas StevensNational Center for Health Statistics,

DHHS

Dr. Don BaileySaskatchewan University

Dr. Raymond A. CiszekAmerican Alliance for Health,


Ms. Cora L CraigCanada Fitness and Lifestyle

Research Institute

Dr. Margie HansonAmerican Alliance for Health,

Physical Education, Recreation &Darr

12JOPERD /November - December 1987-59

ing of a straight back. The use ofthese procedures virtually elimi-nated misunderstanding of the in-structions for di's test.

The most significant difficulty inadministration of the distancewalk/run was keeping count of thenumber of laps each child com-pleted. In NCYFS I, the procedurewas to pair students and assign re-sponsibility for counting laps andrecording times to the runner'sresting partner. Eight laps to themile and 12 children running at atime were set as upper limits. Tohelp the students count laps, a pen-cil and slip of paper preceded withthe required number of laps wereprovided to the student. Studentssimply had to cross out a numbereach time their partner finished alap. As a runner came across thefinish line, the test administratorcalled out the time and the runner'spartner jotted it down on the slip ofpaper.

Though this procedure workedwell for older children, there wasconcern that younger childrenmight have problems with it. Fol-lowing a pilot test, it was decidedthat a precoded teacher checklistcould be used. This procedure re-quired students to wear race num-bers to simplify keeping track ofwho was who. Students ran amaximum of eight laps to a mile ingroups that generally consisted ofno more than six students. One testadministrator kept time while asecond administrator checked offlaps completed. Other procedureskept the children on task and run-ning continuously; e.g., testerschecked, if necessary, and helpedstudents to tie their shoe laces be-fore the run and also issued a finalwarning to, "keep on going, even ifyour number falls off."

The pilot test demonstrated thatneither parents nor students couldrecall the child's physical activityhabits with sufficient reliability tocategorize children by level of en-ergy expenditure. As a result, theparent and student surveys werestreamlined to collect less detailedinformation which could beprovided more reliably on physical

SOJOPERD/NovsmbsrDocember 1907

activity habits. The student surveywas later dropped altogether.

Use quality equipment and keep itcalibrated

Accuracy in fitness testing re-quires use of quality equipmentwhich is kept in calibration. Eachfitness test item involved one ormore pieces of equipment. Identi-cal equipment was used at all loca-tions.

To take skinfold measurements,a caliper, a measuring tape (to mea-sure the midpoint between theelbow and shoulder), and a marker(to mark the sites) were required.In NCYFS I, Lange Calipers wereused because they have been widelyused in national research studies.The same calipers were chosen forNCYFS II. Field staff used atoothed block to check calibrationof the calipers before each testingsession and recorded the results ofthe calibration test in a log book.Field staff were instructed to stopusing and replace calipers whichexceeded calibration tolerances bymore than Itlmm. The calibrationlogs indicated that there were nocases where calibration exceededacceptable tolerances.

The sit-and-reach test required aspecial apparatus not available atmost schools. Therefore, in orderto ensure consistency in the sit-and-reach test, an apparatus thatcomplied with specifications in theAAHPERD Health Related Physi-cal Fitness Test Manual was carriedby field staff.

The sit-ups test required anexercise mat (or other cushionedsurface) and either a stopwatch orwatch with a second hand. Mem-bers of the field staff also carrieddigital stopwatches and mostschools had exercise mats. Whenmats were unavailable, anothercushioned surface (e.g., a flat,grassy area) was used.

The modified pull-ups test re-quired a specialized device whichno schools in the sample had z vail-able. Therefore, NCYFS IIprovided one for each school and,when testing was completed, thedevice became the school's prop-

1 3

erty.To assess performance in the

mile walk/run, a measured flatrunning course and a stopwatchwere required. For a majority ofthe schools, it was necessary forfield staff to set out a measuredcourse. To do so, they used a Rola-tape cross-country measuringwheel.

Recruitment and training of fieldstaff

AAHPERD assistea in the re-cruitment of the five members ofthe field staff. Qualified individ-uals had to have a degree in physi-cal education er a related discipline(masters preferred), experience inworking with children (preferablyin a school setting), familiarity withfitness testing procedures, organi-zational ability, and tolerance forthe give-and-take found in a schoolsetting. An individual had to beavailable for the full 10-week dura-tion of data collection. Field staffcandidates were all female, follow-ing a practice established in NCYFSI.

Recruited field staff were sentcopies of the study protocol andother materials for review prior to aformal training seminar. The ac-tual training seminar was con-ducted in Washington, DC, over athree-day period. Day 1 of trainingwas focused on the technical skillsrequired of field staff (e.g., how toadminister the tests). Day '2 con-sisted of supe; vised application ofthe skills acquired during Day 1.Trainees were required to adminis-ter each of the measures betweenfive and 20 times on a group of six-to nine -year -olds. An individual'serrors in measurement techniquewere corrected and subsequentlyreviewed by the group. A formalexercise to establish interrater re-liability for the skinfold measure-ments was part of Day 2. DuringDay 3 a general review was con-ducted. Consideration of logisticand administrative procedures,feedback on the calibration exer-cise, and development of consensuson any required changes in proce-dures were discussed.

NCYFS-12

Monitoring of the activities andproblems of individual field staffmembers was an important part ofdata collection. Through abiweekly project newsletter, com-mon problems were discussed,procedures were reviewed, andcamaraderie was maintained bysharing anecdotes from the field.

Prepare schools and teachersSchools required advance nctiti-

cation of all study procedures.Negotiations for school participa-tion began an average of fourmonths prior to data collection.Several weeks before data collec-tion at a school, the details ofscheduling, class selections, andteacher responsibilities wereworked out with the school's ap-pointed contact person. Teacherresponsibilities varied from schoolto school. The range of respon-sibilities were to (1) hand out con-sent forms, (2) prepare childrenfor the distance walk/run, (3) dem-onstrate tests to the students, (4)assemble the modified pull-up de-vice, (5) record data on score cards,and (6) help maintain order duringthe walk/run. A schedule signify-ing when field staff would be at theschool was drafted and sent to thecontact person for verificationprior to staff's arrival. A partiallyassembled modified pull-up devic,was sent to the school well in ad-vance. A sit-and-reach box was sentto the first school to be tested ineach location.

Consent forms were provided toeach school at least two weeks be-fore the start of data collection.The consent forms were packagedby class and marked with eachteacher's name. Packets forteachers included a copy of theschedule, a description of specificteacher responsibilities, and copiesof all needed instructional mate-rials. Only those teachers requestedto perform a specific task receivedrelated instructional materials. Ef-forts to prepare schools for theproject staff's arrival worked espe-cially well when a contact personhad talked with other members ofthe school staff and when the

NCYFI3-13

school had a centrally coordinatedcalendar.

Prepare student participantsStudents were supplied with ad-

vance notice of the testing condi-tions, which included a mechanismfor medical exclusions, the descrip-tion of the nature of the test items,and a discussion of proper dress forthe activities.

Consent forms were sent to theparents of each selected student

to explain Eh': ,iata collectionprocedures and to advise that thestudent should not participate if (1)the child was limited from doingvigorous physical activity withfriends or in school for 1...-althreasons, (2) a doctor said that thechild was not allowed to take part innormal physical activity because ofa recent sickness or injury, or (3)there were other medical reasonswhy the child could not do the ac-tivities involved.

The standard protocol for the bens-knee sit-up requires that the student's arms remain foldedacross and flat against the chest.

kft I 14JOPERD/November-December 1997-61

Students consenting to partici-pate in the tests were given an"Exercise Practice Sheet." Thissheet explained how to do the sit-and-reach, modified pull-ups, sit-ups, and the distance walk/run.Teachers were asked to review thepractice sheets with their studentsand to demonstrate how to do thetests. The purpose of the practicesheets, demonstrations, and lim-ited student practice was to im-prove the validity of measurementsby removing the effect on perfor-mance of nonfamiliarity withproper technique. Teachers wereprovided with specific instructionson how to convey to students themental concept of pacing for themile or half-mile walk/run.

Maintain sample integrityHigh participation rates were

critical to achieving valid results forthe study. In many schools,teachers attempted to maximizeparticipation rates by calling par-ents to explain the study. Principalsand PTA's also advertised and sup-ported the study through theirnewsletters.

It was equally important to thevalidity of results that only studentsfrom randomly selected classesparticipate. Interested studentssometimes tried to join the study.Occasionally, teachers tried to re-place a student with a volunteer oradd the "star" athlete to the sam-ple. To ensure the sample's integ-rity, the field staff regularlychecked the identity of participantsagainst the list of students from therandomly selected class sections.

Monitor data collectionField activities were monitored

closely to ensure that field staff andteachers followed the protocol, andthat problems were handledpromptly. Monitoring was accom-plished through telephone contactand on-site visits.

Project administrative staffmaintained regular, often dailycontact with members of the fieldstaff. This constant contact enabledsenior staff to advise on typical

82JOPERD/Nownter-Oecomber 1907

problems, such as unprepared class(consent forms not distributed),major disruptions to schedule, ini-tially low participation rates, con-tinuous inclement weather,equipment that was damaged inshipment, difficult questions froma local newspaper or television re-porter, and strategies for testingdisabled students. Telephone con-tact also helped to maintain moraleand resolve day-to-day living prob-lems for young field staff living, inmany cases, far from home. Prob-lems included: not having suitableclothing for the weather; lockingkeys inside or having a minor acci-dent with a rented car; staying in ahotel too tar from the schools or inthe wrong part of town, or thatlacked exercise facilities; runninglow on cash; refusal by a hotel tohonor a reservation; uncertaintyabout "allowable expenditures";and just plain loneliness.

Establish interrater reliabilityInterrater reliability on the skin-

fold measurements was establishedat two points in time: prior to fieldwork and during field work. Dur-ing training, interrater reliabilitywas established by having the fieldstaff and two headquarters staffexperts measure each of 17, six- tonine-year-old boys and girls. Amean interrater correlation of .96was obtained for this period. Inter -rater reliability was reestablished inthe field an average of five weekslater by having one of the head-quarters experts retest groups of20 students already tested by amember of the field staff. Themean interrater correlation underfield conditions was .99. Such cor-relations are more than acceptable.Additional information about thereliability of the skinfold data maybe found in another article.

Edit and verify all dataFollowing the collection of sur-

vey forms and fitness score cards,several additional quality controlsteps were taken. While still in an

15

area, field staff leviewed all datafor completeness. In many cases,staff were required to return to aschool and finish testing a studentor to telephone a parent to com-plete a parent survey.

All surveys and score cards weremanually reviewed once they ar-rived at project headquarters.Those errors which were correcta-ble were corrected. Physical ac-tivities reported on the parent orteacher surveys were coded by thesame person in all cases, to ensurecomparability. All data were thenkey entered. A 100 percent verifi-cation was performed on the keyeddata. A random 2 percent check ofthe verified data established a lowerror rate of .0002.

Range checks were performedand any data falling outside of ac-ceptable ranges were scrutinized.In many cases, corrections were

ade to erroneous scores by re-checking original score cards.

The survey data were alsochecked for internal consistencyand range. For example, all fitnessvalues falling outside a normal dis-tribution were checked for accu-racy. Some consistency checks weremade (e.g., checking data on skin-folds against height and weight).

Student confidentiality was as-sured by not recording studentnames. Schools and locations weregiven a numerical code, butprovisions were made to protecttheir anonymity.

Summary and conclusionsAlthough it is difficult to assess

the overall affects of the qualitycontrol techniques used in NCYFSI and II, the techniques usedadhered to the most rigorous stan-dards for testing the fitnes- of chil-dren in the United States to date.The documentation of these qual-ity control methods should allowusers of the data from this study tofocus on the meaning and implica-tions of the results rather than onquestions of how the data were col-lected.

NCYFS-14


Sample Design

Michael T. Errecart Michael Svilar James G. RossRobert S. Gold Pedro J. Saavedra

The NCYFS II was designed to provide reliable data describing thecharacteristics of first through fourth graders, by age/sex andgrade/sex groupings.

In the last 30 years, only sixstudies have used a nationallyrepresentative sample to

create physical fitness norms forchildren and youth. Only two ofthese studies included childrenunder age 10.

The results from mass-testingprograms, despite testing millionsof children over the years, do notnecessarily represent the fitnesslevels of the nation's children andyouth. Program participants typi-cally are not balanced by region,grade, or sex. Moreover, there isusually a strong element of self-se-lection by participants. The Na-tional Children and Youth FitnessStudies (NCYFS I and II) havebeen designed to eliminate theseproblems and to create truly repre-sentative national fitness normsand physical activity profiles.

The NCYFS studies were notprograms attempting to improvethe fitness of participants, but re-search efforts designed to describethe fitness and profile the physicalactivity habits of the nation's youth.NCYFS II, like NCYFS I, studiedchildren selected according torigorous, nonbiased, and mathe-matically-based rules. The selec-tion process was structured toensure that the sample would rep-resent the various regions of thecountry, and include both urban

NCYFS-15

d

and nonurban areas. Within thisframe, participants were selectedrandomly to avoid biasing the re-sults. The study was desig Jed toprovide reliable data describing thecharacteristics of first throughfourth graders, by age/sex andgrade/sex groupings. It was not de-signed to provide estimates by re-gion, state, or level of urbanization.

The sample design was reviewedby the National Center for HealthStatistics, which is the agency of theU.S. Public Health Service respon-sible for most major national nealthsurveys.

Determining sample sizesIn developing complex sample

designs, various trade-offs must bemade to balance the cost of the sur-vey against the level of accuracywith which national estimates canbe made. in most cases, the trade-off is made more difficult becausethe effects of various cost-savingmeasures on the accuracy of resultsis unknown. NCYFS II, however,benefited from the experience ofNCYFS I in that the efficiency ofthe NCYFS I design was known fora slightly older age group (5thgraders) and these results providedkey parameters for developing theNCYFS II sample.

The desired sample size was ini-tially computed based on the use of

16

a simple random sample to meetestablished precision criteria. Thisbasic estimate of sample size wasthen increased by about one-thirdto compensate for the expected lossin efficiency due to concentratingthe sample in a relatively smallnumber of schools. The costs sav-ings due .o concentrating the sam-ple more han made up for the costof adding a few more schools.

The NCYFS II design supportsaccurate national-level estimates offitness norms by grade and sex.Sample estimates are accurate towithin five percentile points with95 percent confidence. In otherwords. were this study repeatedover and over, c.',5 percent of thetime the estimate of a given per-centile (e.g., 29 sit-ups as the 50thpercentile for 9-year-old boys)would be wrong by no more thanfive percentile points (e.g. 29 sit-ups would almost always be thevalue of some percentile in the45-55 percentile range'. In fact, 90percent of the time 29 sit-upswould be the estimated value forthe 48th to 52nd percentile.

The desired sample size was z- !soadjusted to compensate for the ex-pected rate of nonparticipation.Based on NCYFS I, a very high rateof participation was expected;therefore, it was assumed that onlysix percent of the sample would be


Exhibit 1. 25 Randomly Selected Locations (Counties) in the NCYFS li National Sample

Queens

Monmouth

nce George's

lost to attrition i,. NCYFS II.As a result of these consid-

erations, a target sample size of 50classes of average size at each gradelevel was desired. Plans were alsodeveloped for adding and combin-ing classes when class sizes were toosmall or when single-sex situationswere encountered.

Structure of the sampleThe sample represents propor-

tionally the various regions of theUnited States and both urban andrural settings. Since research showsthat environmental factors and re-gional differences influence activ-ity patterns and fitness levels, rep-resentativeness was ensured bycontrolling for these factors in theselection process. With our sam-pling method, any possible samplewould appropriately reflect geo-graphic regions and urbanizationfactors.

The sample design was used todivide the country into 25 nonover-lapping geographic areas. Twelveof the 25 areas consisted of the 60largest Standard MetropolitanStatistical Areas (urban strata). The60 SMSA's were grouped together

84JOPERDINovernber-Deamber 1987

based on geographic proximity sothat the resulting 12 groups wereapproximately equal in population.For example, those SMSAs repre-sented in the group of 60 whichwere located in Georgia, Florida,and Alabama were grouped to-gether; another group consisted ofthe Texas and Louisiana SMSA's.The 12 urban groups accountedfor approximately 46 percent ofthe population.

The remaining 13 areas con-sisted of smaller SMSAs and all re-maining counties (the nonurbanstrata). In forming these groups,Primary Sampling Units (PSUs)were created by grouping adjacentcounties so that the total popula-tions in each grouping were ap-proximately equal. More than3,000 counties were groupedtogether manually to create 1,172PSUs. The PSUs were assigned insuch a way that each group repre-sented a compact area of the coun-try and so that the groups had ap-proximately equal populations.

Selecting locationsOne SMSA was selected at ran-

i 17

P'dom from each of the 12 urbangroups and from each of the 13nonurban groups. The chance ofan area being selected was propor-tional to the size of the area relativeto other areas. In many cases, aselected area consisted of severalcounties or other political subdivi-sions. In these cases, we selectedone county from within the PSUwith the chance of selection beingproportional to county size. Theresultant sample included largeurban centers, such as New YorkCity, Chicago, and Los Angeles, aswell as thinly populated, rural areassuch as Lucas, Iowa and Gage, Ne-braska (Exhibit 1).

Selecting schoolsThe grade structures of schools

in the early elementary years(grades 1-4) are much morehomogeneous than in the lateryears when school structures tendto become departmentalized. Acomprehensive listing of all publicand private schools offering educa-tion at any combination of grades 1,2, 3, or 4 in each selected countywas obtained. The list was analyzedand schools not offering at least

NCYFS-18

one class at each grade level werelinked to other schools. Followingthis procedure, two schools werethen selected randomly with thechance of selection being propor-tional to the estimated averagegrade size of the school. This pro-cedure resulted in a sample that in-cluded at least two classrooms fromat least two different schools foreach county selected for the study.

Selecting classes and studentsOne class was selected at random

at each grade level of interest in theselected schools. Each class at agiven grade level had an equalchance of being selected. Studentswere generally selected as membersof a homeroom; i.e., an intactgrouping of a cross-section of stu-dents who remained together formost of their subjects. All studentsin selected classrooms were in ;liedto participate.

In some cases, the estimates ofthe numbers of students at a gradelevel proved to be inaccurate. In afew instances, a second class sectionwas drawn to provide a sufficientnumber of students for testing. Inone instance, a school no longerhad a fourth grade because of arecent reorganization. In this case,an additional school was drawnrandomly to supplement the sam-ple.Participation rates

The final sample consisted of 57schools in 19 states. Most locationsincluded two schools; seven hadthree schools. Only one schoolfrom oui original sample refusedto participate in the study. Thefinal sample of classes contained4,853 students (2,435 boys and2,418 girls) of whom 96.4 percentparticipated, a participation rateabout two percent higher than ex-pected. Given such a high partici-pation rate, the impact of nonpar-ticipation on the final results is neg-ligible. The participation level isconsistent with NCYFS I, which at-tained its highest rates (93-947c) atfifth and sixth grades (Exhibit 2).

A written survey was completedby 94.5 percent of the parents ofparticipating students. In addition,

NCYFS-17

almost 40 percent of the parents ofnonparticipating students com-pleted the parent survey. Thisstrong participation by parents en-abled us the linkage of student andparent data for almost 90 percentof the sample (Exhibit 3).

WeightingNCYFS II used a self-weighting

sampling design to maximize theefficiency of national estimates.This means that each student in theUnited States had approximatelythe same chance of being selected.This self-weighting property is re-ally an ideal that is typically com-promised due to various factors:non participation, errors in esti-mates at various stages of selection,and the u.,e of replacements. Suchfactors cause the probabilities ofselection to vary from student tostudent, requiring that weights becomputed to compensate for thesedifferences.

The weights initially developedreflected the chance of selection ofthe PSU, county, school, and class.They were later adjusted to reflectthe small level of nonparticipation.In addition, special estimates weremade at the county level of the totalpopulation of boys and girls ages

six to nine. These estimates werecompared to the latest decennialU.S. Census information and ad-justments made to bring the datainto agreement.

Summary and conclusionsThe NCYFS II sample was de-

signed to allow estimation of na-tional health-related fitness normsfor first through fourth graders bysex. The sample consisted of 4,853students from 57 schools in 19states representing all areas of thecountry, including both urban andnonurban areas. The samplingmethod was designed to offer everychild enrolled in public or privateschools in the nation an approxi-mately equal chance of participat-ing in the study.

Participation rates wereexemplary: only one schooldropped out of the study (it wasreplaced); more than 96 percent ofthe student sample participated;and more than 94 percent of theparents of participating studentscompleted a written survey.

Thus, the twin factors of a soundsample design and high participa-tion rates provide the basis for mak-ing reliable estimates of nationalfitness norms.

Exhibit 2. Student Sample Sizes and Participation Rates by Grade and Sex

Grade

Boys Girls

Selected Participants Percent Selected Participants Percent

1 615 598 97.2 565 536 94.62 603 589 97.7 596 583 97.83 603 578 95.9 597 572 95.84 614 585 95.2 660 637 96.1

1-4 2,435 2,350 96.5 2,418 2,328 96.3

Exhibit 3. Parent Sample Sizes and Participation Rates by Grade and Sexof Child

Boys Girls

GradeEligibleParents Partidpants Percent

EligibleParents Participants Percent

1 590 563 94.1 536 511 95.42 589 560 95.6 583 552 94.73 576 556 96.2 572 544 95.14 585 548 93.7 637 601 91.1

1-4 2,350 2,227 94.8 2,328 2,208 94.3

U 18JOPERD/November-December 1987-65


New Health-Related Fitness Norms

James G. Ross Russell R. Pate Lisa A. DelpyRobert S. Gold Michael Svilar

To ensure that the resulting fitness norms would be accurate andrepresentative of the nation's youth, data were collected from public,private, and parochial schools across the nation.

It has recently been argued thathealth-related physical fitnessshould be assessed by com-

parison with criterion-referencedstandards rather than population-based percentile norms. Such stan-dards would be established by de-

termining the fitness levels neededto maintain acceptable levels offunctional capacities and tominimize risk of developing dis-eases associated with physical inac-tivity and/or low levels of fitness.However, widely accepted stan-

NCYF$ N Norms by Age for the Triceps Sidnfold (In millimeters)

Peewee 6

N 5se 690 6as 7so 775 770 7

Se 8se 8

99

'10-.1010=

1."-, _12

1210

A.Boys Gas

7 8 9 8 7 8 9

5 5 5 5 6 6 65 8 6 7 7 7 76 6 8 8 7 8 87 7 7 8 8 8 97 7 7 9 8 9 107 7 8 9 9 9 107 8 8 9 9 10 11

8 9 10 10 10 118 10 10 10 11 12

8 9 10 11 11 12 129 9 10 11 11 12 139 10 11 12 12 13 14

10 10 12 12 12 14 1410 11 13 13 13 15 1511. 12 14 13 13 16 18

'11 13 15 14 14 17 1812 14 16 14 15 18 19

.14 15 18 15 17 19 2116 19 21 17 19 21 2.1

23 23 20 22 25 25

88JOPERD/November-Deoember 1987

19

dards have not been arrived at.Population-based norms continueto play the dominant role in theinterpretation of the fitness of in-dividuals and groups. Population-based norms will always be a criticaltool in describing and monitorinl.changes in the fitness status ofAmerican youth.

Population-based norms canserve several useful purposes. First,such norms constitute a descriptionof the current status of a popula-tion in terms of the variables ob-served. Second, when the mea-surements are readministered atperiodic intervals, the resultingnormative data provide a basis fortracking change in the populationover time. Third, valid normativedata can be used as a basis for com-parison of selected subgroups withthe population at large. And,fourth, the status of an individualcan be assessed by comparing his orher status with that of the popula-tion.

This article presents the first na-tionally representative health-re-lated physical fitness norms for six-to nine-year-olds. The statisticalprocedures used in developing

NCYFS-18

these norms and the relationship ofthis normative study to priorstudies are also discussed.

Prior normative studiesIn the past 30 years, six studies

have produced fitness norms onnationally representative samples.The first three studies, in 1957,1965, and 1975, produced normsfor 10- to 17-year-olds on theAAHPERD Youth Fitness Test(YFT), which was primarily a test ofmotor performance. In 1984, theNational Children and Youth Fit-ness Study (NCYFS I) producedthe first nationally representativenorms for 10- to 18-year-olds onthe AAHPERD Health RelatedPhysical Fitness Test (HRPFT)(Ross, Dotson, Gilbert & Katz,1985). In 1986, new normative datawere gathered on six- to 17-year-olds for the YFT and other testitems (Reiff, 1986). Most recently,NCYFS II developed the first na-tionally representative norms onthe HRPFT for six- to nine-year-olds.

The NCYFS studies are distin-guished by how data were col-lected. These studies used as theirsampling frame all school childrenin the nation. They included notonly public schools, but also privateand parochial schools. ',Jata forNCYFS I and II were gathered by asmall, traveling field staff oftrained professionals, not by a largenumber of physical educationteachers. These changes in data col-lection and sampling procedureswere designed to ensure that theresulting norms would be accurateand representative of the nation'syouth.

Development of fitness normsNCYFS II developed normative

data on the four test items from theAAHPERD HRPFT (triceps andsubscapular skin folds, sit-and-reach test, bent-knee sit-ups, andmile walk/run) (AAHPERD, 1980).A third skinfold site (medial calf)was added as an alternative or sup-plement to the subscapular. A mod-ified pull-up was added to providea gender-free alternative to cus-

NCYFS-19

tomary tests of upper bodystrength. Finally, recognizing thedifficulty of asking young, un-trained children with relativelyshort attention spans to walk/run amile, a half mile walk/run wasadded for children under the ageof eight.

The norms were constructedthrough analysis of 4,678 cases dis-tributed approximately evenlyamong grades one through four.Data were available on all five items(skinfolds, sit-and-reach, sit-ups,modified pull-ups, and distancewalk/run) for approximately 95

NCYFS N Norms by Age forth Subscapulai Sidnto id (in millimeters)

A99

PercendleBoys Olds

6 7 8 9 8 7 8

4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 54 4 4 5 5 5 54 5 5 5 5 5 55 5 5 5 5 5 55 5 5 5 5 5 85 5 5 5 5 5 65 5 5 8 8 6 85 5 5 8 6 6 65 5 6 6 8 8 75 5 8 8 8 6 75 8 6 7 8 7 76 8 6 7 7 7 88 8 8 7 7 7 86 8 7 8 7 8 96 7 7 9 8 9 107 7 8 10 8 10 127 8 10 12 10 11 158 10 14 15 12 13 17

12 18 19 20 18 19 21

9

45558686778899

101215172125

NCYFS II Nome by Age for the Model Call Sldnfold (in millimeters)

Age

Percentile 6Boys

7 8 9 6ClIrls

7 8

4 4 4 4 5 5 55 5 5 5 8 8 65 5 5 5 7 7 78 8 8 8 8 7 86 8 6 7 8 8 88 7 7 7 8 8 97 7 7 8 9 9 107 7 7 8 9 9 107 7 8 9 10 10 117 8 8 10 10 10 118 8 9 10 10 11 128 9 10 11 11 12 139 9 10 11 11 12 139 10 11 12 12 13 14

10 11 11 13 13 13 1510 11 12 14 13 15 1811 12 14 15 14 15 1812 14 15 17 18 17 1913 16 19 20 17 18 2117 19 21 24 20 21 24

9

57789

101011111213141415181718202227

t. I 20 JOPERD/November-December 1987-67

percent of participants. For theother five percent, missing scoreswere imputed using a regresiianprocedure, when possible, aftersearching for the best Possible

equation to estimate the missingscores; other missing scores wereimputed using mean scores. Mostof the cases with missing scores hadcompleted all tests except the dis-

fiCVS$11110nyie bgAgsbwIlsellarnef Trkepe and Ifediel Calf SIdnfolde, - .,;(1011111_ Mellon)

Glen9 6 7 8 9

99 # . 9 9 11 11 11 1295 -11 _ 11 -11 41 13 13 14 1490 12- 12.- 12 12 15 15 15 18SO : 12 13 -. 13 13 16 16 16 18SO- 13 is 13 14 17 17 18 1975 14 14 14 15 18 18 19 2070 14 14 15 10 18 18 20 2165 15 15 15 18 19 19 21 2280 15 18 17 18 20 20 22 2355 18 16 17 19 . 21 21 23 2550 16 17 - le 21 21 22 24 2845 17 18 19 22 22 23 26 2740 17 19- 20 23 23 24 27 2935 10 20 21 25 24 25 29 3030 20 21 - 23 27 25 26 31 3225 20 22 24 20 2T 28 33 3520 _ 22 24 - 27 31 211 31 35 3715 23 27 31 36 30 33 38 4110 27 32 37 40 33 37 43 455 33 39 44 47 36 43 49 52

tance walk/run.Data were analyzed using a

Statistical Analysis System (SAS)procedure called UNIVARIATE.The UNIVARIATE procedure al-lows the generation of means,standard deviations, and cumula-tive frequencies, among otherstatistics, using weighted data.From the cumulative frequencies,every fifth percentile was extractedto create the normative tables,which are reported by age and sex.

Using the normsThe tables in this article present

norms on the following items bro-ken down by age and sex:(1) Triceps skinfold; (2) Subscapu-lar skinfold: (3) Medial calf skin-fold; (4) Sum of triceps and medialcalf skinfolds; (5) Sit-and-reachtest; (6) Modified pull-ups;(7) Bent-knee sit-ups; (8) Milewalk/run (for children age eightand over); and (9) Half mile walk/run (for children under age eight).

These population-based health-related fitness norms can be ap-

NOM', Norms by Age for the flit-end-Reech (In Inches;

Age

Percentile 7Boys

9 8Girls

7 8 999 17.5 18.0 18.0 17.5 18.5 18.0 19.0 19.095 16.5 18.5 16.5 16.0 17.5 17.5 17.5 18.090 16.0 18.0 16.0 152 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.085 15.5 162 15.5 15.0 16.0 18.5 18.5 16.580 15.0 15.5 15.0 14.5 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.075 1&0 150 14.5 14.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.070 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.585 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 15.0 1&0 15.0 15.0so 14.0 14.0 14.0 13.5 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.055 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.0 14.5 15.0 14.5 14.550 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.0 14.0 14.5 14.0 14.045 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.5 14.0 14.5 14.0 14.040 122 12.5 12.5 12.0 14.0 14.0 13.5 14.038 12.5 1Z5 12.5 12.0 13.5 14.0 13.5 13.530 12.0 12.0 12.0 11.5 13.0 13.5 13.0 13.025 12.0 11.5 11.5 11.0 12.5 13.0 12.5 12.520 11.5 11.5 112 10.5 12.0 12.5 12.0 12.015 11.0 11.0 105 10.0 12.0 12.0 11.5 11.510 10.5 10.0 9.5 9.5 11.5 11.5 11.0 11.05 10.0 to 8.5 8.0 10.5 10.5 10.0 9.0

*Ss Thell01119 cdtlbs"0" pobestiltbsans.stemssibs 1880AANPERD norms smplcmsd s"0" pointer 23an. To1ransnie1hs NCYFSInchssinlocm. andSP pied kr 23 an., e,. follosing *mils msy be applied to 1he NCYFS norm: soon In cm. (mom M Inches x 2.54) - 7.48.

88-JOPERD/Nommbsr-Dscornber 1987

21NCYFS-20

propriately used by practitioners inseveral ways. First, the norms allowthe status of any group of childrento be related to that of "typical"American youngsters of the sameage and sex. For example, a teachermight express the status of a groupof students in terms of the averagepercentile score for each test item.Such a practice can aid teachers,parents, and school administratorsin understanding how their young-sters compare with children na-tionally.

Second, percentile norms can beused as a general guide in assigningqualitative ratings to fitness testperformances. However, crite-rion-referenced standards aremore appropriate for this purposeand should be established and usedin making these judgments. In lieuof these standards, designated per-centile "cut points" can be useful

NCYFS-21

1 1:

NCYFS N Nonns by Age for the Modified Pull-Ups (number completed)

A9e

PercentileBoys Gids

6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9

25 27 38 35 24 27 25 3018 20 21 25 17 20 20 2015 19 20 20 13 16 17 1712 15 17 20 11 14 14 1511 13 15 17 10 12 12 1310 13 14 15 9 11 11 129 12 13 14 9 10 11 118 11 12 13 7 9 10 107 10 11 12 7 8 9 107 9 10 11 6 8 9 96 8 10 10 6 7 8 96 8 9 10 5 7 7 85 7 8 9 5 6 6 75 6 8 8 4 5 6 64 5 7 7 4 4 5 53 4 6 6 3 4 4 43 4 5 5 2 3 4 42 3 4 4 1 2 3 21 1 3 3 0 1 1 1

0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

22JOPERD/November-Dater nber 1917S9

for identifying test scores thatmight be "acceptable" or "unac-ceptable." Selecting these per-centile cut points is admittedly anarbitrary and somewhat hazardousprocess. However, for the time be-ing, it is suggested that test scores

ranking below the 25th percentilebe considered "unacceptable."Scores above this level may not beoptimal, but may be at least margi-nally acceptable from a health per-spective.

Finally, norms can be helpful in

NCYPS Nome by Age for the Timed Bent-Knee Sit-Ups(number in 80 seconds)

PetamilleBoys

6 7

38 4231aa

.353220

2524 2522 2721 2620 2519 2419 2318 2217 2116 2015 19(4 1812 1811 149 124 7

8 9

Age

6Girls

7

38 4031 35

3328 3024 2823 2722 2821 2420 2319 2218 2117 2117 2016 1915 1714 1812 1510 136 111 7

8 9

4339363432313029282626252423222119171510

interpreting for students and par-ents the significance of a change intest performance. For example, aseven-year-old boy's improvementfrom 19 to 27 on the one minutetimed sit-up may become moremeaningful if it is noted that thischange moved the youngster fromthe 36..h to the 70th percentile.When lengthy periods intervenebetween pretests and posttests, cau-tion must be applied in such uses ofthe norms because aging canchange performance on fitnesstests. Thus, judgments about thesignificance of a change in test per-formance should be made by exam-ining both absolute test scores andpercentile ranks.

References

AAHPERD (1980). AAHPERD healthrelated physical fitness test manual. Res-ton, VA: AAHPERD Publications.

Reiff, G. (1986). The President's councilon physical fitness and sports 1985 na-tional school population fitness survey.Washington, DC: President's Councilon Physical Fitness and Sports.

Ross, J. G , Dotson, C. 0., Gilbert,G. G., & Katz, S. J. (1985). New stan-dards for fitness measurement.Journal of Physical Education, Recrea-tion & Dance, 56 (I): 62-66.

NCYFS N Norms by Age for the Distance Walk/Run (In minutes and seconds)

Age

PercentileHell PAle

6 7

Boys

8 9Half Mile

6 7

Girls

8

Mile9

99 3:53 3:34 7:42 7:31 4:05 4:03 8:18 8:0695 4:15 3:58 818 7:54 4:29 4:18 9:14 8:4190 427 4:11 8:46 8:10 4:46 4:32 9:39 9:0886 4:35 4:22 9:02 8:33 4:57 4:38 9:55 9:2680 4:45 428 91 9 8:48 5:07 4:46 10:08 9:4075 4:52 423 9:29 9:00 5:13 4:54 10:23 9:5070 4:59 4:40 9:40 9:13 5:20 5:00 10:35 10:1565 5:04 4:48 922 9:29 525 5:08 10:46 10:3160 5:10 4:50 10:04 9:44 5:31 5:11 10:59 10:4155 5:17 4:54 10:16 9:58 5:39 5:18 11:14 10:5650 5:23 5:00 10:39 1010 5:44 5:26 11:32 11:1346 5:28 5:05 11:00 10:27 5:49 5:32 11:46 11:3040asao

6:33541510

5:115:17528

11:1411:3011:51

10:4110:5911:18

5:556:005:07

5:395:465:55

12:0312:1412:37

11:4812:0912:26a 5:55 5:36 12:14 11:44 8:14 6:01 12:59 12:45

:atas

*09 5:48 1239lays

120219148

6276:39

8:108:20

13:2814:18

13:1313:44

;so IMO744

620 14:061524

13:3715:15

6:517:16

8:387:09

14:4816:35

14:3115:40

70-10PER0/Novernber-Dscomber 1217

23NCYFS-22


The Modified Pull-Up Test

Russell R. Pate 0 James G. Ross El Ted A. BaumgartnerRaymond E. Sparks

By taking body weight into consideration, the modified pull-up test avoidsthe zero score problem associated with the more traditional pull-up, chin-up, and flexed-arm hang test.

Upper body muscularstrength has long beenconsidered an important

component of physical fitness, andmeasures of this component are in-cluded in most of the field test bat-teries of physical fitness im-plemented over the past 50 years.While various tests of upper bodystrength have been used in differ-ent batteries, the most commonlyused have been the pull-up (palmsaway from the body) for boys andthe flexed-arm hang for girls.These items are included in theAAHPERD Youth Fitness Test(YFT). (Hunsicker & Reiff, 1976).The chin-up test (palms toward thebody) was administered to bothboys and girls in the first NationalChildren and Youth Fitness Study(NCYFS I). However, in NCYFS IIa modified pull-up test was usedwith both boys and girls. In this ar-ticle, the modified pull-up test isdescribed, the rationale for itsselection is explained, and what waslearned from using it in NCYFS IIis discussed.

Problems with pull-up, chin-up,and flexed arm hang tests

Experience has reycaled certainproblems with the traditionalpull-up, chin-up, and flexed-armhang tests. First, and perhaps mostimportant, performance on these

NCYFS-23

s

test items is markedly confoundedby body weight. With the chin-up,pull-up, and flexed-arm hang tests,the entire body weight must beovercome and, as has been doc-umented in prior normativestudies, many children cannot ac-complish this task. In NCYFS I, 30percent of boys in the 10-11 yearage groups failed to perform asingle chin-up. For girls, at least 60percent of subjects in all age groupsbetween 10 and 18 years scoredzero on the chin-up test. (Ross, Dot-son, Gilbert & Katz, 1985). TheYFT norms for the pull-up indicatethat 25-30 percent of boys in thenine-I2 year age groups score zero.Use of the flexed-arm hang re-duces, but does not eliminate, thezero score problem. The YF'inorms indicate that about 10 per-cent of girls across the nine-17 agerange score zero on the tlexed-armhang.

It seems clear that the pull-up,chin-up, and flexed-arm hang testsprovide very poor measurementsensitivity at the low end of therange of values for upper bodystrength. From an evaluationstandpoint, this is an obviousweakness because it implies, fal-laciously, that a large percentage ofyoungsters have "zero" strength.This problem may also reduce stu-dent acceptance of the test and re-

24

ace the likelihood of achievingimportant behavioral objectives offitness testing. No one likes to takea test which he or she will utterlyfail.

The modified pull-upDue to the problems cited above,

a better test of upper body muscu-lar strength/endurance was soughtfor use in NCYFS II. The intentwas to find a test that would over-come the zero-score prohlem andthat would be well-accepted byyoung children. After consideringseveral options, the "modifiedpull-up" test was selected. This testis similar to the -desk pull-up" usedin the Vermont Physical FitnessTest. The major features of themodified pull-up are:

The child is positioned onhis/her back with the shoul-ders directly below a bar that isset at a height one or twoinches beyond the child'sreach.An elastic band is suspendedacross the uprights parallel toand about seven to eightinches below the bar.As depicted in Figure 1, in the"start" or "down" position, thechild's buttocks are off thefloor, the arms and legs arestraight, and only the heels arein contact with tne floor.

JOPERD/Ncreembr-decomber 1987-71

tu

I.

72JOPERD/November-Docenter 1067

I

r.4

fI

4 : ,

Figure 1-

#

r,r

F., f

-If

Figure 2.

25

fOf

I

441

NCYFS-24

An overhand grip (palm awayfrom body) is used andthumbs are placed around thebar.A pull-up is completed whenthe chin is hooked over theelastic band (see Figure 2).The movement should be ac-complished using only thearms and the body must bekept straight.The child executes as ,,.anypull-ups as possible, keepingthe hips and knees extendedthrough each attempt.

Experience with the modifiedpull-up

The results on NCYFS II indi:cate that the modified pull-up testovercomes the zero score problemdiscussed above As indicated in thenorm tables for this item, only fivepercent or less of children in thesix-nine year age groups were un-able to perform one modifiedpull-up. The aiedian score for girlsranged from six to nine and forboys from six to 10. These data in-dicate that most youngsters couldperform the test and that a reason-able range of scores was observed.

The test involves a movementw s

NCYFS-25

fff

that is somewhat novel for manyyoung children. However, it wasfound that virtually all youngsterscould learn to perform the test witha modest amount of orientation. Toperform the test properly, the childmust maintain the hips in an ex-tended position as the pull-up isexecuted. Children could develop a"feel" for this position by first prac-ticing the reverse push-up whichrequires maintenance of the same"hips extended" position. Also,phrases such as, "keep your bodystraight as an arrow" and "pretendyou are a torpedo" were helpful incommunicating this concept to thechildren.

In NCYFS II, a specially con-structed test apparatus depicted inFigures 1 and 2 was used. However,any low pull-up bar that allows foradjustment of height would suffice.The apparatus used in NCYFS IIcould be constructed for $15 to$35.

Conclusions andrecommendations

The modified pull-up is an im-provement over the more tra-ditional pull-up, chin-up, andflexed-arm hang tests. This test

t,

minimizes the zero score problemand yields a reasonable range ofscores for both boys and girls. Con-sequently, the modified pull-upcan be used to avoid sex-specificityin field measurement of upperbody strength.

NCYFS II is the first project inwhich the modified pull-up hasbeen used on a large scale; there-fore, its further study is needed.Validation against criterion mea-sures of upper body muscularstrength and endurance are re-quired. It should also be comparedwith other field tests in terms ofvalidity and reliability. In addition,the test should be normed in a na-tionally representative sample ofolder children and youth (ages 10-18).

References

Hunsi( ker, P. & Reiff. G. (1976).AAHPERD youth fitness test manual.Washington, D(; AAHPERD Publi-cations.

Ross, J. G , Dotson, C. 0 , Gilbert,G. G , & Kati, S. J. (1985). New stan-dards for fitness measurement.Journal Physu al Education, Rerrea-tton & Dance, 56(1): 62-66.

f

t

26

.1Mlflase

JOPEND/November-Decomber 1987-73


Changes in the Body Compositionof Children

James G. Ross Russell R. Pate Timothy G. LohmanGregory M. Christenson

Skinfolds are a practical index of body composition or relativefatness/leanness which provide a more accurate 71stimate of bodyfatness than simple weight, height, and various ratios of these twomeasurements.

Changes in those aspects ofthe physical fitness of chil-dren that pertain to health

are matters of both scientific andpractical concern. Changes up ordown imply alterations in the ca-pacity to work and play, adjust-ments to the quality of life, andshifts in vulnerability to varioushealth p,oblems.

Documenting changes in the fit-ness of children is difficult. In thethree decades since the first studyof the fitness of a nationally repre-sentative sample of U.S. childrenwas conducted in 1957, the mea-sures of fitness have changed to re-flect different aspects of fitness.Those measures of fitness that haveremained the same relate to motorperformance rather than to health.The only health-related fitness in-dices for which valid, national dataare available to represent severalpoints in time are anthropometricmeasurements, including mea-sures of skinfold thickness.

Skinfolds are a practical index of

74JOPERD/November-Docember 1987

body composition, or relative fat-ness/leanness. They provide amore accurate estimate of bodyfatness than simple weight, height,and various ratios of these twomeasurements. Body compositionmay be viewed as an importantconcurrent indicator of a child'shealth-related fitness.

The National Children andYo:ith Fitness Study (NCYFS I)provided evidence of increasedskinfolds in 10- to 18-year-oldsfrom the 1960s to the 1980s (Pate,Ross, Dotson, & Gilbert, 1985). Re-cent vidence has also been pre-sented to show increases in fatnessand obesity among six- to nine-year-olds over a 15 -year periodfrom the early 1960s to the late1970s (Gortmaker, Dietz, Sobol &Wehler, 1987). More recently, skin-fold data were collected from a na-tionally representative sample ofsix- to nine-year-olds in NCYFS II.Before determining the signifi-cance of observed changes in skin-folds, a series of questions must be

2 7

answered: Were methods of datacollection comparable? How reli-able are the NCYFS II data? Arethere alternative explanations ofany apparent findings? What dothe skinfold data show? This articleaddresses these questions ant;points out future directions for ex-amining changes in body fatness inchildren.

Sources of skinfold dataSkinfold measurements at two

sites, the triceps and subscapular,have been taken on nationally rep-resentative samples of six- to nine-year-olds on four occasions in thelast 23 years. The first three times,they were collected by the NationalCenter for Health Statistics(NCHS), once in 1963-1965 andtwice in the 1970s. They were col-lected for the fourth time in 1986,in conjunction with the NCYFS II.This article compares data for tri-ceps and subscapular skinfoldsfrom an NCHS survey, the Na-tional Health Examination Survey

NCYFS-28

II (NHES II), and NCYFS II to de-termine whether there have beenchancr,es in skinfold thicknessesover a period of over 20 years, fromthe 1960s to the 1980s.

Comparability in techniqueCertain procedures for measur-

ing skinfolds must rei in the samefor results across studies to be con-sidered comparable. NCYFS IIsought to maintain comparabilitywith NHES II (Johnson, Hamill, &Lemeshow, 1972) on certain criticalprocedures:

Instrumentation-The Langeskinfold caliper was used.This instrument is designed toexert a constant pressure of 10grams/mm(2) throughout therange of jaw openings. Beforeeach testing session, the cali-bration of the caliper waschecked and recorded using aLange calibration block ateach 5mm interval from fivethrough 50. Calipers werekept in use as long as they re-mained within -±1mm at eachinterval. No adjustments weremade in readings to reflectsuch minor fluctuations incaliper performance.Testing protocol-Proceduresfor identifying lz.ndmarks,marking the skinfold site, andtaking the actual skinfold werecomparable.Checks on tester reliability-Staff

Exhibit 1. Comparison of Selected Sldnfold Mans by Age and Sex' (NHES N/19604 vs NCYFS 11/1980s)

Triceps Subsume la

Boys Girls Boys Girls

NHES II NCYFS II NHES II NCYFS H NHES II NCYFS II NHES II NCYFS II

1900' 1980's 1900's 1960's 1960's 1960's 1960's 1980's

8 8.1 ± 2.79 9.34 ± 3.80 9.7 ± 3.39 11.81 ± 4.01 4.9 ± 1.83 6.31 ± 3.83 5.5 ± 2.67 7.43 t 3.96

(575) (465) (536) (463) (575) (465) (536) (483)

7 8.4 ± 3.17 10.10 ± 4.54 10.4 ± 3.61 12.30 ± 4.85 5.1 ± 2.48 8.83 ± 3.61 6.1 ± 3.04 8.02 ± 5.01

(632) (567) (600) (561) (632) (567) (600) (51)

8 9.0 ± 3.77 10.92 ± 5.35 11.4 ± 4.43 13.60 ± 5.51 5.5 ± 2.90 7.51 ± 5.19 8.9 ± 3.93 9.28 tt 8.16

(618) (560) (813) (569) (618) (560) (613) (569)

9 10.0 t 4.98 12.14 ± 5.77 12.3 ± 4.84 14.55 ± 8.313 6.2 ± 3.88 8.38 ± 5.69 7.8 ± 4.93 10.34 ± 7.02

OM (578) (581) (57) (6C3) (578) (581) (507)

AN amass bowN98/111110s and NCYFS 11/19108 ar Nanlikuutt Ot to .006 lova Ina anwalled Hot.

NCYFS-2728

JOPERD/November-Dommber 1987-75

were extensively trained andthe reliability of measure-ments established both attraining and under field con-ditions by comparing the test-er's measurements with thoseof a "standard."Sample sizes Both studiesused valid national probabilitysamples of child: en. The sam-ple sizes of six- to nine-year-olds for NHES II (N = 4,767)and NCYFS II (N = 4,380)were comparable.Student participationBothstudies achieved 96 percentparticipation rates by chil-dren.

There were two minor differ-ences between the NHES II andNCYFS II it how skinfolds weretaken or recorded. The first differ-ence was the number of measure-ments taken at each site. NHES IItook only two mea rements ateach site, with a third measurementtaken to resolve discrepancies. InNCYFS II, three measurementswere typically taken at each site,With the median score recorded.However, the three measurementsin NCYFS II had to fall within 2mmof each other to be considered reli-able. If, after three measurements,the scores were not within 2mm, asoccasionally happened with obese

76JOPERO/Novemter-Dscomber 1987

children, up to seven measure-ments were taken at each site untilthree consecutive measurementsfell within 2mm, with the medianrecorded. The second differencewas that the NHES II recordedskinfold measurements to thenearest .5mm, whereas NCYFS IIrounded to the nearest full 1mm.The procedures in NHES II andNCYFS II seem sufficiently com-parable to permit comparison offindings.

Reliability of measurementsTo be confident that any mea-

sured differences in both mean andmedian skinfolds represent a realchange, there must be reasonableassurances that data are both reli-able and accurate. Toward this end,data collection procedures inNCYFS II were comparable tothose in the NCHS studies. Reliabil-ity of the tester's measurementtechnique was established bothduring training and under fieldconditions by measuring the consis-tency of measurements of testersagainst each other and in compari-son to a standard.

Tester reliability was assessed bycalculating correlations amongscores and by examining differ-ences among means. The correla-tions provide assurance that alltesters can consistently differ-entiate relative degrees of fatnessamong children. Differences be-tween means help to ensure thatthere are no systematic differencesamong testers in the amount of fatthat they pinch and record.

Interrater reliability at training. As atraining exercise, all five te,.. _rs in-dependently took and recordedskinfolds on 17 children, aged sixto nine. In addition, these mea-surements were taken by the indi-vidual who trained the testers andby a second individual, who laterserved as the "standard" underfield conditions. Correlations forthe sum of skinfolds consistentlyexceeded .98. At individual sites,the correlations generally ex-ceeded .97, with no correlations fal-ling below .93. Comparisons of thesum of skinfolds for the five testers

29

against the trainer and against thestandard suggest that, during train-ing, there was a tendency for fieldstaff to underreport skinfoldthicknesses. If anything, a conserva-tive effect was operating.

I nterrater reliability in the field.Under field conditions, each testerwas retested by an individual serv-ing as the standard on 20 children,aged six to nine. Correlations be-tween the standard and each of thetesters for sum of skinfolds was .99for four of the testers and .97 forthe fifth tester. Correlations at in-dividual sites generally exceeded.97, and in only one instance didcorrelations fall as low as .93. Themean sum of three skinfolds fortesters was +0.40 higher than forthe standard. Taking into accountpossible variations in other factors,such as minor fluctuations in cali-bration of the calipers, these find-ings support the accuracy of theNCYFS II skinfold data.

Tests of differences over timeTwo types of analyses were per.

formed to determine whether skin-folds had changed over a period ofslightly more than 20 years, from1963 to 1986.

One-tailed t-tests of significancewere performed for each age/sexcombination for both the tricepsand subscapular sites. Two differ-ent points in time were comparedseparately. This yielded 4 (ages) x2 (sexes) x 2 (skinfold sites) x 2(points in time) = 32 total compari-sons. In addition to the t-tests, me-dian scores for each age/sex onboth sites at two points in time weregraphically plotted.

Triceps skinfold. Exhibit 1 showsthe differences in mean tricepsskinfolds for both boys and girls inNHES II vs. NCYFS II. In compar-ing the 1960s to the 1980s, themagnitude of difference is 1.7 mmfor six- and seven-year-olds and 2.1mm for eight- and nine-year-olds.All eight differences are signifi-cantly different (p < .005).

Subscapular skinfold. Exhibit I

also shows the differences in meansubscapular skinfold for both boys

NCYFS-28

and girls. As observed for the tri-ceps, the magnitude of differencebetween the 1960s and the 1980s ishighly significant, averaging 1.7mm for six- and seven-year-oldsand 2.3 mm for eight- and nine-year-olds (p < .005).

Sum of skinfolds. Exhibit 2 graphi-cally represents differences in thesum of triceps and subscapularskinfold measurements for bothboys and girls between two pointsin time. In comparing the 1960sand 1980s, there is a consistent shiftin median sum of skinfolds. Thelines describing the increases inbody fatness are virtually parallel.It would appear that, over a 20-year period, there has been a gen-eral shift in body fatness among six-to nine-year-olds. These findingsare consistent with findings ofNCYFS I for 10- to 18-year-olds(Pate, Ross, Dotson, & Gilbert,1985).

Comparisons with results of otherresearch

Gortmaker, et al. (1987), com-pared mean skinfolds, mean heightand weight, and the 95th per-centiles for skinfolds and weight

for six- to eleven-year-olds basedon data collected by NCHS duringthe 1960s and 1970s. For childrenaged six to 11 years, mean tricepsskinfolds increased 1.7 mm andmean weight increased 1.3 kg overa period of approximately 15 yearsfrom the 1960s to the 1970s. Evengreater shifts occurred in the 95thpercentiles for both skinfolds andweight (4.9 mm and 3.1 kg). Thesefindings suggest that younger chil-dren in general are becoming fat-ter, with this increase accentuatedamong obese children. Relativelygreater shifts in skinfolds thanweight were attributed to possiblebut untested changes in fat distri-bution.

Summary and conclusionsOver a period of over 20 years,

from the 1960s to the 1980s, therehas been a systematic increase inskinfold thicknesses among six- tonine-year-old boys and girls alike.The lines describing the changesover time are virtually parallel.NCYFS II data need to be exam-ined further to determine whetherthe incidence and magnitude ofobesity has continued to increase

since the 1970s. Further research isalso needed to corroborate find-ings with ()the measures of bodycomposition (e.g., Body Mass In-dex). Additionally, changes in ac-tivity levels and in nutritional in-take of children require carefulstudy to determine changes of life-style associated with increasinglevels of body fatness.

References

Gortmaker, S. L., Dietz, W. H., Sobol,A. N., & Wehler, C. A. (1987). In-creasing pediatric obesity in the U.S.American Journal of Diseases of Chil-dren, (14) 1: 535-540.

Johnson, F. E., Hamill, D. V., &Lemeshow, S. (1972). Skinfold thick-ness of children 6-11 years. (Series II,No. 120). Washington, DC: U S. Cen-ter for Health Statistics.

Pate, R. R., Ross, J G., Dc Lson, C. 0., &Gilbert, G. G. (1985). The newnorms: A comparison with the 1980AAHPERD norms. Journal of Physi-cal Education, Recreation & Dance,56(1) 28-30.

Exhibit 2. Comparison of Sum of Median Triceps and Subscapular Skinfoid Scores by Age and Sex (NHES II VS NCYFS IF)

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

IIN 1960s Boys

322 1980s Boys

E2] 1960s Girls

=] 1980s Girls

6

NCYFS-29

7

CS 3()

8 9


t


What Is Going on in the ElementaryPhysical Education Program?

James G. Ross Russell R. Pate Charles B. CorbinLisa A. Delpy Robert S. Gold

What is the status of school physical education programs in grades 1through 4? This article describes the resources that schools are investingin physical education at the early elementary level and examines theextent to which physical education programs are health related.

From a public health perspec-tive, the school plays a pivotalrole in influencing physical

fitness and exercise habits of ourchildren. Virtually every child at-tends school, especially in theelementary years. Physical educa-tion, school-sponsored extracur-ricular physical activity programs,and even monitored recess timecould be expected to contribute tothe child's fitness and exercisehabits.

The 1980 government report,Promoting Health /Preventing Disease:Objectives for the Nation, acknowl-edged the important role schoolsplay in promoting active lifestyles.The report set specific objectivesfor participation of children indaily physical education programsand in periodic physical fitness test-ing.

The first National Children andYouth Fitness Study (NCYFS I1985) described the status of physi-cal education programs in grades 5through 12. But what aboutyounger children? Are most ofthem enrolled in a physical educa-tion class? What percentage take it

78JOPERD/NovemberDecomber 1907

daily? How much actual activitytime do students get in physicaleducation? How much time do theyspend with a physical educationspecialist versus a classroomteacher? Do schools hold physicaleducation classes in a suitable phys-ical environment? What specific ac-tivities are offered most frequentlyin physical education class? Doschools periodically test the fitnessof students? What do they test:health-related fitness or motor per-formance? Do most students re-ceive some form of recognition forbeing tested? Are parents in-formed of fitness test results? Howdo school-sponsored extracurricu-lar activities and daily recess time fitinto the picture?

Survey questions on physicaleducation

The following were amnrig thedata collected from teachers oftested children: days per weekchildren take physical educationwith a specialist; clays per week witha classroom teacher; total clays ofphysical education per week; cer-tifications held by those who teach

31

physical education; duration of thephysical education class; actualtime spent in physical activity; placein which physical education is held;five most frequent activities inphysical education; types of fitnesstests administered to students; per-( -ntage of students recognized forparticipation in fitness testing;whether fitness test results are re-ported to parents; opinions ofteat hers on why elementary schoolteachers do not do more fitnesstesting; types of school-sponsoredsports tcz.ms or other extracurricu-lar physical activity programs; and,finally, number and duration of re-cess periods on the typical schoolday. In addition, the enrollmentstatus of each child in physical edu-cation was determined.

Physical education enrollmentNationally, 97.0 percent of stu-

dents in grades 1-4 are enrolled in aphysical education program atschool of some type or another(Exhibit I ). Enrollment rates areuniformly high, with virtually nodifferences among grades or be-tween boys and girls. Such pro-

NCYFS-30

grams take various forms, rangingfrom hig:ily structured programsto monitored free-play periods thatare allowed to satisfy minimal phys-ical education requirements.

Frequency of class meetingsEducators have stressed the im-

portance of frequent physical edu-cation classes, 'nd have stronglyrecommended daily meetings. Oneof the 1990 objectives for the na-tion is that 60 percent of studentswill participate in daily physicaleducation. A point of concern forelementary schools is the belief thatphysical education classes are notherd with adequate frequency.NCYFS I showed that only 36.3percent of students in grades 5through 12 take physical educationdaily (Ross & Gilbert, 1985). In fact,among first through fourth grad-ers, the situation is virtually identi-cal, with only 36.4 percent enrolledin daily physical education.

The average frequency of physi-cal education for grades 1-4 is 3.1times per week vs. 3.6 weekly meet-ings for grades 5-12 (Ross & Gil-bert, 1985). Only 15.3 percent ofstudents in grades 1-4 take physicaleducation one day a week and 21.9percent take it two days a week. Anarrow majority of students, or50.5 percent, take physical educa-tion three or more days per week.An additional 4.9 percent takephysical education two days oneweek and three days the next (in anA/B schedule); 4.4 percent takephysical education with some otherfrequency (Exhibit 2).

Bi-modal distributionThere appears to be a bi-modal

distribution in the frequency ofphysical education classes for stu-dents in grades 1-4. Those takingphysical education only one or twodays per week (37.2 percent) arebalanced by those taking physicaleducation daily (36.4 percent).Very students take physicaledurat.on with frecr!encies be-tween these extremes.

The bi-modal distribution ingrades 1-4 was also found inNCYFS I for grades 5 and 6, but

NCYFS-31

not for older students. Instead, ingrades 9-12, the bi-modal distribu-tion is between students takingdaily physical education and thosenot even enrolled (Ross & Gilbert,1985).

While nearly all first throughfourth graders are enrolled inphysical education, the frequencywith which their physical educationclasses meet is highly variable. Itappears that a two-class system hasevolved in physical education. The"haves" have physical educationfive days a week; the "have nots"have physical education only one or

two days a week.

Physical activity timeThe average physical education

class meets for 33.4 minutes, withsecond graders having the shortestclasses (32.0 minutes) and fourthgraders the longest (35.4 minutes).In a week, the average student ingrades 1-4 spends 102.9 minutes inphysical education, with a spread ofapproximately nine minutesamong the grades.

The actual amount of time thatstudents spend in physical activityin the physical education class is

Exhibit 1. Percentage at U.& Sludsnts Enrolled inPhysical Educationeased on *MS N

Grades Girls_

1 9112 94.5

2 97.8

3 97.0 97.0

4 98.7 98.5

1-4 97.5 96.4

Exhibit 2. Percentage liniskdown by Grade: Days of Physical

Education ilmsed on NCYFS II

GradesDays/lAbik 1 2 3 4 1-4

No Physical Education 3.5 2.2 3.0 3.4 3.0

1 day/week 14.9 14.5 17.3 14.7 15.3

2 days/week 22.3 22.6 23.7 18.7 21.9

2 days, oneweek; 4.8 3.8 3.7 7.5 4.93 days, the next

3 daps/week 9.8 11.1 5.8 6.4 8.3

4 drwsivissic 2.9 7.8 7.1 5.5 5.8

5 days/week 38.7 35.7 38.8 38.1 38.4

Other 5.4 2.2 2.4 7.7 4.4

Exhibit 3. Average Days Per Week With Physical Education Specialistvs Classroom Tischer, By Grads

GradeDays withSmiler*

Days withClassroom Teacher

1 2.1 0.9

2 2.4 0.9

3 2.3 0.8

4 2.3 0.7

1-4 23 0.8

JOPERD/Novemberalcomber 1967-79

difficult to estimate. Teachers re-ported spending only about 10minutes per class on "housekeep-ing," getting students to and fromclass, and instruction. The remain-ing 24 minutes could be spent insome form of physical activity.Though this seems plausible on agroup basis, it does not tell us whatis happening with individual chil-dren during this time. Are they allengaged in fairly continuous exer-cise, or do they spend much of thistime standing and watching? Re-search by Parcel and others (1987)suggests that the average elemen-tary school student probablyspends only two or three minutes inmoderate to vigorous exercise inthe average physical educationclass.

Teacher credentialsA second point of concern in

elementary physical education isthe belief that many students donot have the benefit of taking phys-ical education with a qualified spe-cialist. In fact. NCYFS II foundthat 83.1 percent of students ingrades 1-4 take physical educationat least one day a week with a spe-cialist. Over three-quarters (76.0%)never see a classroom teacher forphysical education. One in 10 takephysical education from both a

90--JOPERO/Noverntar-Deconber 1907

specialist and a classroom teacher.Approximately 79 percent of

physical education class meetingsare spent with a specialist. Approx-imately 2.3 days per week are spentwith a specialist versus 0.8 days witha classroom teacher. There is a ten-dency for students in grades I and2 to spend slightly more physicaleducation time u ith a classroomteacher than students in grades 3and 4 (Exhibit 3).

Though children have specialistsfor physical education, do thesespecialists hold a proper certifica-tion in the field? NCYFS II indi-cates that many physical educationspecialists, perhaps as many as one-third, do not hold a valid certifica-tion in physical education. In addi-tion, because certification re-quirements vary widely. it is notknown what standards the two-thirds who arc certified actuallymeet.

Place for physical educationA third point of cone ern is that,

due to limited resources, many stu-dents may take physical educationin physical surroundings chili arcunsuited to the purpose, sue h as anauditorium or regular classroomIn fact, according to NC's FS II,only 39.3 pen ent of first throughfourth graders typically take physi-

33

cal education in a gymnasium. Theschool grounds (52.4%) are by farthe most common place for physi-cal education. Only 5.9 percent ofstudents take physical education ina cafeteria or multipurpose room,with 2.4 percent taking it in otherplaces, such as an auditorium or aregular classroom. Students typi-cally taking physical education onthe school grounds have the benefitof 50 percent more class meetings perweek (3.6) than those not takingphysical education on the schoolgrounds (2.4). Use of a gymnasiumfor physical education remainsfairly stable over the four grades.

It is interesting to speculate onwhy schools hold physical educa-tion on the school grounds ratherthan in a gymnasium. One hypoth-esis is that schools in temperate cli-mates choose to hold physical edu-cation outdoors. In fact, 78 percentof students attending scho91 intemperate climates typically takephysical education on the schoolgrounds, but only 31 percent ofstudents in nontemperate climatesdt, so. A second hypothesis is thatschools choose not to invest in re-sources such as specialists andgymnasiums. NCYFS II shows thatstudents who typically take physicaleducation in a gymnasium see aclassroom teacher only 0.21 daysper week, whereas those who take itoutside a gymnasium see a class-room teacher 1.37 days per week. Itappears that there is a tendency forsome schools to invest in neither aspecialist nor a gymnasium.

Predominant class activities"Feathers were asked to list the

five physical education class ac-tivities ss hie h cx cupy the greatestamount of class time over thesc hool year. Based on their an-swers. the rates to %chic h childrenare exposed to a range of activitieshave been identified. Because onlythe top five activities were re-quested. the percent of childrenexposed to an ac tivity is inevitablysomewhat understated. However.the relative ranking of activitiesshould not be of fe(ted.

Students in grades 1-4 are ex-

NCYFS-32

posed to a core set of physical edu-cation class activities. The five ac-tivities with the highest exposurerates ace movement experiencesand body mechanics (43%), soccer(32%), jumping or skipping rope(26%), gymnastics (25%), and bas-ketball (21%). In addition, between15 and 20 percent of students areexposed to throwing and catchingactivities, calisthenics/exercises,rhythmic activities, kickball, relays,running, and baseball/softball.

Not surprisingly, the relativerates of exposure to specific ac-tivities in physical education classvary from one grade to another.Thus, coming up with a list of 10top activities for each grade re-quires a list of 18 activities (Exhibit4).

Certain activities maintain theirposition in the top 10 throughoutgrades 1-4. Fur example, calis-thenics/exercises, gymnastics,jumping or skipping rope, relays,and rhythmic activities maintain a

fairly constant exposure rate in thetop 10 for at least three of the fourgrades.

Some activities decline whileothers rise sharply in exposurerates t.ver the four years. The rela-tive importance of low organizedgames, running/aerobic games,throwing and catching activities,and locomotor activities/basic skillsdeclines as children grow older. Incontrast, baseball/softball, basket-ball, football, kickball, soccer, vol-leyball, and track and field (notrunning) take on increasing impor-tance from grade to grade.

The percentage of children ex-posed to specific physical educatiouactivities changes dramatically overthe four grades. First, a set of ac-tivities called movement experi-ences/body mechanics holds thenumber one exposure rate ingrades 1 (42%) and 2 (36%). Ingrade 3, it holds onto the numbertwo position (27%) but, by grade 4,it does not even rank in the top 10.

Second, basketball enters the top10 for the first time in grade 3 withthe number five ranking (25%)and, by grade 4, is ranked number2 (40%). Third, soccer enters thetop 10 in grade 2 with the numberseven ranking (21%), but leaps tothe number one ranking in grades3 (43%) and 4 (54%). Thus, ingrades 3 and 4, a sharp transitionoccurs, as physical education pro-grams embrace competitive teamsports.

It is entirely appropriate that, aschildren in the early elementaryschool grades develop greater at-tention spans, enhance their socialskills, and mature physically, theirlikes and dislikes change along withtheir aptitudes. Therefore, physi-cal education class offerings shouldchange as well. Concern is justifi-able, however, about the sharptransition as early as grade 3 to-ward competitive team sports. Oneof the key assumptions in the Objec-tives for the Nation related to physical

Exhibit 4. Rank and Percent Reporting Top 10 Most Frequent Physical Edo Gillen Class Activities, By Grads

Grades1 2 3 4

Physical Activity Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank %

Basebal1/8obbd

Basketball

Calisthenics/Exercises

FacedAerobic and Running Games

Low Organized Games

Gymnastics

Joi110119 or PPlop Rope

Netball

L000niolor Act haw/Basic Skills

Movement Broaden Ces/Body Medianics

Rs**Raolog/SPrkvenil

Rylhmic Activities

Soccer

Throwing and Catching

Track and Neil (not running)

WI lirstall

5

610

7

4

3

1

10

9

7

2

.22

.21

.17

.20

24

.26

.42

.17

.18

.20

.29

8

4

3

2

6

1

8

8

7

4

.19

.244,

.25

.284,

.22

.36

.19

.19

.21

24

4,

7

5

7

42

6

2

91

10

.20

.25

.20

.26

.27

.21

.27

.18

.43

.15

6

2

6

35

4

8

1

10

9

.20

.40

.20

.28

.23

.26

.17

.54

.14

.16

Aolkise Medied was an seeable) sere performed, but did not war the fop 10 tor a grade. AcavNea marked wIlh a dash(-) were not Wanton by agrad&

NCYFS-33

6 34JOPERD/November-December 1987-81

education is that, "school basedprograms will embrace activitieswhich expand beyond competitivesports." NCYFS I found that pres-ent school physical education pro-grams in grades 5-12 are r A gearedto this goal (Ross & Gilbert, 1985).With the sharp transition towardcompetitive team sports, earlyelementary programs may also bemoving in the wrong direction.

Fitness testingFitness testing serves several

purposes including educating stu-dents about the carious compo-nents of physical fitness, trackingchanges in fitness levels over time,providing students, parents, andteachers with information concern-ing the fitness of children (includ-ing areas of need for fitness im-provement), providing a basis forthe development of personal exer-cise programs, and motivating stu-dents to improve their fitness levelsand exercise habits. One of the1990 objectives for the nation isthat 70 percent of students will par-ticipate in periodic fitness testing.

An important finding of NCYFSII is that elementary schools havenot adopted physical fitness testingprograms on a broad basis and,when they have, their programshave not been health related. Thisfinding comes as no particular sur-prise because norms for childrenunder age 10 have been availableonly since 1980 (AAHPERD,1980). However, the survey foundthat 49.7 percent of students ingrades 1-4 attend schools that con-duct some type of periodic fitnesstesting at their grade level. A muc hhigher proportion of students ingrades 3 (56.2%) and 4 (69.2%) areexposed to fitness testing programsthan in grades 1 and 2 (37.7%).

As expected, the six most fre-quently used test items, all with ex-posure rates of 60 percent orhigher, are the standing long jump,flexed-arm hang, pull-ups, sit-ups,dash, and shuttle run. All six itemscome from the old AAHPERDYouth Fitness Test (YFT), which isprimarily a test of motor perfor-mance (Hunsicker & Reiff, 1976).

02JOPERD/Nowornber-Oscomber 1007

Between 30 percent and 60 percentof students are exposed to a varietyof other fitness tests, such as push-ups, chin-ups, softball throw, and600-yard run. Test items more re-cently introduced in theAAHPERD Health Related Physi-cal Fitness Test (HRPFT) and withlower exposure rates include a sit-and-reach test (26.7%), mile walk/run (17.6%), and skinfolds (8.7%).The most frequently used test itemis the sit-up test, which is the oneitem included in both the YFT andHRPFT.

Why is there not more fitnesstesting in elementary schools? Thisquestion was posed to the teachersof students participating in NCYFSII. The most frequent expla-nations, in declining rank order,were as follows: "There isn'tenough class time" (82%); "theclasses are too big" (51.5%);"teachers don't know how to ad-minister certain tests" (41.4%); "themandated curriculum doesn't in-clude testing" (38.1%), "the maininterest is movement education,not fitness or sports skills" (34.5%),"teachers don't like the availabletests" (24.4%), and "teachers don'tlike to encourage competitionamong the children" (21.8%). Fewteachers said that testing posed anunacceptable risk of injury, chil-dren did not like being tested, theschool did not allow it, testing wasirrelevant in a nongracied pro-gram, or parents were opposed totesting.

Even more interesting are thedifferences in response pattern,between teachers who test andthose who do not. Teachers who donot test offered four reasons withsignificantly greater frequencythan those who do (p < .005 in atwo-tailed t-test). Nontestingteachers claim that there is notenough class time for testing, theclasses are too big, many teachersdo not know how to administer cer-tain tests, and many teachers do notlike the available tests. Twoadditional reasons were offered bynontesting teachers with signifi-cantly greater frequency (p.< .02):risk of injury is too great and test-

35

ing is irrelevant in a nongradedcourse.

Based on NCYFS II, one can seethat the majority of children ingrades 1-4 are not involved in acomprehensive, well-planned fit-ness testing program. Few pro-grams test children for those aspectsof physical fitness that are of widestconcern to adults. In large part, thisn- ay be because teachers do not likethe traditional tests of motor per-formance but are not familiar withor do not know how to administernewer fitness tests.

Reporting fitness test resultsIt is generally acknowledged that

many children and youth are less fitthan they might be. In the attemptto improve fitness levels, it has beensuggestcd that students be re-warded for their fitness ac-complishments. Such rewards, it isargued, will motivate them to try toimprove their performance on fit-ness tests. NCYFS II indicates thatreward systems vary widely and donot appear to be well thought out.Slightly less than one-half of stu-dents (49.5% in grades 1-4) whoattend schools that conduct fitnesstesting programs receive recogni-tion for test performance. Becauseless than one-half of all childrenhave the opportunity to take fitnesstests, somewhat less than one-quar-ter of children are rewarded. Lessthan one-quarter (23.2%) of stu-dents attend schools that test butrecognize no one; 39.8 percent at-tend schools that test and recognizeeveryone. The proportion of stu-dents who are recognized seems todecline from grade to grade. How-ever, this is primarily becauseschools typically recognize 100 per-cent of first and second graders.Exc luding schools that recognizeeveryone, the recognition rate isfairly constant from grade-to-grade.

The principal method of report-ing fitness test results to parents isthe child's report card. The parentsof three of five students attendingschools that test fitness (about 29%of all c hildren) receive some type ofreport of their child's fitness

NCYFS-34

(grades 1-4).Parents are interested in the

health and fitness of their children,yet too few parents receive feed-back of test results. If fitness isgoing to be improved amongAmerican youth, it can be arguedthat parents must aid in the processby encouraging out-of-school exer-cise. Fitness test results, if available,could provide parents with infor-mation which may stimulate themto encourage activity for tl- eir chil-dren. Further, it has been arguedthat rewards for fitness perfor-mances can motivate children tobecome involved in out-of-schoolactivities. If this is true, a more sys-tematic and well-thought-out sys-tem of rewarding children shouldbe considered for our youth.

Recess timeRecess time provides a break to

both students and teachers. Per-haps inappropriately, it is oftenviewed as a supplement to physicaleducation. Therefore, it is impor-tant to know how much recess timechildren are receiving.

The average student in grades1-4 receives 1.48 recesses in a daywith the average recess lasting18.32 minutes. The average dailyrecess time totals 30.1 minutes andis fairly constant across the fourgrades. The importance of recesstime becomes clear when it is re-

called that the average student takesonly 3.1 physical education classesper week for approximately 35minutes. Nearly as much time isspent in recess daily.

Based on NCYFS II, there is astrong negative relationship(R = -.21; p < .001) betweendaily recess time and weekly physi-cal education time. This suggeststhat schools use recess to compen-sate for inadequate physical educa-tion programs. It also suggests thatschools are typically willing to givejust so much time to physical activ-ity. Children who take a daily phys-ical education class are thought notto need or be entitled to as muchrecess time. However, childrenneed both structured time in physi-cal education and discretionarytime at recess. Recess can be pre-sumed to contribute in importantways to the child's physical andmental well-being. Recess shouldnot substitute for physical educa-tion nor should physical educationsubstitute for recess.

Sports teams and extracurricularactivities

Sports teams and extracurricularphysical activities give students theopportunity for additional exer-cise, including the prospect ofcompetition. If such programs en-courage participation by studentsof widely varying skill levels, they

can make an important contribu-tion to the fitness of children.

Only 18.9 percent of students ingrades 1-4 have the opportunity toparticipate in sports teams or ex-tracurricular physical activities.The lowest opportunity is at grade2 (10.2%) and the greatest oppor-tunity comes in grade 4 (34.2%).The average number of differentoptions in schools offering teamsports and extracurricular physicalactivities is 1.72, ranging from a lowof 1.2 in grade 2 to 2.17 in grade 4.

The most frequently offeredsports an 1 extracurricular physicalactivities, in declining rank order,are basketball, jumping or skippingrope, soccer, and games (un-specified). Tied for the fifth rankare baseball/softball, folk/square/ballroom dance, gymnastics, andtrack and field (not running).

Like the activities in physicaleducation, extracurricular offer-ings also change from one grade toanother (Exhibit 5). In grades 1

and 2, the top activities, in declin-ing rank order, are jumping orskipping rope, rollerskating, games(unspecified), and soccer. Basket-ball enters the picture in grade 2 ina tie with soccer. Priorities begin toshift in grade 3, when basketballjumps from the number four rank(1%) to the number one position(7%), which it retains in grade 4(19%). Jumping or skipping rope

Exhibit 5. Rink and Percent Reporeng Top 5 Most Frequent Sports lemma andExtracurricular MOW Aceritias, By Grads

Physical Activity Rank1

% Rank

Grades2

% Rank3

%4

Rank %

Bassbell/Sollbell - _ - 3 .05

Beekstball - 4 .01 1 .07 1 .19

Folkillquare/Sallroorn Dance - - 4 .03

Games Unspecified 2 .02 2 .02 5 .02

Gyasisslics - 3 .05

JoillPine .3! eldPPIII9 Reps 1 ..06 1 .06 2 .04 3 .05

Roldsluiling 2 .02 2 .02 5 .02

Soccer 4 .01 4 .01 2 .04 2 .11

Track and Add (not running) _ - 5 .02

MAW NOW Wet an Mt r) WI patormed, but 4d not antar the lop 5 for a grade. AdMbss marked with a dash (-) want not performed by agab.

NCYFS-35

36JOPERD/Novernbar-December 1987-83

maintains the same approximateexposure rate during all four years,but declines in rank, as competitivesports are gradually introduced.Soccer, like basketball, rises fromthe number four rank in grades 1and 2 to the number two slot inboth grades 3 (4%) and 4 (11%).Gymnastics also enters the picturein grade 4, vying with jumping orskipping rope for the third rank(5%).

Summary and conclusionsMajor questithis to be answered

in NCYFS II included: (1) HOWMUCH physical education do ourchildren receive?; (2) WHO teachesphysical education?; (3) WHEREare physical education clas7es con-ducted?; and (4) WHAT actuallygoes on in physical educationclasses?

How much physical education doour children receive? While it wasexpected that most students wouldreceive physical education of sometype in grades 1-4, it came as apleasant surprise that the 97 per-cent enrolled in physical educationattend class an average of 3.1 timesweekly, with 36.4 percent attend-ing classes daily. However, it ap-pears that a two-class system hasevolved at the early elementaryschool level. The "haves" take physi-cal education daily; the "have nots"(37.2%) take physical educationonly one or two days per week.

It is also interesting that howmuch physical education a child re-ceives is inversely related to theamount of recess received. Chil-dren need discretionary time just asthey have a need for physical edu-cation instructional time. Recessperiods may be used to supple-ment, but not substitute for, struc-tured physical education. Norshould physical education time beallowed to replace recess time.

Evidence from this survey sug-gests that regular exercise can beincreased among many childrenthrough an increase in extracur-ricular activities. More opportuni-ties for those in the lower gradelevels may be necessary.

Who teaches physical edt:tation?

64--JOPERD/November-Osoornber 1967

The fact that a high proportion ofphysical education classes are taughtby specialists (79%) was also a sur-prise. However, this finding alonedistorts the picture because manyspecialists, perhaps as many asone-third, do not hold valid certifi-cation in physical education.Further, there is some question asto the extensiveness of the qualifi-cations of those who hold certifica-tion in physical education. There iscause for concern that some schoolsdo not make the investmentneeded to hire a certified physicaleducation specialist.

Where is physical educationtaught? In a majority of cases, it isnot in a gymnasium. In more tem-perate climates, the outdoors may bethe most suitable location for manyactivities. Still, there is concern thatmore than a few schools not provid-ing specialized physical educationteachers appear to be also unwillingor unable to support adequateteaching facilities.

What do children do in physicaleducation? Results indicate that,from grade I to grade 4, a markedtransition occurs in the activitiesconducted in physical educationclasses. The emphasis changesfrom movement education to fit-ness activities and sports skills. Thedramatic shift toward team sportsas early as grades 3 and 4 givescause for concern. One of the keyassumptions in Objectives for the Na-tion related to school physical edu-cation is that, "school-based pro-grams will embrace activities whichexpand beyond competitivesports." Both the results of NCYFSI, and this study (NCYFS II), indi-cate that this important nationalgoal is not being met.

There is little doubt that if thegoals for the nation are to be met,action must be taken to improve theamount of time spent in physicaleducation, to ensure that studentsare receiving instruction from qual-ified teachers, and to improve thefacilities for these important educa-tional programs. All of these arefactors largely beyond the directcontrol of physical educators.

However, NCYFS II data do

37

highlight several factors aboutwhich professional physical educa-tors can do something. First, theycan commit themselves to the Objec-tives for the Nation, which focus onhealth and fitness for all youth.Second, they can select activitieswhich are appropriate for the agelevel of children and consistentwith the stated health goals for thenation. Third, they can make ef-forts to design class experienceswhich make the most of the limitedtime now available for physicaleducation. Finally, professionalphysical educators can adopt fit-ness testing programs which areconsistent with developmentalneeds of students, promote lifetimeexercise, motivate children to per-form regular exercise, and keepparents aware of the fitness andexercise needs of their children.These efforts will make the most ofthe physical education experienceand could promote active lifestylesbeyond the boundaries of theschool.

References

AAHPERD (1980). AAHPERD healthrelated physical fitness test manual. Res-ton, VA: AAHPERD Publications.

Bar-Or, 0. (1983). Pediatric sportsmedicine for the practitioner. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Hunsicker, P., & Reiff, G. (1976). Youthfitness test manual. Washington, DC:AAHPERD Publications.

Parcel, G. S., Simons-Morton, B. G.,O'Hara, N. M., Baranowski, T.,Kolbe, L. J., & Bee, D. E. (1987).School promotion of healthful dietand exercise behavior: An integra-tion of organizational change and so-cial learning theory interventions.Journal of School Health, 57(4), 150-156.

Ross, J. G., & Gilbert, G. G. (1985). Na-tional children and youth fitnessstudy: A summary of findings. Jour-nal of Physical Education, Recreation &Dance, 56(1) 45-50.

U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services. (1980). Promotinghealth/preventing disease: Objectives forthe nation Washington, DC: Gov-ernment Printing Office.

NCYFS-36


Home and Community in Children'sExercise Habits

James G. Ross 0 Russell R. Pate 0 Carl J. CaspersenCheryl L. Damberg 0 Michael Svilar

There is a strong correlation between axercise habits of parents andthose of their children.

While the contribution ofthe school to a child'sexercise habits is impor-

tant, the role of family a:id com-munity in providing models andopportunities for exercise shouldnot be overlooked. Among chil-dren under age 10, home andcommunity exert powerful influ-ences in all phases of life, includingexercise habits. The 1980 govern-ment report, Promoting Health)Preventing Disease: Objectives for theNation, recognized the importanceof a variety of sources of physicalactivity other than schools by set-ting as an objective that, By 1990,data should be available for regularmonitoring of national trends andpatterns of participation in physicalactivity, including participation inpublic recreation programs incommunity facilities. (U.S. De-partment of Health and Hum'nServices, 1980).

The National Children andYouth Fitness Study II (NCYFS II)sought to answer a number of ques-tions about the physical activity pat-terns of early elementary schoolchildren in the context of homeand community, such as: Do par-ents rate the overall activity levelsof their children as somewhatsedentary, as media pundits sug-gest? How do teachers rate the rela-tive activity levels of boys and girls?

NCYF8-37

How much television do childrenactually watch, both on school daysand on weekends? Are the childrenwho watch a lot of television, in fact,the more sedentary ones? Whatpercentage of children make use ofcommunity organizationssuch assports teams, YMCA's, and parksand recreation programsassources of exercise? In what typesof physical activities do childrenengage through such organiza-tions?

NCYFS II also posed severalquestions about the parents of earlyelementary school children, suchas: How often do the parents en-gage in moderate to vigorous exer-cise? How do parents view theirown overall activity levels? Howfrequently do parents spend just 20minutes exercising with their chil-dren? What relationship is therebetween exercise habits of the par-ents and those of the children?

Survey questions about physicalactivity patterns

A physical activities survey ad-ministered to the parents of chil-dren participating in NCYFS IIgathered the following data: theparent's rating of the child's physi-cal activity level versus same-sexpeers; number of hours of televi-sion watched by the child (on schooldays, on weekends); community

1 G 38

organizations through which thechild engaged in physical activity atleast three times in the past year(check off); the child's five mostfrequent physical activities in theseorganizations; number of days perweek each parent obtains exercisethat causes rapid breathing and afast heart beat for 30 continuousminutes or more; each parent's rat-ing of his or her own physical activ-ity level; and the number of daysper week that each parent exerciseswith the child for 20 minutes ormore. In addition, teachers ratedthe physical activity level of eachchild relative to class members.

Activity levels of childrenIt is a common perception that

children are becoming more seden-tary, due to a variety of basic life-style changes. Do parents think thattheir children are underactive? Doteachers think that their studentstend to be sedentary?

To answer tftzse questions, bothparents and teachers were asked torate the child's overall physical ac-tivity level on a 5-point scale, with"3" representing the "average"child of the same age and sex, "5" achild who is a lot less physically ac-tive than most, and "1" a child whois a lot more physically active thanmost. Ratings of "4" and "2" repre-sented children who were per-

JOPERD/November-Docenter 1967-85

WON ParoltaldlbellbleAMInglaot Aelsky Levelsof Children negative'601110.400sers, Oradea 1-4

Iisstmost

Mostthin sleet

Parent TeacherNang Rating

12.8% 16.8%26.9% 19.1%6009% 42.1%

8.7% 13.7%1.4% 8.3%

ceived as a little less and more activethan most respectively.

Prior research provided no clearset of expectations for how parentsand teachers would rate the activitylevels of children. Other studieshave shown that the overwhelmingmajority of adults rate themselvesas average or above average (U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices, 1985); parents andteachers might be expected to dothe same in rating the children. Italso seemed reasonable that par-ents and teachers of young chil-dren might think of them as over-active, in the sense of being difficultto control. At the same time, withall the media attention on thesedentary ways of America's youth,it seemed plausible that adultsmight acquiesce by rating the chil-dren as sedentary.

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

The ratings of the children lookvery similar to the self-ratings ofadults found in prior studies (U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices, 1985). Parents rate 50.3percent of their child' as aver-age, 39.7 percent as above average,and only 10.1 percent as below av-erage. Teachers rate 42.1 percentof their students as average, 35.9percent as above average, and 22.0percent as below average (Exhibit1). The average activity level rat-ings were 2.59 by parents vs. 2.78by teachers.

Parents and teachers seem to dis-agree in how they see the differ-ences between boys and girls. Par-ents view boys as slightly morephysically active than girls, givingan average score of 2.53 to boys vs.2.66 for girls. The teachers gavethe boys an average rating of 2.56,

which is virtually identical to therating of 2.53 given by the parents.However, the average teacher rat-ing of the girls was 3.01, almost aperfect "average" score. This scoreis dramatically different from theteacher rating of 2.53 for boys andfrom the parent rating of 2.66 forgirls (p < .001 in a two-tailed t-test).One possible explanation is thatparents compared their children topeers of the same age/sex, butteachers pooled boys and girls inrating their students. There are noconsistent patterns in changes fromgrade to grade in activity level rat-ings.

Do parents and teachers define"physically active" in the same way?Are they measuring the same be-havior? The correlation betweenparent and teacher activity levelratings is rather strong (R = +0.23;p < .001). However, it seems thatparents and teachers may usesomewhat different criteria to as-sess activity level. It also seemslikely that children display differ-ent behaviors for parents versusteachers in the home and schoolsettings. Several low order, butstatistically significant correlationsbetween the activity level ratings

Exhibit 2. Changes in Use of Community Organizations by Grade

IIII Grade 1

Grade 2

f71 Grade 3

Ni Grade 4

S'44

Parks/Rscreallon Maas of Worship

SOJOPERDINowimbsr-Dscomar 1987

Sports Tssms/Laspues YMCA/YWCA Privets aubs/Spa3 Scouts

39

Four H/Farm Clubs

NCYFS-31)

and other variables suggest some ofthe sources of difference. Bothparent and teacher ratings reflectsuch factors as the child's participa-tion in physical activity throughcommunity organizations, espe-cially participation in organizedsports. The parent activity ratingalso seems to account for the child'stelevision watching time, numberof days per week that mother andfather exercise, and days per weekthat parents exercise with the child.The teacher's activity rating is notdifferentiated by any individuallevel variables, but seems related toseveral aspects of the school's over-all physical activity program.Therefore, it seems that parentsand teachers are, in fact, taking dif-ferent factors into account, but thatthey may also see different behav-iors.

Television watchingSpending a lot of time in televi-

sion watching has come to be asso-ciated with a sedentary lifestyle.Widely-cited reports allege that theamount of time children spend infront of a television has increased

the past decade. The NationalAssessment of Educational Pro-gress (NAEP), which has trackedtelevision watching among chil-dren in grades 4, 8, and 11 for 15years, indicates that 32 percent offourth graders report watching sixor more hours of television daily.NAEP also indicates that televisionwatching is highest at grade 4, andprogressively lower in grades 8 and11 (Anderson, Mead & Sullivan,1986).

Recognizing that NAEP ad-dressed its questions directly tostudents, information was soughton the child's television watchingdirectly from parents. Attemptswere also made to differentiate be-tween hours spent in televisionwatching on school days versusweekend days. In all other ways,the question about television watch-ing was identical to the NAEP ques-tion.

The results call into questionhow much anyone really knowsabout children's television watch-

NCYFS -3Y

5

I

ing behavior. For fourth graders,NAEP indicates that 32 percentwatch zero to two hours of televi-sion daily, 38 percent watch threeto five hours, and 30 percent watchsix or more hours (Anderson,Mead & Sullivan, 1986). In NCYFSII, 69.3 percent of fourth graderswatch zero to two hours on schooldays, 27.1 percent watch three tofive hours, and 3.6 percent watch

xr

40

six or more hours. On weekends,25.3 percent of NCYFS II fourthgraders watch zero to two hours,63 3 percent watch three to fivehours, and 11.3 percent watch sixor more hours. The differences be-tween NAEP and NCYFS II aredifficult to reconcile.

For children in grades 1-4,NCYFS II indicates that, on schooldays, 72.3 percent watch zero to

' si40.r

JOPERD/November-Deamber 1987-67

two hours of television, 27.0 per-cent watch three to five hours, andonly 0.7 percent watch six hours ormore. On weekends, 28.3 percentof first through fourth graderswatch zero to two Lours of televi-sion daily, 61.0 percent watch threeto fiie hours, ana 10.8 percentwatcn six or more hours. Theywatch an average of two hours andtwo minutes (2:02) on school daysversus 3:26 on weekends. On theaverage, boys watch slightly moretelevision than girls, both on schooldays (2:04 vs. 2:00) and onweekend days (3:28 vs. 3:24). Onschool days, television watchingtime ' ncreases by grade, for boysf-om 2:C1 to 2:07 and for girlsfrom 1:53 to 2:08. On weekenddays, television watching time in-creases for boys from 3:15 to 3:33and for girls from 3:13 to 3:33.Thus, any differences in televisionwatching behavior between boysand girls seem to be erased bygrade 4.

Whom do you believe? NCYFS IIfindings more closely resemblethose from a Michigan study oftime use in which the child (with aparent's help, if under age nine)kept a detailed diary of daily ac-tivities (Timmer, Eccles & O'Brien,1983). In the nine to 11 year oldMichigan group, which is compa-rable to our fourth graders, schoolday television watching time (2:26)

was slightly higher than in NCYFSII (2:08). However, the weekendtelevision watching time in Michi-gan (3:05) was somewhat lowerthan in NCYFS II (3:33). This sug-gests that estimates of televisionwatching are highly dependentupon the context in which the ques-tion is asked. It seems possible thatcurrent media reports on televisionwatching may be exaggerated.

What does it all mean? Theamount of time a child spends inwatching television seems to be re-lated to how active the child is. Theless television a child watches, thehigher the parent's rating of thechild's physical activity level, asmentioned above. In addition, theless television a child watches, themore likely the child is to be in-volved in organized sports and avariety of other activities throughcommunity organizations (such assports leagues, YMCA's, privateclubs, and scouts). Thus, televisionwatching is an important indicatorof how physically active our chil-dren are.

Community organizationsCommunity organizations pro-

vide the opportunity for participa-tion in organized sports as well as awide range of other physical activ-ity programs. Only 15.7 percent offirst through fourth graders didnot participate in the physical activ-

ay program of at least one commu-nity organization. In the course of ayear, 36.0 percent participate inphysical activity through one com-munity organization, 27.6 percentthrough two, and 20.6 percentthrough three or more. The aver-age student engages in physical ac-tivity through 1.61 community or-ganizations, with boys (1.65) havinga slight edge over girls (1.56). Theaverage number of community or-ganizations providing physical ac-tivity increases from first (1.43)through fourth (1.78) grade. Infirst grade, girls participate in phys-ical activity through slightly morecommunity organizations (1.46)than boys (1.41); however, by grade4, boys participate in substantiallymore community organizations(1.93) than girls (1.62).

Parks and recreation. Public parksand recreation department pro-grams attract two out of three firstthrough fourth graders (65.3%).Such programs are most often usedby first and second graders (69.4%)and less frequently used by thirdand fourth graders (60.8%) (Exhi-bit 1). Utilization rates are virtuallyidentical for boys and girls.

Sports leagues and teams. Com-munity-based sports leagues andteams provide exercise opportuni-ties for 31.9 percent of children ingrades 1-4. At least twice as manyboys (42.4%) as girls (20.4%) partic-

Exhibit 3. Rank and Percent Reporting Physical Activities Most Frequently Performed InCommunity Organizations, Top 10 by Grade for Boys

GradeActivity

1

Rank %2

Rank %3

Rank %4

Rank %&ratan 7 .11 4 .20 3 .29 3 .32Basketball 8 .08 7 .11 5 .17alcYcliflo 5 .15 5 .13 5 .17 5 .17Callethefilos/Exervises 8 .08 9 .08CliF0061mbing Ropes/Tres/Monkey Bars

01

Hildnea3sttkpaddng

6 .13 7 .0968

.13

.0878

.15.09

LootimOtor Activities

NIA* 0102Podlied)8 .10 8 .08

8 .08Playing on Playground 3 .17 6 .12 10 .07Redly/Sprinting 1 .34 2 .31 2 .33 2 .33Soccer 4 .16 3 .24 4 .21 4 .26&Amain° 2 .32 1 .39 1 .34 1 .38T-Ball 9 .09 8 .08Vitildng 10 .07 9 .08Act Allee molted with an awed* (') were performed. but did not enter the top 10 for boys at a particular grads lorml.

88-JOPERD/Novenbsr-Dscsmber 1987

41NCYFS-40

Exhibit 4. Rank and Percent Reporting Physical Activities Most Frequently Performed InCommunity Organizations, Top 10 by Grade For Girls

Grads 1

Rank %2

Rank %3

Rank %4

Rank %

7 .09 4 .144 .13 3 .16 3 .14 3 .17

7 .095 .12 5 .10

10 .07' 8 .09

6 .11 10 .08 7 .09 7 .1010 .08 6 .10 5 .118 .09

6 .118 .09 9 .083 .18 4 .15 4 .13 8 .09

5 .10 9 .032 .34 2 .35 2 .30 2 .28

a 9 .001 .35 1 .39 1 .39 1 .439 .08 5 .10 5 .11 5 .11

Allay' Moiled with an aster* (I want performed, but did not enter the top 10 for gide at a pwticuler grade level.

ipa'x in such programs. Participa-tion in sports teams and leagues in-creases twofold from first grade(19.7%) through fourth grade(41.4%). The difference in partici-pation rates between boys and girlsis lowest in absolute terms butgreatest in relative terms in grade 1(27.8 vs. 10.2%). After grade 1, asoverall participation rates increase,the difference in participation ratesbetween boys and girls remains ap-proximately 24 percentage points.By grade 4, 53.1 percent of boysbut only 29.4 percent of girls partic-ipate in a sports team or league.

Churches. Churches and otherplaces of worship provide an op-portunity for physical activity for24.2 percent of children in grades1-4, with very little difference be-tween boys (23.0%) and girls(25.5%). Use of churches for physi-cal activity remains virtually con-stant from grade 1 (24.7%)

through grade 4 (25.8%). Only ingrade 1 is there a significant differ-ence between boys (21.6%) andgirls (28.4%).

YMCA's and YWCA's. Y's of vari-ous types provide exercise oppor-tunities for 13.9 percent of chil-dren in first through fourth grade.Boys (14.5%) are slightly morelikely than girls (13.4%) to partici-pate in an exercise program at a Y.Utilization rates remain constantfrom first (13.5%) through fourth(14.3%) grades. By grades 3 and 4,boys have a slight edge over girls inutilization rate of approximately 2percentage points.

Clubs and spas. Various healthclubs and private spas provide a set-ting for physical activity for 18.9percent of children. Girls (22.9%)are much more likely to patronizesuch organizations than are boys(15.3%). There is no consistentvariation in use from grade to

Exhibit L Silt -Ruled Activity Levels of Adults with Children in Grades 1-4

Mother orFemale Adult

Father orMale Adult

A lat moo* phpically wive than most 8.2% 16.7%A1011Olmors phypically *Ws than moot 21.8% 27.3%

so moot 43.8% 36.0%.soMo7, Alio nen than moot 17.2% 13.1%

A lot Iota phiyNaapy salvo than most 90% 6.8%

NCYFS -41

it- 42

grade. However, the spread be-tween boys and girls gradually de-creases from 10 percentage pointsin grades 1 and 2 to less than twopercentage points in grade 4.

Scouts. Brownies. Cub Scouts,and other scouting groups attract14.6 percent of youngsters in thisage group. Girls have a decidededge over boys, with only 11.7 per-cent of boys participating in physi-cal activity through scoutinggroups compared to 17.7 percentof girls. Utilization increasesgradually from 5.6 percent ingrade 1 to 21.4 percent in grade 4.The relative spread between boysand girls is wide in grade 1 (2.2 vs.9.6%), grade 2 (8.9 vs. 21.1%). andgrade 3 (12.2 vs. 22.7%). By grade4, the boys (25.0%) overtake thegirls (17.8%).

Farm clubs. Four-H and otherfarm clubs provide opportunitiesfor exercise for 2.1 percent of firstthrough fourth graders. with moregirls (2.7%) than boys (1.6%) usingthem. Utilization t..,tes increasefrom 1 percent or less in grades 1and 2 to per( ern in grade 4.More girls participate in Four-Hand other fat In c tubs at eac h grade.with only 2.9 percent of boys com-pared to 5.8 percent of girls partic-ipating by grade 4.


Predominant physical activities incommunity organizations

Under the auspices of commu-nity organizations, children have arange of options for physical activ-ity. Some of these mirror thoseavailable in a school setting, butmany are unlikely to occur in aschool. Some activities are done withequal frequency by both boys andgirls, while others are done morefrequently by one or the other.Some activities continue to be per-formed as children grow older,while others decline or rise in pre-dominance.

Parents were asked to list thetypes of exercise or physical activityin which the child participated overthe past year from any of the com-munity organizations listed above.Parents could list up to five ac-tivities. From answers to this ques-tion, the five activities most fre-quently performed in communityorganizations by first throughfourth graders, in declining rank,are: swimming, racing/sprinting,baseball/softball, bicycling, andsoccer. The next 11 most popularactivities, again in descending or-der, are: playing on a playground,climbing ropes/monkey bars/trees,locomotor activities and skills (suchas jumping and hopping), walking,hiking/backpacking, gymnastics,playing (unspecified), basketball,calisthenics/exercises, football, androllerskating.

Several activities maintain theirposition among the top 10 over thefour-year span. Swimming, rac-ing/sprinting, and bike riding stayin the top five for both boys andgirls at each of these grades (Exhib-its 3 and 4). Soccer retains its fourthrank among boys. Walking andgymnastics retain the fifth andseventh ranks respectively amonggirls.

A number of activities move upin importance as children growolder. For boys, baseball/softballmoves from the seventh to the thirdrank between grades 1 and 4; forgirls, it breaks into the top 10 inthird grade and holds the fourthrank in grade 4. Basketball enters

90JOPERDINovember-D8comber 1987

the top 10 for boys in grade 2 andholds the fifth rank by grade 4; forgirls, it never breaks into the top 10.Football achieves the top 10 forboys in grade 3, holding theseventh rank in grade 4; footballnever enters the top 10 for girls.Hiking/backpacking makes the top10 for boys and girls in third andfourth grades respectively; bygrade 4, it ranks eighth among boysand fifth among girls. Soccer par-ticipation by girls increases gradu-ally, but does not break the top 10until grade 4.

Other activities naturally declinein importance. Climbing ropes/trees/monkey bars is in the top 10for first and second grade boys andgirls, but then drops out. Similarly,locomotor activities/basic skillsdrops out of the picture by thirdgrade. Playground play graduallydeclines in importance, but stays inthe top 10 list until third grade forboys and for all four years for girls.T-ball drops off the list for boysafter grade 2 but never makes thetop 10 for girls.

In addition, a number of ac-tivities appear in the top 10 list onlysporadically. Calisthenics/exercisesand playing (unspecified) occa-sionally break into the top ten forboth boys and girls. Ballet/jazz/modern dance, other dance, jump-ing or skipping rope, and roller-skating can intermittently be foundin the top 10 for girls. Walking ap-pears in the top 10 for boys at twovade levels.

Physical activity among parentsExercise habits c f parents can be

expected to affect childrenthrough a modeling effect or othermeans. Therefore, attempting tounderstand the exercise habits ofparents is germane to a discussionof physical activity in first throughf' ;urth graders.

Estimating physical activity levelsand the frequency of appropriatephysical activity among adults isimportant from a public healthperspective. The Objectives for theNation set specific goals for exerciseparticipation by adults. As notedabove, adults tend to view them-

4 3

selves as somewhat more activethan average. Efforts to determinethe percentage of adults participat-ing in continuous, moderate to vig-orous physical activity (MVPA)have produced varied results,largely as a function of method.The best available estimates indi-cate that only 7.8 percent of adultsparticipate in MVPA for 20 con-tinuous minutes or more at least 3days per week, which is an often-cited criterion for appropriatephysical activity (Caspersen, Chris-tenson & Pollard, 1986).

Parents were asked to rate theirown activity levels relative to peersof the same age/sex. They were alsoasked to report the number of daysi a a typical week on which they "getexercise that causes rapid breath-ing and a fast heart beat for 30 con-tinuous minutes or more."

The results for self-rated activitylevel closely resemble the teacherratings of students. The averagemother scored an almost perfect"average" score of 2.97 on a five-point scale; in contrast, the averagefather scored a 2.66. For mothers,30.0 percent were above average,43.8 percent were average, and26.2 percent rated below average.Among fathers, 44.0 percent wereabove average, 36.0 percent ratedaverage, and 13.1 percent werebelow average (Exhibit 4). These,sults are consistent with prior re-search on adults (U.S. Departmentof Health and Human Services,1980).

Self-reported participation inMVPA cannot readi:y be comparedto other research, because curpopulation is limited to parents offirst through fourth graders.Therefore, it is a relatively younggroup, presumably more activethan adults in general. NCYFS IIindicates that 42.1 percent ofmothers and 48.0 percent offathers of children in grades 1-4 donot participate in MVPA in the typ-ical week. Among mothers, 13.2percent exert ise one clay per week,16.1 percent exercise two days perweek, and 28.6 percent meet thecriterion for appropriate physicalactivity by exercising three or more

NCYFS-42

days per 'week. Among fathers,10.7 percent exercise one day perweek, 11.4 percent exercise twodays per week, and 29.9 percentexercise three or more days perweek. The average mother exer-cises 1.59 days per week versus 1.65days per week for the averagefather.

The frequency of parental exer-cise may be related to the age andsex of the child. The exercise fre-quency of mothers is higher if shehas a girl rather than a boy in firstgrade Ip < .001 in a two-tailedt-test); however, by third grade,these differences have evened out.In general, the frequency withwhich mothers exercise appears tobe unrelated to the sex of the child.Not surprisingly, fathers generallyappear to exercise more frequently

1k,

if there is a young boy in the family.This difference (1.60 vs. 1.69 daysweekly) approaches statistical sig-nificance (p < .06). The differenceis greatest in fourth grade, whenfathers who have a boy exercise1.67 days per week while fatherswith girls exercise only 1.4 days perweek. A limitation of NCYFS II isthat data ere not collected on sib-lings; therefore, their impact onthe exercise patterns of the chil-dren and parents cannot be exam-ined.

Parental exercise with childrenThe frequency with which

mothers and fathers exercise withtheir children can be presumed tocommunicate to the child some-thing about the parental value as-sociated with exercise. As a result, it

44

could contribute to the child's im-mediate physical activity level andlong-term adherence to exerciseprograms.

Parents were asked on how manydays in a typical week they exercisewith the child for 20 minutes ormore. It was disappointing but notsurprising that 58.1 percent ofmothers and 61.7 percent offathers said they do not exercise atall with their child in the typicalweek. Among mothers, 17.6 per-cent exercise with their child oneday per week, 13.6 percent twodays per week, 5.6 percent threedays per week, 2.0 percent fourdays per week, and 3.1 percent fiveor more days per week. Amongfathers, 14.9 percent exercise withtheir child one day per week, 12.0percent exercise two days per week,

JOPERD/Movembir-Docernber 1987-91

6.0 percent exercise three days perweek, 2.7 percent exercise fourdays per week, and 2.6 percentexercise with their child five ormore days per week.

The frequency of exercise withchildren depends on the sex of thechild for fathers, but not formothers. Mothers exercise withtheir child .87 days per week. Theyspend slightly more time withdaughters (.91 days) than with sons(.84 days); however, this differenceis not statistically significant.Fathers, however, exercise withtheir child .82 days per week. Theyspend much more time, .96 daysper week, exercising with sons,compared to .68 days spent withdaughters. On an annual basis, thistranslates into 50 days spent exer-cising with sons versus only 35 dayswith daughters. This discrimina-tion in treatment of sons versusdaughters is most accentuated ingrade 4, when fathers exercise .96days per week with sons but only.53 days per week with daughters.This difference (p < .001), is inevidence at grades 1, 2, and 4.

The frequency with which par-ents exercise with their children isdirectly related to the frequencywith which the parents themselvesexercise. There is a strong correla-tion between the total days thateither parent exercises with thechild and mother's exercise days(R = +0.30) and fathe:'s exercisedays (R = +0.29).

It is clear that parents do notspend much time exercising withtheir cnildren. The ones who doare, in large part, the ones who arealready setting positive role modelsby their own exercise behavior.Mothers exercise with sons anddaughters with equal frequency;however, fathers clearly discrimi-nate in favor of sons. This differ-ence is most pronounced in grade4, tr, wino' Lim: boys have begun toparticipate in competitive teamvports in large numbers. Anticipat-ing the likelihood that first throughfourth grade boys will increasetheir participation in competitivesports much more than girls, it canbe expected that fathers will con-

92JOPERD/Nonornbsr-Dscombsr 1987

tinue to exercise progressivelymore with sons and less withdaughters. There is much oppor-tunity here for change.

Summary and conclusionsExercise and physical activity at

home and in the community cancontribute in significant ways to thefitness of young children. NCYFSII found that nearly all childrenparticipate in physical activitythrough at :east one type of com-munity organization, making thisan important vehicle for affectingfitness and physical activity habits.Most community organizations areequally used by both boys and girls,at least by grade 4. The exception issports teams and leagues, which at-tract twice as many boys as girls.

Recognizing the potential role ofparents in influencing the fitnessand exercise habits of children, it issignificant that fewer than 30 per-cent of mothers and fathers of firstthrough fourth graders participatein appropriate physical activity.Even more alarming is that approx-imately 50 percent of parents ofrelatively young children say thatthey never obtain vigorous exercise.

Mothers and fathers exercisewith their children less than once aweek, on the average. Thoughmothers exercise with equal fre-quency with sons and daughters,fathers clearly spent much moretime exercising with sons. This im-balance is most pronounced ingrade 4, when boys in large num-bers turn to competitive teamsports. This suggests the start of apattern that may be perpetuatedthroughout the school years.

Statistics from prior studies,widely circulated in the media, mayexaggerate the amount of televi-sion that children watch. Neverthe-less, television watching does di-rectly take away from time thatcould be spent in other more con-structive activities, including exer-cise. Children who watch greateramounts of television tend to berated as having lower activity levelsand are less likely to participate inorganized sports or to receive ph ys-

45

ical activity through communityorganizations.

Among both children and adults,the average male is rated as some-what above average in physical ac-tivity level, while the averagefemale is rated "average" for per-sons of the same age and sex. Thismathematical incongruity suggeststhat there is a strong sex bias in howparents and teachers rate childrenand in how adults rate themselves.

These results provide importantinformation about the participa-tion of children in physical activityat home and in the community.These patterns of participationneed closer examination to ensurethat options for physical activity areequally available to both boys andgirls throughout the life cycle.

References

Anderson, B., Mead, N., & Sullivan, S.(1986). Television: What do national as-sessment results tell use Princeton, NJ:Educational Testing Service.

Caspersen, C. J., Christenson, G. M., &Pollard, R. A. (1986). Status of the1990 physical fitness and exercise ob-

jectivesevidence from NHIS 1986.Public Health Reports, 1J1, 587-592.

Timmer, S. G., Eccles, J., & O'Brien, K.(1983). How children use time. InF. T. Juster, and F. P. Stafford(Eds.). Tune, goods, and well-being.Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Re-search.

U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services. (1980). Promotinghealth/preventing disease: Oh/ea:yes forthe natzon Washington, DC: Govern-ment Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services. (1985, November).Provisional data from the health promo-tion and disease prevewon supplement tothe national health interview survey:U S., January-March, 1985: # 113.Washington, DC: Government Print-ing Office.

NCYFS-44

The National Children and Youth Fitness Study ll

Factors Associated withHealth-Related Fitness

Russell R. Pate 0 James G. Ross

Children who perform well on the mile walk/run test tend to participatein more community-based physical activity, to watch less television, andto be rated by their parents and teachers as more physical.sy active.

physical educators have longseen promotion of physicalfitness in children as a pri-

mary goal of their profession. Inrecent years, public health officialshave also begun to recognize theimportance of physical activity andfitness during childhood. This rec-ognition is exemplified by the 1980U.S. government report, PromotingHealth /Preventing Disease: Objectivesfor the Nation (U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services,1980). This report identified sev-eral objectives pertinent to physicalfitness in children. Included werecalls for improved monitoring ofphysical activity and fitness inAmerican children and greaterparticipation by children in car-diorespiratory fitness programs.

For the percentage of childrenwho manifest appropriate physicalfitness levels to increase, it seemsself-evident that we must under-stand the factors determining phys-ical fitness in youngsters. While it iswell-documented that genetic en-dowment is one determining factorof physical fitness (Klissouras &Weber, 1973), it is also well-estab-lished that exercise habits can pro-foundly affect physical fitnesslevels (Haskell, Montoye & Oren-stein, 1985). However, most of our

NCYFS --45

knowledge of the effects of physicalactivity on physical fitness comesfrom studies of adults or fromsmall-group, controlled exercisetraining studies in children (Bar-Or, 1983). Little is known about therelationships between many com-mon physical activity behaviors andphysical fitness in typical youngchildren.

A major purpose of NCYFS IIwas to assess the physical activitypatterns of six- to rine-year oldchildren and to examine the rela-tionship between these patternsand health related physical fitness.In this article, the associations be-tween selected physical activity fac-tors and two key components ofhealth related fitnesscardiores-piratory endurance and bodycompositionare reported.

MethodsThe physical activity patterns of

the children who participated inNCYFS II were assessed by surveyscompleted by their parents andteachers. A total of 30 individualphysical activity factors were examfined. These items were designed toassess physical education and otherschool factors; participation incommunity-based physical ac-tivities; overall physical activity

46

level; television watching time; andparental physical activity. The in-dividual factors, organized intomajor categories, are listed in Table1.

Multiple regression analyseswere employed to examine the re-lationships between each of the 30physical activity factors and two fit-ness variables, mile walk/run timeand sum of skinfold thicknesses(triceps, subscapular, medial calf).Data were analyzed for third andfourth graders (N = 2,372). All re-gression ..nalyses were conductedby controlling for the effects ofvariability in age and sex. A rela-tionship was considered significantonly if the age/sex-controlled cor-relation attained the 98 percentprobability level (p < .02). This rel-atively stringent standard wasadopted because a large number ofindividual regression analyses wereconducted.

ResultsThe results of the statistical

analyses are summarized in Table1. This table denotes the physicalactivity factors that were found tobe significantly related to milewalk/run performance and skin-fold thickness. Also indicated is the"direction" of the significant corre-

JOPERDINovomber-Deoember 1057-93

lations.As shown in Table 1, 17 of the

physical activity factors were foundto be significantly associated withmile walk/run performance. Four-teen factors were significantly asso-ciated with sum of skinfoldthicknesses. Ten of the factors weresignificantly associated with bothfitness variables. In general, thesecorrelations were relatively low inabsolute magnitude with signifi-cant multiple correlation coeffi-cients ranging from 0.03 to 0.33.However, it should be noted that,because of the large number of sub-jects many of these relationshipswere highly significant (p < .001).

Physical education and other schoolfactors. Several factors associatedwith physical education program-ming and the school environmentwere significantly related to dis-tance run performance. Young-sters who performed better on themile walk/run test tended to re-ceive more of their physical educa-tion instruction from a specialist,were more likely to attend schoolsthat conduct physical fitness tests,but were less likely to take physicaleducation outdoors. They alsospent less time per day in recess andwere less likely to live in a warmclimate. These findings suggestthat the school's investment of re-sources in physical education (e.g.,physical education specialists,gymnasium) and the curricularemphasis on physical fitness havean impact on the student's car-diorespiratory endurance.

In contrast, school/physical edu-cation factors tended not to be sig-nificantly related to the children'sbody composition. Sum of skinfoldthickness was significantly associ-ated only with fitness test adminis-tration. Leaner youngsters tendedto be in programs that adminis-tered physical fitness tests.

Participation in community-basedphysical activities. Factors pertinentto the child's involvement incommunity-based physical ac-tivities tended to be significantly re-lated to cardiorespiratory endur-ance and several of these were alsorelated to body composition.

94JOPERD/November-Decomber 11167

Youngsters who performed betterin the mile w:- '-un were morelikely to partic.i., _e in activitiesthrough Y's, health clubs or spas,sport teams/leagues and scouts.Among the better performers,community activities were morelikely to be organized and vigorous.The total number of communitysites/organizations through whicha child received activity was highlycorrelated with mile run perfor-mance.

Overall, participation in com-munity-based physical activitieswas also significantly associatedwith skinfold thicknesses. Leaneryoungsters tended to participate inactivity through t-nore communitysites and were more likely to takeactivity at Y's and health clubs orspas.

Global ratings of child's activity level.Parent and teacher rating of thechild's activity level relative to thatof his/her peer group were foundto be strongly associated with bothfitness variables. Children whowere rated by their parents as morephysically active tended to beleaner and to perform better in themile walk/run. The same tenden-cies were observed when the ratingwas made by the child's teacher.

Television matching. Time spent bythe child watching television (hoursper day as estimated by the parent)was significantly associated withboth mile walk/run performanceand skinfold thickness. Thoseyoungsters who watched moretelevision tended to be fatter and toperform poorer on distance runtest.

Parental activity habits. Factorsthat assessed parental physicalactivity tended to be significantlyrelated to the child's body composi-tion but not cardiorespiratory en-durance. The parents of leanerchildren tended to have higher ac-tivity levels, to exercise more fre-quently and to exercise with thechild more frequently. Only themother's activity level and the fre-quency of the mother's exercisewere found to correlate signifi-cantly with the child's mile walk/run performance.

47

Summary and conclusions

The results of the analysis pre-sented in this article indicate thatthe physical activity patterns ofchildren, as reported by their par-ents and teachers, are significantlyrelated to their physical fitness.Children who perform well on themile walk/run test tend to partici-pate in more community-basedphysical activity, to watch less tele-vision, and to be rated by their par-ents and teachers as more physi-cally active. In school, these betterperformers on the distance walk/run tend to receive more of theirphysical education instructionfrom a specialist and to take a phys-ical fitness test.

School factors tended not to besignificantly related to the bodycomposition of children. However,leaner youngsters tended to partic-ipate in more community-basedphysical activities and watched lesstelevision. These leaner childrenwere rated as more physically activeby both their parents and teacher.It may be particularly important tonote that parental physical activitywas associated with body composi-tion of the children. The parents ofleaner youngsters were more activeand exercised more frequentlywith their children.

The results of this study are im-portant because they provide muchneeded, new information abouthealth-related physical fitness inyoung children. The data pre-sented here suggest strongly thatphysical education programs, out-of-school activity habits, and paren-tal activity habits have a significantimpact on cardiorespiratory en-durance and body composition.Because the participants in thisstudy were drawn as a randomsample, the findings can be ex-trapolated to the population ofAmerican third and fourth grad-ers.

In interpreting these findings,this study's limitations should beI.ned. The design of the study wascross-sectional and, consequently,cause-and-effect relationshipsshould not be inferred from signif-

NCYFS-46

icant correlations. While the consis-tent trend was for higher activitylevels to be associated with higherfitness, it is not certain that higheractivity caused higher fitness. Lon-gitudinal studies will be needed toestablish a causal relationship. Itshould also be noted that the corre-lational analyses presented herewere controlled only for variationsin age and sex. It is likely that someof the phy,ical activity factors aresignificantly intercorrelated. Moresophisticated analyses will beneeded to determine the indepen-

dent relation of each factor to thefitness variables. Nevertheless,within the limitations cited, thehealth-related physical fitness ofyoung children is significantly as-sociated with certain physical activ-ity behaviors of the children them-selves and their parents.

References

Bar-Or. 0. (1983). Pediatric sportsmalutne for the practitioner. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Haskell. W L., Mu :..,-,', H J., &Orenstem. S. (1985). Ph), al actvityand exercist u achieve !ledith-irlat-ed physical fitness .oc.iponer,t!,. Pub-lic Health RtPOTiS, 1d0. 202-211.

Klissouras, V. & Weber, G. ( 973,Training, growth and heredity. In 0.Bar-Or. (Ed.), Pechatnc Work Pl,ystol-ogy. Proceedings of 4th InternabonalSympuzum. Natanya, Israel: WingateInstitute.

U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services. (1980). Promotinghealth /preventing disease: Objectives forthe Nation. Washington: U.S. Gov-ernment Printing Office.

EXHIBIT 1. Physical Activity Factors and their Relationships to the MI. Walk/Run and Sldnfold Thidmesses

Factor

Significant Signi5cantRelation:: ip Relationship

With WithMile Walk/Run Sum Of Skinfolds

Phytical Education and other School FactorsPerceriege of dames taught by P.E. specialistMinutes in physical education per weekMinuMs in nom Per dayPercentage of P.E. doss One spent in vigorous activityMinutes of P.S. dies finis spent in adrnbistrative mattersMinute of actin In swage P.E. oleosUsually Wmphysical education on school grounds (yes, no)Wwm simile (yes, no)Fitness Mete administered (yes, no)Pemenhige of students typically recognized for test participation

Childs Paracipelkm in Community-Based Physical ActivitiesPubic park or recreation department (yes, no)Church (yes, no)Sports learn or league (yes, no)YMCA, YWCA, or similar organization (yes, no)Health club, spa. Gerdy* lesson (yes, no)Brovides, Cub Scouts, or other scouting group (yes, no)441 or other bum club (yes, no)Sum of oommunky activities (seven Items above)Number of community-based activities that were organizedNumber of community-based activities that were vigorous

Global Ratings of Child's Activity LevelPamirs

matingrating

Television Vidchiso:lours per dry chid watches TV (parent's estimate)

Pamrshd Activity HabitsMothers ~dee (days in typical week)Father's exercise (days in typical week)Mother midges with chid (days in typical week)Father exerobse with child (days in typical week)One or bolt pelves enrolee wilh child (days in typical week)Mother's physksit activity WelFathers plisiord activity Wel

YES (+) NONO NOYES () NONO NONO NONO NOYES () NOYES () NOYES (+) YES (+)NO NO

NO NONO NO

YES (+) NOYES (+) YES (+)YES (+) YES (+)YES (+) NONO NO

YES (+) YES (+)YES (+) YES (+)YES (+) NO

YES (+) YES (+)YES (+) YES (+)

YES () YES ()

YES (+) YES (+)NO YES (+)NU YES (+)NO NONO YES (+)

YES (+) YES (+)NO YES (+)

*Won otoolog NOW or anstoodno "yips" mond boner on tot- Maw Koko War or anovoning "no" scout bony on mot

NCYF8-47

48JOPERD/November-Deelmber 1987-95

NCYFS H Project Investigators

James G. Ross, M.S., was Project Director and PrincipalInvestigator of NCYFS I and II. He is Director of SchoolHealth and a Technical Director of Macro Systems, Inc.,8630 Fenton Street, Silver Spring, MD 20910

Russell R. Pate, Ph.D., was Co-Principal Investigator ofNCYFS II. He is Director of the Human Performance Labo-ratory and a Professor of Physical Education, University ofSouth Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208

Lisa A. Delpy, B.A., was Field Coordinator of NCYFS II. Sheis now a Graduate Assistant in the Department of Health,Sport and Leisure Studies, George Mason University, Fa r-fax, VA 22030

Michael Svilar, M.S., was Programmer I Analyst fiff NCYFSII and implemented the sampling design. He is a staff consul-tant at Macro Systems, Inc., 444 South Union Street, Bur-lington, VT 05401

Michael T. Errecart, Ph.D., developed the sampling designfor NCYFS II. He is Vice President, Macro Systems, Inc.,444 South Union Street, burlington, VT 05401

Government Project Officers

Robert S. Gold, Ph.D., Dr.P.H., was the first Project Officerof NCYFS II. He is Professor and Director of GraduateStudies, Department of Health Education, University ofMaryland, College Park, MD 20742

Cheryl L. Damberg, M.P.H., was the second Project OfficerNCYFS II. She Es now Manager of Business Development

and Marketing, General Health, Inc., 3299 K Street NW,

Washington, DC 20007

Gregory M. Christenson, Ph.D., is the third Project Officer ofNCYFS II. He is Evaluation Coordinator, Office of DiseasePrevention and Health Promotion, 330 C Street SW, Room2132, Washington, DC 20201

(,,,nsultants

Ted A. Baumgartner, Ph.D., assisted in development of theNCYFS Witness test battery. He is a Professor in the Divisionof Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance at theUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Carl f. Caspersen, Ph.D., M.P.H., assisted in the develop-ment of the NCYFS II fitness test battery. He is an ExerciseEpidemiologist at the Centers for Disease Control, 1600 Clif-ton Street NE, Atlanta, GA 30333

Charles B. Corbin, Ph.D., provided guidance to NCYFS II indesign of the fitness test batten and physical activity surveys.He is a Professor, Department of Health and Physical Educa-tion, Arizona State University, Tempe 4.Z 85287

Timothy G. Lohman, Ph.D., assisted in development of theNCYFS II fitness test battery He is a Professor, Departmentof Exercise and Sports Science, University of Arizona, Tuc-son, AZ 85721

Pedro J. Saavedra, Ph.D., contributed to the sampling designfor NCYFS II. He is Senior Statistician, Macro Systems, Inc.,8630 Fenton Street, Silver Spring, MI) 20910

Raymond E. Sparks, P.E.D., assisted in design of the NCYFSII fitness test battery. He is a retired physical educator, nowresiding in East Wallingford, VT 05742.

The data tapes for the National Children and Yr nth Fitness Studies I and II may he obtained for a nominalfee from James G. Ross, Macro Systems, Inc., 8630 Fenton St., Suit 300, Siker Spring, MI) 20910.

96JOPERD/NovembseDownber 1967

49NCYFS-48

document resume - ericjames g. ross 0 russell r. pate the information from ncyf5 ii suggests that...

Documents