DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 134 102 HE 008 581

AUTHOR Burn, Barbara B.TITLE Reflections on an International Seminar. Higher

Education in a Changing World. Conference Report No.3.

INSTITUTION International Council for Educational Development,New York, N.Y.

PUB DATE Mar 76NOTE 56p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-43,50 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Administrative Personnel: *College Role; Conferences;

*Cultural Context; Demography; *Economic Climate;ATducational Economics; Educational Planning; EqualEducation; General Education; Government Role;.*Higher Education; Humanistic Education;*International Educational Exchange; InternationalOrganizations; Liberal Arts; School CommunityRelationship; Student Characteristics; VocationalEducation

IDENTIFIERS *Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies

ABSTRACTThis commentary is based on an International Council

for Educational Development (ICED) seminar held in conjunction withthe Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies at Aspen, Colorado, inJuly 1975. Some of the broader issues raised there are explored:economic dilemmas, interdependency of world economy, forces ofcontinued higher education expansion and flexibility, demographic;trends, pressures for-equalIty7-and-other-higher-education-problems.Other areas covered include the diversification of students and theirneeds, tfie professoriate, and administrators; changing aims and

--'-;management regarding recurrent education, liberal education, career'training, higher education planning, the power of administrators,bureaucratic impact, size of institutions, and erosion of"community." A consensus examined is that at least some universitiesshould stand apart from society rather than being a part of it, inthe sense of responding to regional, national or even internationalneeds if they were determined from without. (LBH)

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LibraryNAtional Center for HiRher Educatio0

Reflections onan International Seminar

HIGHER EDUCATIONIN A CHANGING WORLDA report based on the 1975 Aspen Seminar held under thejoint sponsorship of the Aspen Institute for HumanisticStudies and the International Council for Educational Devel-opment.

Barbara B. Burn

u S DEPARTMENT OE HEALTHEDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

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International Council for Educational Development

Conference Report Number Three

International Council for Educational Development

680 Fifth AvenueNew_York,AY 10019 USA

Copyright © by International Council for Educational Development

Library of Congress Catalog No. 76-4452

Printed in U.S.A. March 1976

by the Van Dyck Printing Company, North Haven, Connecticut 06473

4

FOREWORD

Barbara Burn has written an exceptionally interesting report.Based on an ICED seminar held in conjunction with theAspen Institute for Humanistic Studies at Aspen, Colorado in.July of 1975, she has properly used the seminar as a stimu-lant rather than as a boundary for her writing.

The seminar papers have already been published, as editedby Mrs. Burn, in the ICED Conference Paper Higher Educa-tion and the Current Crises. She was encouraged to write herown commentary in the hope that she would be forced bythis discipline to put her own considerable knowledge abouthigher education into a systematic presentation. The ideaturned out to be better than we knew.

Barbara Burn is Director of International Programs at theUniversity of Massachusetts. In recent years she has becomeinterested in the international dimensions of higher educa-tion. She is the author of Higher Education in Nine Countries,written for the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,and The Emerging System of Higher Education in Italy,a report of an ICED seminar with prominent Italian educa-tors. Mrs. Burn is one of our most literate observers of highereducation. ICED is pleased to have sponsored this report.

James A. Perkins, ChairmanInternational Council forEducational Development

ASPEN SEMINARPARTICIPANTS

July 1975

James A. Perkins, Chairman of the International Council forEducational Dereloptnent

Barbara B. Burn, Rapporteur, Director of InternationalPrograms, University of Massachusetts

414in Bienayme. Chargé de Mission au Cabinet clu President,,' de l'Assemblee Nationale, Paris, France

Howard R. Bowen, R. Stanton Avery Professor of Economicsand Education, Claremont Graduate School, California

Nell Eurich, Vice President for Amdemic Affairs, Manhattan-vine College, New York

Luis Garibay, Rector, Universidad Autonoma de Guadalaiara,Jalisco, Mexico

DiiicW G-dFdichifii-dt, Director, Max-Planck Institute forEducational Research, Berlin, Federal Republic of Ger-many

Mrs. Karl G. Hasemann, HofJungsthal, Federal Republic ofGermany

The Rev. Theodore M. Hesburgh, President, University of-----ATairDame, Indiana

Torsten Husen. Professor of Education and Director, Insti-tute fOr the Study of International Problems in Education,Unireiwity of Stockhohn, Sweden

Alexander A. Kwapong, rice-Recteilevtire"JAuary I ,

/976/ United ,Vations Unirersit/PDkvo, Japan

Raymond-Franeois Le Bris. Le Directeur du Cabinet. Secr6t-ariat d'Etat aux Unirersités. Paris, Mince

John W. Nason, Ibrnier President, Swarthmore College,Pennsylrania. mu/ Carleton College. Minnesota .

David S. Perkins. Acsistant, Student, Yale Unirersity

David Z. Robinson, Vice President, Carnegie Corporation ofNew York

John' Vaizey, Professor of Economics. School of SocialSciences, Brunel Unirersity. Middksex, England

7

I:I:I I. I I I. I. I:1. I: I 4 .1 I 1:1.1:1:1;1:1

HIGHER EDUCATIONIN A CHANGING WORLD

Claude Biss:11, president ot' the University of Toronto from19513-71, in reflecting on changes at that university duringwhat he- called "the revolution between 1968 and 1971"observed that:

. It lost its protected position in society.... The university wasnow, in a sense, on its own. Autonomy was no longer a graceautomatically bestowed; it had to be won in the dust and heat ofthe arena.... Within, dissident elements must be reconciled, anda strong, rational centre created to speak for the whole; outsidethe university must greatly expand and intensify its program ofexplanation, and work out more direct, specific means of relatingscholarship to.social action.'

The changing world confronting higher education and thechanges in higher education, itself, some of which areencapsulated in Bissell's remarks were the focus of the thirdICED international seminar, held at the Aspen Institute inJuly 1975. The seminar took as its jumpirTfolf point recentand projected changes, evolutionarY as well as ievolutionary,in the international and national societies of which higher

7-education systems are a part. What have been and will be themajor changes in the economic situation, in social and

'Claude Bissell, Halfway up Parnassus: A Personal Account of the University ofToronto 1932-1971, Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. 1974, p.191.

1:1' I:I: I

demographic trends, in the philosophical and psychologicalclimate, and in the international arena? Whereas theindividual papers given at the seminar and published byICED2 present the main points on these topics, this extendedessay attempts to capture and reflect on some ot' the broaderissues raised in the lively seminar discussions, and to weavethem together t'or whatever insights they may offer on thefuture directions of higher education institutions and.

systems.

The seminar mood was hardly one of optimism. Amongthe preseminar readings recommended to participants by thechairtnan was Robert L. Heilbroner's An higiiiry into theHumwt Pmspect. While seminar participants may not haveshared fully his "awareness of an oppressive anticipation ofthe future,-3 the discussions during the first week of theseminar on the changine world society, to quote Heilbroneragain, "added their freight of disquiet and disconcert to themood."'

Economic Dilemmas

Taking the economic situation first, the Westernindustrialized nations have since '1973 been experiencing amajor crisis with inflation, stagflation, economic recession,and rising unemplQyment. Alain BienayrrW predicted a longperiod of much slower economic-growth (probably no morethan 2% in Western Europe in 1976) and continuingproblems of unemployment. Graduate unemployment hassharply increased and will probribry- continue to do soT-Fol--example, the percentage of university graduates still seeking

2Iliglwr Education and tlw Current Crises, Barbara 13. Burn, editor, New York:International Council for Educational Development (ICED), 1975.

'Robert L. Ileilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect, New York: W. W.Norton and Company, 1974, p, 14.

p.1-5.

Higher Education in a Changing World 3

employment a year after graduation rose from 1.5";;' in 1965to 7.8"% in 1971. and is still higher today. In the FederalRepublic of Germany (hereafter referred to as Germany) thenumber of unemployed 15-20 year okls increased 230'7(

between September 1973 and September 1974.5 and seriousgraduate unemployment is imminent with a forecast of wellover 10.000 new graduate teachers unable to find jobs in1976."

As increasing numbers of persons in the industrializedcountries want to work, especially women and those withmore education, unemployment problems will worsen. At thesame time. with increasing higher education enrollments...thedifferential between earnings of secondary school graduates'and graduates of college nd universities is expected todiminish. This will contribute to the current disenchantmentwith higher education and perhaps to the slowing down ofrates of enrollment. In the United States college graduatesnow earn on the average only 40'7( more than high schoolgraduates. As Howard Bowen pointed out. 1970 marked aturning point in that since that year the differential betwe:nearnings of these two groups!. as been diminishing rather thanincreasing.

The year 197C also marked a turning point with respect tohigher education finance. During the 1960s membercountries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD) increased expenditures on highereducation at a raL three times that of the Gross National

ProduLtt-,---an d--en ro time doubled or_ -trip lett._ tv.. Thesauieperiod. With the ushering in of. the 1970s there waswidespread realization that such a rapidly rising level O finvestment can no longer be afforded. Also, as Alain

'David Dungworth, Incrose in Young Peopl out of Work," The TimesEducational Supplement,Nlarch 28,1975.

'David Dungworth, "Big Cutbacks on the Wt6. despite Bonn Reflation," The...._:_riMesiducationaLSuppkment.....SepIentler 19., 19 7 .

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l3ien av iiit remarked, the assumption that higher educationcontributes importantly to economic growth by expandinghuman capital has been increasingly questioned in the lastfew years. Mpreover, economic lirowth itself is questioned,cspecially since the publication of tht. Club oi Rome's Liwitsto Growth which was indicative of what people were begin-ning to ask. There is a widening awareness of the limits toeconomic growth and serious doubt that it is any longer asufficient or appropriate goal for national policy.

As Alexander Kwapong of Ghana. now vice rector forplanning and development of the United Nations University,emphatically pointe4 out. the,ituation--is-quite--t-trvositc7--7-foi the developing nations. Setting limits. to growth is aluxury that thc developed world can afford and 'thedeveloping cannot. The ,,ear I 973 was- a turning point intheir economic situation. While the.:quadrupling of oil pricesin that ;ear by the 13 member nations.of the Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries. (OPEC) contributed toinflation and recession in the industrialized countries, theconsequences of higher oil prices and the worldwide recessionOn thc nonoil produc:ng third world countries have beendevastating. The cost of their essential imports has..risen (40%in 1973 alone), and recession has sienificantly reduced theirindustrial markets abroad. They cannot absorb the oil priceincreases by raising their export prices as these mainly involveprimary products, the pricing of which is subject to thevagaries of worldwide supply and demand. The efforts ofdeveloping countries to secure stable and adequate prices fortheir-raw- arateri a 17.1' rts-,--arth as baux te !MT-SU ga r, iffidjrite. pursued now through commissions set up by theDecember 1975 Conference on International EconomicCooperation, have so far not provided the developingcountries with the solutions they seek.

Interdependency of World Economy

It is ironic that these countries, having achieved politicalin-dependence;--now-see-t.onomic independence as_a_remote---

11.

Higher Education in a Changing World 5

and elusive prospect. Political decolonization is an emptyachievement without economic decolonization. In the viewof the developing countries this requires a new internationaleconomic order with a more equitable distribution of wealthbetween rich and poor nations. Otherwise the rich willcontinue to grow richer and the poor poorer. as was the casefrom 1960 to 1 974 when output per capita in the poorestnations saw little change, but went up from S2,768 to S4.550in the industrialized world.'

The economic situation in, both the developed anddevelopint: worlds points up the interdependency of the

77---world-economyAlvus7-as-Aktin-Bienaym6. observeda major cause of the dramatic inflation in the West since1973 was that fact that for the first time in 20 years theeconomies or North America. Western Europe. and Japanwere expanding rapidly at the same time. Because theseeconomies closely interlock, inflation was infectious andmutually reentbrcing. In a similar vein recent analyses of theplight of the developint: countries have argued that it is to be'attributed not to:

Such factors as traditional forms of social organization.'inappropriate' value systems. inadequate educational systems._poorly developed administrative apparatus or the lack ofeconomic planning.... (but) that many of the features that havebeen taken to characterize underdevelopment are either producedby, or closely linked to, the ways in which underdevelopedcountries have been incorporated into the capitalist system (andfor some countries into the socialist system).8

The implications of international interdependence forhigher ethication are complex.- In the short mit it mayreen force .nationalistic tenden,ck.s. ,:specia% m the

'Ann Crittenden, "World Bank Finds Pour I...n..1.: Puurer." The New York Times.Recember 21,1975.

"Bryan R. Roberts, "Rethinking Development." The Times Higher Education

0

developing countries, as they strive to have theii own centersof excellence in the international arena, to withstand thebrain drain or talent toward the industrhilized nations, and,most important, to give priority to national needs in settinggoals and policies for higher education, development7-and

,doing so possibly to neglect the international role oruniversities in the objective advancement of teaching,scholarship, and service.

The quandary here is real and immediate. The August 1975meeting of the International Association. of Universities, atwhich representatives of universities from the developing anddeveloped worlds apparently identified themselves and theiraims in these terms, underscored their different orientations.It made clear the difficulty or achieving genuinelycooperative and equal relationships between universities inthe developing and developed worlds and a possible need toestablish a new order in the international higher educationestablishment which would parallel the new internationaleconomic order now demanded by the developing countries.

The Aspen seminar discussions on the domesticimplications or the current economic crisis Centered on the,evolution .or a new higher education order in the developedcountries. Less support For higher education by governmentsand the public implies a larger burden in the Future onstudents in bearing the costs or their higher education, as isalready the case in the United States and the Netherlands.The shift From graduate student grants to loans in Germanyand the concern in Ontario, Canada, that the percentage oruniversities' operating inconw derived From student tuitionfees dropped ftom 28%. to 18% between 1966-67 and1974-75 are only two examples,

'Nancy Sullivan, "Ontario lieptirt Say% Students Should Pay Mom," University4 1/airs. Vol, I 7, No, I , January 197b, p, 10.

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Higher Education in a Changing World 7

The deteriorating employment situation for gradtikkkes isalready having its impact in lower enrollment rates in Canada,Sweden. and France. The slowing of enrollment increases willbe and already is reflected in decreased opportunities for

_faculty mobility and .promotion. Linked ith this.develop-ment is a shift from a partnership rci :tionship betweenfaculty and administration to a situation of confrontationbetween them, and between higher education institutions andsystems and government. At the system level more prioritywill be given to cheaper kinds of higher education in termsof fields, facilities, and institutions. kind to more nationalplanning and systems coordimition at the expense ofinstitutional autonomy. These tendencies are already under-way.

Accompanying these tendencies are some paradoxes. At a

time when leadership from the universities is urgentlyneeded, they may be receiving less priority than the "lessnoble" higher education institutions such as the communitycolleges in the United States and polyti:chnics in Britain.Although it is more important than ever for faculty to haveclose rekitions with students, professors are under increasingpressure to do the research and publishing which draw them_away from student contact. Finally. as James 1,"erkins noted,although planning in higher education was never more''.needed, iwver has it been in such low estate.

Optimistic, Trends

To put these somewhat gloomy observations in perspective.the forco making for continued higher education expansionand flexibility should be noted, In 1973 only 12% of the U.S.population had a college degree, only 4% in the UnitedKingdom. The generation gap in higher education inSweden-less than 10% of 3544 year olds as of tlw 1970eensus had entered higher education, is a major stimulus forthe dramatic plans for recurrent education in that country to

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see to it that by the year 2000 some 25% or the populationwill have been to college or university. In short, while theparlous contemporary economic situation may blight highereducation's prospects. in fact the need for more is clear andadmitted. if reluctantly. in some quarters.

Demographic Trends and Higher Education

John Vaizey and Torsten Husen reviewed various social anddemographic factors operating in the internationalcommunity and their implications for higher education'sfuture. As Vaizey emphasized. a rising natiomiliSm and drifttoward autarky are major current trends. The internationalmigrations which have taken place in the last several yearspale earlier population movements. They are having theireffects in intensifying ethnic movements and loyalties, in thederaeination of large population groups from their homecountries, and in the growing cultural diversity and pluralismwithin countries. Nor is the diversity a temporaryphenomenon. For example, ten years ago less than a quarterof Britain's nonwhite population had been born in Britain: inthe near future most of this group will have been. Thenonwhites now constitute 2.5% of the British population.The notion or a common and cohesive value systemunderpinning a given society and the higher education systemin it is becoming increasingly illusory. The notion of aneducation system founded on liberal values whieh assumedthat racial and economic discrimination would lessen, thatracial minorities would be absorbed into the main stream,and that class differences would be reduced, have provenunrealistic. In this situation, as John Vaizey noted, the urgentquestion is how long social democracy can last.

Another important demographic trend affecting highereducation is the dramatic decline in the birthrate in theindustrialized countries during the last decade. This will bereflected in a corresponding decline in the college and

Higher Education in a Changing World . 9

oniversity age cohort in the 1980s and 1990s. In Canada, forexample, it is now projected that the 18-24 year old agegroup, currently a little over 3 million, will probably dropsharply as of 1982, down to about 2.6 million in 1992. If thecurrent student-teacher ratio or 12/1 is maintained in theschools through the 1980s, there will he a teacher "surplus-in 1992 0112,500 teachers.'

Accompanying the decline in the college age cohort will bea parallel relative increase in the middle-aged and olderpopulation with a corresponding increased pressure for morespending on social security, health, and human servicesgenerally. These pressures in a period of slower economicgrowth and slow .or no growth in higher educationenrollments (unless this is counterbalanced by expandedenrollments or older students) are likely seriously to diminishthe resources available to higher education.

The expansion of higher education enrollments in the lastdecade or two in the industrialized nations has brough tgreater diversity in the socioeconomic background ofstudents, although the representation of the lower quartile inhigher education falls far short of the proportion theyconstitute of the population. For example, although highereducation enrollments in the Netherlands more than tripledbetween 1958 and 1971, only 14% of all students are fromthe lower social strata which make up 54 %. of the totalpopulation. By contrast 36% and 50% of students come fromthe higher and middle strata respectively, and these

constitute only M. and 39%, of the national population.'

"Lynda Woodcock, "Universities Must Prepare l'or Enrollment Fluctuations,"Unirersity Affairs. Ottawa: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada(AUCC), Vol, 16. No. 9, November 1975, p. 6,

""I'lw Ministry or Education and Science, the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Ethicallull and Serener% Vol, 7.1973-74, pp. 27,10,

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Pressures for Equality

The expanded diversity of student background. albeitlimited. has stimulated egalitarian pressures for moreeffective equal opportunity for access. A variety of newinstitutions and arrangements to offer hitzher education toolder students and persons who lack traditional universityentrance qualifications have beenlaunehed. Among them arethe 25/4 admissions system in Sweden (25 years of age. 4years of work experience): the Open University in Britain:the University of Vincennes, Paris: the University of NewSouth Wales in Australia: Athabasca University in Alberta.Canada: and Empire State College (New York):. and the-Cit UniveNty of New York, to mention only a few.

The egalitarian pressures motivating these experimentalventures in open or widened access have yet to come to termswith the essentially meritocratic nature of higher. especiallyuniversity. education. Industrialized societies and their highereducation systems are meritocratic in seeking out andselecting talent. in differentiating between talent. and in theprocess widening disparities between 1,ersons rather thanleveling them. The dilemma of "Can one be a great. socialleveler and a selector at the same time?'" 2 must be, faced,Some advocates of egalitarianism confuse equality ofopportunity with equality of outcome. although theuniversity cannot grant equal certification to unequal talentswithout vitiating its essential pumose of sorting, educating,and certifying the more talented. The implications of the-inherent cohflict between egalitarianism and meritocracy forthe diversification of higher education systemsin terms ofaims. access, standards. and systems coordinationarediscussed later. With regard to social and demographic trendsthe main point is that in pointing toward greater egalitarian

"George W. liiinhatti. -13Jek to I. iNt Principles," Orange. Vol, 7. No. H. October1975. p. I 1 . 17

Higher Education in a changing World 11

presSures. they may fuel attacks on the university as an elitistinstitution.

The allegedly ditignraiurrof universities-is underattack inboth the developing and the developed world. In the formerdisenchantment with the- contribution of higher education- isacute. Modelled on universities of the colonial powers at atinie when they were elitist, universities in the developingworld are perceived as failing to solve basic problems in these'countries. They are accused, moreover, of warping secondaryeducation so that rather than producing a work force capableof contributing to national development, it merely grooms orserves as a pipeline for university entrance, imparting few ifany usefiil skills to those failing to gain entry to university. Itis hardly surprising in this 'context that a country likeTanzania has now adopted a policy not to admit universityapplicants directly from school, but requires several years ofwork experience. This then is evaluated in part on the basisof commitment to national service in admissions decisions."Traditional liberal education is disctedited; vocational andtechnical education have more priority. But the inadequaciesof educational planning (and of statistics for such planning)offer few clear guidelines for alternative policies on whathigher education should do, for whom and hownmany, inwhat fields, and to what level. Nor does the experience of thesocialist nations adequately illuminate these problems.

Other Higher Education Problems

Another kind of disenchantment with higher education, aspointed out by John Nason, afflicts the developed nations,more particularly the United States, Higher education'sproduct is questioned in terms of contribution to society,students finding "appropriate" jobs, the relative earnings of

"University Eductition Is Actually Adult Education," A.C', U. Bulletin ofCurrent Documantation, The Assodation of Commonwealth Universities,Number 21 , December 1975, pp. 2,4-5.

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11 university vs. high school graduates, and the possibleinconsistency of values associated with academia. and thosecalled for in.complex industrialized societies. Nason revieweda series of philosophical and psychological issues: the declinein respect for authority but an increased authoritarianism insociety .and in higher education; the decline in the 'belief in.rationalism in problem identification and solving; an erosionof the work ethic paralleled by the emergence of a newPuritanism: an increasing realization of the self-destructive-ness of modern technology and disenchantMent with theuniversity, its handmaiden: and an ebbing faith in democracyas a system of government which can cope with or respond-17n-to the needs of the postindustrial age. As Heilbronersuggested, the democratic process where it survives may have"to give way to technocratic decision making.

The implications tbr democracy of a much slower rale ofeconomic growth than in the past are also bleak. Peter.Jenkins questions how much inflation and unemploymentcan be tolerated in a democracy without destroying it. Hefurther comments that:

It remains to be seen whether democracy can thrive or evensurvive without the rates of growth to which we have beenaccustomed for a quarter of a century and Which it is mostimprobable the Western economies can achieve again for at leastthe next decade.' 4

As the Aspen seminar participants agreed, future trends inthe international society cannot be predicted with anymeasure of certainty. The record of demographic andeconomic lbrecasting is littered with error. Nevertheless theseminarists ventured to speculate on future trends indemographic and social developments, in the international

Peter Jenkim, Me Indian Summer of Democracy," The Guardian, September20,1975.

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Higher Education in a Changing World 13

scene. and in the future economic order. They focusedespecially on the likely implications for higher educat.on of

their predictions. It is to these implications that thesereflections on the Aspen seminar now turn.

THE CHANGINGCAST OF CHARACTERS

In her perceptive reflections on the discussion of access tohigher education at the first ICED Aspen seminar, held in1973, Barbara Baird Israel remarked on Pressures to redefineaccess criteria. Mainly these were to admit more and differentkinds of people to higher education on the theory that "byeducating more and more people a society increases itssupply of talent and competence: by limiting access toeducation, it decreases the supply and simultaneously per-petuates social inequities."" She also admitted that thisconcept hardly provides clear guidelines on admissionscriteria to societies "not economically prepared to educateeveryone."' 6

Diversification of Students/Needs

The deteriorating economic situation worldwide since 1973has made the matter of guidelines for admissions criteriaandan examination of the aims and functions of higher educationyet more urgent today. The dramatic higher educationexpansion or the 1960s, as John Vaizey pointed out at theAspen seminar, could only be a temporary phenomenon.Choices must be made on entry qualifications, aims, andpresurned outcomes. Few if any societies can afford theexorbitant cost or meeting the total social demand for highereducation.

Barbara Baird Israel, Reflections on an International Seminar, Can HigherEducation Recapture Public Support?, New York: ICED, 1974, p. 3.

Ibid., p.3.

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The changes in the kinds of students seeking highereducation several years ,ago were well documented by Mrs.Israel. along with the likely consequences of these changesfor Curricukk the professoriate, and structures. However, herreflections on higher education were set down some twoyears ago, before the major economic recession of the lastseveral years had gained momentum. Changes in enrollmentsand their implications tbr the Future directions of highereducation now require institutions and systems to identifytheir priorities with more ruthlessness and accountabilitythan when she wrote. The declining employment situationsince thenincluding employment for graduates andFacultymake these decision.; more difficult and moreurgent.

The increased diversification of students has increasedpressures for Further diversification 'with the accompanyingand often costly changes in higher education wrvices andprograms such diversity requires, but at a time of tighteningresources. Basic questions of aims and values are increasinglyquestioned. With the link between higher education andemployment becoming more diffusebecause of the trendtoward mass (higher education, the economic slow down,diminishing income advantages For graduates, and otherfactorsshoukl students and higher education institutionsFocus more on vocational goals or the private rewards ofhigher education? Do faculty and institutions enhance theirsurvival prospects by responding to the new nontraditionalstudents and offering more "useful knowledge," or byreaffirming traditional scholarly values? Can universitiesbecome more invigorated and relevant by expanding theirclientdes (and possibly their enrollments in the process), ordoes this threaten their , essential mission of advancedteaching and scholarship?

When tlw 1973 Aspen seminar reflected on some or thesequestions, higher education systems may have had more

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The Changing Cast of Charac ters 17

discretion than now in determining their answers. Changinsdirections in the aims, constituencies, and structures ofhigher education may now call for more rigor, and one hopes,more compassion. The impact of these changes on the cast ofcharacters in higher educationstudents,. faculty, and admin-istrators within and without the institutionsis the focus ofthis chapter.

Today's Students

First as to students. What are they like today and what willthey be like a decade or so hence? In the industrializedcountries students are on the average older than 10 or 15years ago, and their average age is expected to rise. Some 48%of students in the United States are now over 22 years old,and at the University of Stockholm one fourth of the stu-dents are over 25. At universities in Australia, in 1973, 36.3%of the students were 23 and over.' In France as the Univer-sity of Vincennes entrance model is generalized to other uni-versities, offering admission to students lacking the baccalau-reat but who have had at least three years of work experience(military service and motherhood are counted in this def-inition), and bass special ability tests and an interview, anolder student body is the likely result. To achieve a more co-hesive society and narrow the age gap in Sweden between theunder and over 30 year olds who respectively have had 11-17and 6 7 years of full-time education, priority is now given toadmitting adults. A policy knownan "total dimensioneering"reserves a proportion of places in higher education to theseolder students.

Although, as pointed out earlier, the percentage ofstudents in higher education from lower socioeconomic strata

'Open Tertiary Education, Draft Report of the Committee on Open Universityto the Austrahan Universities Commission, April 1974, Canberra: AustralianGovernment Publishing Service, 1974, p. 22.

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lags far behind the proportion these strata constitute of thetotal populations in the industrialized countries, significantadvance has occurred. In Sweden the percentage of suchstudents rose from 6% to 22% from 1950 to 1968. Femaleenrollments have also increasedto 37% of. all students in,Sweden in 1973. In Canada the percentage of womca 14years and older with some postsecondary education, only--5.7% in 1951. is projected at 27.3% in 1985. The equivalent,figures for men are 8.5% and 36%.!

Generalizations on the implications of changes in the age,socioeconomic background. and sex of collt;ge and universitystudents are hazardous. However, the 1975 Aspen seminarparticipants identified certain characteristics. the applica-bility of which of course varies from country to country.First. as a Nuffield Foundation study remarked (on Britishstudents only). "A common background and a commonattitude to scholarship can no longer be aSsumed."' 9 More-over. students tend to be more vocationttlly or professionallyoriented. They ire far less aLfivist politically than a few yearsago: they are concentrating on their professional preparation,not on reforming institutions along or in their way. Inty t Ying ttoday's students Dietrich Goldschmidt used thephrase. "asriration. desperation, resignation." A Canadianobserver in commenting on students in that country statedthat "The majority of stuthmts have found that studies mustLime first, social life comes second and attending committeescomes a long way third."2°, They are more inner directed,preoccupied with private, values instead of public concerns.

' Woodcock, op. cit.. p. 7.

14The Nuffield Foundation, The Drift of Change, An Interim Report of theGroup fin. Research and Innovation in Higher Ethwation. London: The TimesBooks, 1975, p. 32.

Frost, "Changing in University Administration, Fact and Consequences,Universit y A noire, Ottawa: AUCC, VoL 17, No. I. January 1976, p, 14.

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:The Changing Cast of Characters 19.*

coping or competing as members a complex technological.societies,2'

If higher education institutions so diversify their functionsas to Later to increasingly diversified student bodies, how canadmissions criteria appropriate to this situation be deter-mined..The notion of .more means worse.". or "limited poolof ability" has largely been discredited. Howard Bowenpointed out at Aspen that even with the great increases inhigher education enrollments in the United States from1920-1965, average ability rose, and the coming 25-30 yearscould bring 75% of the population to college admissionslevel. He expressed the conviction that there is more talent insociety than has ever been realized. It is hardly surprising thatthe question, who is educable? did not get answered atAspen,

U.S. experience with .special programs in higher educationfor the ffisadvantaged has so far provided no gukielines fordetermining which disadvantaged students will be successfulacademically and what if any special services are needed tohelp them succeed. Experience shows. however, that specialservices set up for the disadvantaged meet important needs ofmore conventional students.= 2

The Professoriate

For the profeFsoriate the year 1970 was also something of aturning point. Barbara Israel in remarking on the 1973 Aspenseminar wrote that "it is the professoriate that has exper-ienced the most wrenching changes."' 3 These changes she

1' Two seminar participants presented particularly thoughtful papers on these andrelated points, John W. Nason and David S. Perkins.

2' Edmund W. Gordon, Opportunity Programs Pr the Dkadrantaged iii InglwrEducation. ERIC/Digher Educittion Research Report No, 6, Washington, D.C,:American Association for I ligher Education, 1975.p. 18.

2 ' Israel, op. ch., p. 19.

20

attributed to an increase in younger staff. changing curricula__and teaching methods. the :ITects or specialization, and new. '

governance systems. As with access and the composition ofstudent populations. more changes have occurred since the1973 seminar, and some call for new interpretations of recentand projected trends. These trends can be summarized asisolation..and fragnwntation, diminished power. and confu-sion of function.

The isolation and fragmentation or the professoriate stemsin part from the sheer growth in its numbers which paralleledenrollment expansion. like its tripling or quadrupling sincethe early 1960s and recruiting persons more diversified intheir socioeconomic background and values. The communityor scholars. whether within individual institutions or linkingscholars in individual disciplines nationally (and interna-tionally) has eroded from the weieht or numbers, from a kindor generation gap between teaching staff socialized intoacademia in the elitist pre-1960s period and during thatmassive expansion, and rrom an increased difl'erentiation incareer pal1i:ms in higher education teaching. This differen-tiation has takei, the form or different status, teaching dutiesand careLr proi.occts for new categories or teachers as at theGerman universities.24 or for teaching staff at the stillrelatively new nonuniversity higher education institutions,although sonic observers assert that in the case or GreatBritain, as a result or recent salary increases, polytechnicfaculty have a higher. not lower, status than faculty at theuniversities.

As Johh Naizey noted at Aspen. academic diversificationand accompanying isolation and fragmentation have resultedfrom the rupture of the historically close link between

"Several years ago in some Linder a new category or professor, "113," wasestablished; they have larger teaching loads and only one instead of two; ormore assistants in contrast to the traditional "114" professors.

2 3 .

. The Changing Cast at' Characters 21

academic secondary schools and universities in Britain andvarious continental European countries. including France andGermany. He noted that they had:

a common mission in humanistic and mathematical culture.While it was true that the university teachers were the seniorpartners in this enterprise (as it were, they were the bishops whilethe school teachers were the priests), they nevertheless were bothpart of a common team. And there was a Considerable movementof staff between the upper secondary schools and the uni-versity.= 5

Although this link is not dead. it is far more attenuated thanwhen higher education was more elitist and admission tohigher education tended to be a function not of universitiesbut of the selective secondary schools which fed into them.

The leveling off of enrollments and hence of facultyrecrUitment is already adding to faculty isolation andfragmentation. and this will increase. As higher educationenters a "steady state," competitiveness for students withinand between institutions and for individual advancement willexacerbate. Faculty s:ilaries and benefits relative to otherprofessions will decline, and unionization together withvarious egalitarian pressures will reduce the differentialsbetween salaries of teaching staff at different levels and indifferent kinds of institutions. These and other forecasts, socogently outlined by David Robinson at Aspen, are bound tohave their impacts on faculty isolation and fragmentation, onfaculty morale and malaise.=

The problem of "steady state" is common to most of theindustrialized countries where enrollment increases have

a I John Vaizey. "Radical Changes in the Academic Profession." op. cit.. HigherEducation and the Current Crises. p. 139.

"David Z. Robinson. "Faculty in an Age of Possible Decline." Ibid., pp.151-158.

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slowed down or ceased. Cambridge University. England, facesthe steady state prospect. and W. H. Hommel% lecturer iiclassical archaeology, vividly conlmented on it in reacting toa report of December 1974 of the General Beard (of theuniversity) on the subject:

In this "steady state" our size and framework are to besteady-rigid, indeed, and rigidly controlled. But inside the

aquarium, bubble depanments are to come into being and passawayalways with the Board's permissionpile is to chivy pike,and the small fry are to be gobbled up. Or perhaps the academiccommunity will resemble a bowlful of meadow-pipits and youngcukoos. "

It is not inconceivable that a fragmentation of the functionof the professoriate will engender further frakunentation andisolation among the profession. Already the Open Universityin Britain has demonstrated that splitting up the tasks ofcourse preparation. lecturing, the application of edncatipnaltechnology, tutoring. counseling, and evaluating Can berelatively cheap, given a critical mass of students forla givencoursti.28 Another model is to be found in .Spain..vilere"contracted teachers (untenured) are respOrisibl& foi85%; ofall university teaching.29 Part-time and partial-functionfaculty would assure faculty fragmentation.

It would also diminish the power of the professoriate. Inseveral respects this power has already diminished and islikely to continue to wane. Public disenchantment withhigher education may have diminished professorial esteem -

W.11. Pkumner. -A Comment on the Report of the General Board," Minerva,Vol. XIII. No. 2, Sununer 1975. p. 299.

"Michael Drake. **The Making of 1)100. a View frotn the Social Science Faculty"in Jeremy Tunstall. ed.. The Open Unirersity Opens. Amherst. Massachusetts:University of Massachusetts Press. 1974, pp. 135-9.

Chislett. -New Minister Faces Rising Problems All Round." The TimesEducational Supplement. January 2.1976.

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The Changing Cast of Characters 23

and influence outside the institutions. As will be discussedlater,ihe role of academics within the institutions in decisionmaking is likely to decrease and financial pressures anddemands for accountability transfer increasing power to theadministrators who preside over budgets and must respond tothe growing insistence of public authorities on account-ability.

In countries where the tradition of having quasi-permanentheads of departments and deans has given way to academicdemocratization so that these positions are now held for onlylimited periods, as in Australia and Canada, the resulting"amateurization" of aeademie administration has inevitablyput more authority in the hands or the more permanentadministrators and bureaucrats. S. B. Frost, until recentlyvice principal of administration and professional faculties atNitc Gill University. made the following comments on thisdevelopment after a sabbatical leave spent in Australia andNew Zealand where he inquired into the role of adminis-trators:

The democratization of the academic staff has resuRed in aprocession of inexperienced new appointees through the depart-mental offices and deaneries. In administration they are amateurs:their profession is their academic practice: they know they are inadministrative office only for a short while and must trydesperately to keep up with their discipline. In many universitiesthey seldom stay in office long enough io learn the ropes. Thewise old bird whom the principal can rely on because he has beenchairman for many years is almost extinct.... Inevitably thepermanent non-academic team is more knowledgeable and moreexperienced than their rotating colleagues, and the principallearns to listen to the voice of experience.3°

Student power, however, the clarion call for widespreadand violent disruption during the 1960s, no longer poses any

30 Frost, op. cit.. p. 15. 2 9

24

serious threat to the power of the prolessoriate. As men-tioned, the okler students coming into higher education aremore concerned with their academic work, not with reformof the institutions or society. In France less than 30',:.; ofstudents participate in elections for student representativeson university decision-making bodies. U.S. university andcollege committees have difficulty in finding students toserve on them. A constitutional court decision in Germany in1973 held that teaching staff must be in a majority indecisions on important matters, such as budget and per-sonnel, and in a number of Lander laws passed alter thestudent disruption of the 1960s giving students one third ofseats on decision-making bodies have been revised to giveacademic stall a majority, a principle affirmed in the recentlyadopted federal flochschulrahnwngeset.

.

The changes in aims. structures, and clienteles of higher=education have produced a confusion about the academicrole. Expanded enrollments have increased the pressure toteach and efforts to improve and evaluate teaching. In anumber of countries universities have special centers orprograms to help new (and old) laculty to strengthen theirteaching skins, particularly in Australia, Britain, Canada, andthe United States. A special program or the AustralianVice-Chancellors' Committee, SCREEM (Steering Committeeon Research and Development into Education Matters) in theearly 1970s provided financial support for projects focused-inter alia on the improving a teaching and learning.However, despite this greater emphasis on teaching, pressurefor scholarly output has continued and may even haveincreased as rinding jobs in higher education becom'es.morecompetitive.

Adding to the confusion on faculty role, at least in theUnited States, is the fact that in the last several years facultyhave been increasingly called on to supervise and assesslearning experiences which deviate significantly from moretraditional acadeMic work, e.g. internships, practicums, and

The Changing Cast of Characters 25

other forms of "experiential leanng. Whether or not thetrend to encourage such learning experiences grows or is* a

...casualty of the more conservative mood-settling on highereducation as a result of financial problems remains to beseen. Also. although practical experience as part of highereducation may expand in other countriesit already is anintegral part of certain programs in Britain. France, andGermany mainly in but not confined to engineering' --thatfaculty will be called on to assess that experience*is unlikely.

Demands or the.older and more vocationally or profession-ally oriented studeAts and the increased emphasis on re-current education together with the less thorough prepara-tion or entering university students 'Which may accompanythe shift from elite to mass higher education calls for someredefinition of the role of the professoriate and confusionand uncertainty regarding its future.

Administrators

Finally as to the administrators within and outside or highereducation institutions. They have multiplied and now tend torotate less than the academics. As decisions on highereducation focus more and more on budgets. the adminis-trators require more information. are more involved inplanning, and have increased power because of their crucial

_intermediary role. They translate puNic policy decisions onhigher education into formulae for the funding of research.implementing staff-student ratios at different levels and in.different disciplines, student finance arrangements, and thelike. Moreover, as in higher education systems the adminis-trators are more and more working with officials in thegovermnental or other bodies which oversee or guide or givedirections to the systems and the institutions withinThem, asFrost observed:

" Bertrand Girod de r Ain. I.:Enseignemenr Superieur en Altentanee. Aaes duCo !toque National de Rennes. Paris: La Documentation I:rang:Use. 1974.

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What might be described as "a fraternization of bureaucracies"has taken place. The vice-principal (finance) and his colleague, thecomptroller, are necessarily in frequent commUnication with thefinance secretary of the ministry of education; the direetor ofplanning is constantly on the phone to the capital funds sectionof the ministry:. the personnel office is talking just as often to theminister of social security . . . . Moreover the finance officers ofthe different universities who obviously talk each other's lan-guage, face similar problems and stand in need of identicalinformation, equally often talk to one another, exchange infor-mation and undoubtedly derive much profit for their universitiesby the developMent of uniform attitudes.... This "fraternizationof bureaucracy" may be said to be taking place both vertically tothe ministry and laterally to other universities.3 2

Countering this may be, however, a suspicion-and lack ofconfidence on the part of government bureaucrats towardhigher education administrators. In Bertil Ostergren's view,"It seems as though central bureaucracy silently reasonedlike this: officially we have to treat them as if they were bu-..reaucrats, but we do not really believe that they are."33

These remarks have tried to build on the 1975 Aspenseminar discussions on students, faculty, and administrators.They present a changing outlook for faculty in particular asthey adjUst to the needs of new and more diverse studentsand to the increasing power of the higher educationbureaucracies. This situation is probably inevitable, given theincreased importance of higher education as an instruMent ofsocial policy. As such it can no longer, as in the past, marchto its own drummer. To the implications of this for the aimsand management of higher education the next essay is

addressed.

"Frost, op. cit., p. 15,

Bertil östergren, Planning for Change in Higher Education. A Description ofInterim Reports of a Swedish Study, Stockholm: Office of the Chancellor ofthe Swedish Universities, September 1975. p. 20.

3 2

CHANGING AIMSAND MANAGEMENT

Just as the basic aims of the developed countries are beingquestioned, especially economic growth, so too are the aimsof higher education and its growth. Leaders in highereducation as in government may face the dismaying prospectof what Kenneth Boulding has called "the management ofdecline" and even the management of the unmanageable.James S. Coleman, in one of the background paperscommended to seminar participants, analyzed the impact onthe university of society's new demands upon it, andsketched what he characterized as the "emergent character ofthe university:"

A shell of a former community structure that has lost the normsthat supported its once central common activity of teaching andstudying and is invaded by a variety of activities that thrive onthe sldlls contained within it. This rush of new activities into theuniversity has so changed the content of its activities and itsrelation to society that its function is very different from that ofthe classical liberal conception of the university, insulated fromaction in society and able to provide a detached perspective uponthat action.34

Recurrent Education

Among the social pressures on higher education which havesignificant implications for its aims and structure is the

"James S. Coleman, "The University and Society's New Demands upon It," inContent and Context, Carl Kaysen, ed., a Report Prepared for the CarnegieCommission on Higher Education, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1973, p. 374.

3 3 27

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pressure for more vocationally oriented teaching. JohnVaizey pointed to the "great growth or degrees in serviceoccupations in the postindustrial society,- e.g. four universi-ties in the United Kingdom now offer 'degrees in hotelmanagement.35 Torsten Husen remarked on the increasingvocationalism in undergraduate programs in Swedish highereducation, especially for the enlarging number of adultstudents with their more structured goals. More vocation-alism, as mentioned, also seems a likely result of theexpansion of recurrent education. Rapidly changing techne-logical societies cannot foreSee and provide through initialeducation the competences they need. The retraining of older-students through recurrent education therefore becomes partof an active manpower policy which coordinates educationalprovision, labor market training, and adult education.

In France, recurrent education will also affect highereducation otTerings. Legislation of 1972 in that countrywhich requires business firms to devote a percentage or theirwage bill to diversified and expanded education programs for.workers (1% in 1975 and 27r a few years hence) will funduniversity efforts to offer more vocationally oriented courses.Already, as Alain Bienayme' pointed out, three universitiesin Aix. Strasbourg. and Toulousenow have .special depart-ments which offer recurrent education to retired people.

The increased emphasis on recurrent education will call formore diversified curricular content in higher education.Moreover, to take account of the variety, of culturalbackgrounds and needs of the new students, approaches toteaching and examination will also need to be diversified.

.These needs in turn will entail a great deal of research on_newfields and more effective efforts by the universities to make

the public aware of what they can offer. However, asBienayme asked, will the development of more vocational

programs at 'the universities be at the expense of basic

" Vaizey, op. cit.. p. 141. 3 1

Changing Aims and Management 29

research and nonutilitarian courses? How can objectivecriteria be identified to guide decisions on these matters?

More than one seminarist expressed miseivings."idiiiiit theaims of recurrent education. Is it a genuine strategy forexpanding higher education opportunity? Or is the under-lying intention to avoid expansion by postponing or "coolingout" demand in the hope that it will evaporate Or at leastdiminish, and thereby reduce the costs (and vocationaliza-tion) of higher education? While supporting the expansiOn ofrecurrent education, the Aspen group was concerned aboutits financing. Because in few countries is a higher percentageof the GNP likely to be allocated to higher education, agreater commitment to re.:arrent education at the universitiesmay be to the detriment of more traditional academic goals,such as offering a general or liberal education.

Liberal Education

If higher education becomes more vocationally oriented,what are the implications for a liberal education zind itscontinued validity? Father Theodore Hesburgh, president ofNotre Dame University: who joined the seminar one week,as-Sertd that a liberal education has more validity than ever.In his view a liberal education sho,,Id enable a young personto situate himself in relation to the world, to know where toturn for answers, to be at ease in being a person in this world,to be more curious after graduation than before, to interior-ize the values needed for life, to love beauty, and toappreciate the need for global justice.

No one could fault such a thoughtful definition. David.:Perkins, .no token student he but another lively seminarist,spoke compellingly of the dilemmas a liberal arts collegestudent in the United States faces in searching for a liberaleducation and in gaining from a college education a knowl-edge of what his/her goals are. He analyzed what he calledthe monastic view, the laissez-faire pluralism approach, and.the concept of liberal education as a wheel with eachdiscipline seeing itself at the center. The last would appear to

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vitiate the notion that the concept of a liberal education canclaim a consensus on aims and content. If a coherent worldview is a major goal of a liberal education, it seems to be in astate of disarray. But is this to be blamed on higher educationor on the state of the world, the complexities of which maydefy efforts to define the coherent world view of whichDavid Perkins spoke, but make it more urgent than ever?

Career Training

If the nature and place of vocational and liberal education inhigher education and their implications for the aims ofhigher education are increasingly in question, the nature andproduct of professional education may be even more. In themedieval period Bologna, Salerno, Paris apd Oxbridge Univer-sities were indeed professional, training for the law, medicine.the clergy, and teaching. The emergence since then of newprofessions has greatly diversified the content of universityteaching. especially with regard to science and engineeringand most recentty the whole field of human services. Thenotion that higher education prepares one for a particularprofession has persisted, and the professional job marketuntil recently accommodated the notion. Thus. when only5-I 0'.'; of the college or university age group were in highereducation, as in Western Europe before the enormousexpansion of the I 960s. professional positions were availableto graduates.

No longer is this the case. neither in the developingcountries (witness the thousands of unemployed and under-employed engineers in India), nor in the developed world. InGermany, for example, whereas some 70% ot' universitygraduates entered the public service (including school anduniversity teaching) when 5% of the age group entereduniversity a decade or more ago, now that over 20% enterhigher education (I 5r,. the universities), such assured careersfor this expanded number are not or will soon cease to beavailable. The lockstep between specialized professionaltraining and career expectations of salary and status needs to

00

Changing Aims and Management 31

be broken to reduce the rigidities or the system and itshuman and financial costs.3 A strategy urged by AlexanderKwapong would be to train/educate "polyvalent students,-that is, to give students a broadly based education and a-flexible preprolessional or semi-professional training to whichmore specialized training can be added at a later stage asneeded.

Efforts in this directitin are underway in France and GreatBritain.. In thd former. under a reform or 1973, a newdiploma awarded at the end of the first two-year cycle ofuniversity studies, the Dip Mine des Etudes: UnirersitairesGenera les .(D.E.U.G.), has superseded more specialized di-plomas and the less flexible curricula which they certified. InBritain as in .;fer Western European countries a decliningbirthrate in the last decade or more portends a sharpreduction in the number of school teachers needed. Therewill be some 800.000 fewer 5-14 year oHs in 1981 than in1975. To adapt to this reduced need and not reduce highereducation enrollments proportionately in the coileges ofeducation (although a substantial reduction has been man-dated by the Department of Education and Science alongwith the closing or a number or the colleges). the collegesnow offer a new diploma of higher education along with thecertificate of edifCation, the latter to a reduced studentintake. The two-year Dip. 1-1.E. offers a broader educationthan the certificate which in principle will lead to a range'ofemployment possibilities. Whether this in fact happensremains to be tested.

Higher Education Planning

The various efforts to expand recurrent education, toredefine the place and nature of a liberal education, and toadapt higher education to changing needs in professional

'For a discussion of thk problem in reference to engineer training in Germanysee Hans Leussink, Engineering Sciences in Today'v World, New York: ICED,Occasional Paper No. 16, pp. 16-18.

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programs have become more urgent with the rapid expansionof higher education enrollments and costs and its importanceas an instrument of social policies. These efforts also point upsome of the problems of higher education planning. Neitherin the socialist countries nor in the Western industrializedworld are reliable indicators available on the kinds of highereducation needed by how many. for what jobs. and withwhat time frame. As John Vaizey poi.nted out, "The tech-niques which we have for forward planning in higher educa-tion are very primitive and some are of low intellectualcalibre.-3 Alexander Kwapong was partly admitting thefailure of planning to predict accurately in urging that highereducation, especially in the developing countries, producepolyvalent graduates. Training highly specialized persons whoend up unemployed or underemployed is too expensive forthe developine and developed countries alike.

The suggestion of James Perkins. seminar chairman. ofwhat might be called polyvalent higher education systems is apossible solution to the problem and one that is beingpursued in a number of countries, mainly the Anglo-Saxon.Given the expansion of higher education enrollment,, tiiediversity of student bodies and the goals which they andsociety set for higher education, what is needed are systemswhich through their diversity can between them accommo-date diverse aims. students, quality. staff. and proerams.However, because diversity among institutions in a givensystem is often perceived as implying a hierarchy of quality,those institutions not at the head of the academic processionmay seek to emulate those which are. Without a strongcoordinating system which can ensure continued diversity, itcan become a casualty of the drive for equality or of"academic drift toward greater uniformity.

The preservation of diversity may also require a substantialdegree of autonomy in the individual institutions and their

3 7.1ohn Vaizey. "Higlwr EcItieltion Planning." Higher Education and the CurrentCrises% op. cit.. p. 195.

3 3

Changing Ainis and Managernent 33 .

commitment to- exercising it vigorously, creatively, andcooperatively with the other institutions in the system. As

-James Perkins put it in a publication several years ago whichfocused on systems and their management and coordination."Those who want academic direction to remain in academichands have no choice, it seems to Me, but to learn how tobalance their desire for independence_with the necessities forclose collaboration with- other universities...3 This calls forcompetent and strong leadership by heads..of colleees anduniversities, active and informed participation by facultymembers in academic governance, and capable administrativestaff.

Leadership wilds relatimt to heads of colleges and universi-ties are moving in differentdirections in the Anglo-Saxon andthe continental European countries. Howard Bowen inanalyzing trends in the United States emphasized thedeclining power of collette and university presidents as aresult of its being more and more shared or eroded byincreasingly demandine forces from outside the institutions.He stated that:

"... even for men of exceptional leadership, subtlety anddiplomacy, the power of the presidency is patently incommensu-rate with the responsibilities. The question must be askedwhether, in view of the radical dispersion of power, a college oruniversity is governable in the sense of pursuing a coherentprogr'am based on the values of a true academic community anddirected toward the broad social interest, or whether it hasbecome merely a victim of conflicting forces like a ball suspendedby rubber bands which are being pulled in different directions.3 9

Any attempt to examine the power of heads of universi-ties, especially in the Anglo-Saxon countries, cannot, how-

James A. Perkins, Higher Education: From Autonomy to Systems, New York:ICED. 1972. p. 12.

"[toward Bowen. "The Changing Power Structure in U.S. Higher Education,"op. cit., Higher Education and the current crises. pp. /67-8.

3

34 g

ever, ignore the fact that much may still depend on thepersonality of the individuals involved. Even though, at leastror the "multiversity- in the United States. "The day of themonarchs has passed,' personal leadership and style stillmay make a difference. In reviewing Power and Authority inBritish Universities by Graeme C. Moodie and RowlandEustace and remarking... on the diMrence between theefficient power and formal, responsibility of universityvice-chancellors, K.R. Minogue wrote that:

Much depends on personality; some are consthulional monarchs;others are exemplified by the siory of A.D. Lindsay .: "(Once)when every vole went against (him) he smiled.and said geniallyWell, we seem lo have reached animpasse."4 I

Although in the continental European higher educationinstitutions the power of the president or rector may also be"incommensurate with the responsibilities," this power hasincreased in the last few years. Various universitY.reformshave provided for longer terms or office, for increased powerat the center as the power of .Chairholders and heads ofdepartments and instites has been dispersed among stu-dents, other faculty members, and administrators. However,the power of heads of institutions ;:annot be measured onlyin terms of what they may have accrued in the process ofinternal democraitzation. It also is a factor of what they mayhave lost vis-ZI-v:q the public authorities which place in-creasing demands upor them. Neither external bodies norinternal governance s.ystems have given to presidents andrectors the deuree of authority they need to cope effectivelywith demandS from within and v.ithout.

Although. -;,-)ward Bowen pointed out, active participa-tion by -fact.ff:,. in academic governance increased in the last

Clark Kerr. The Uses of the University. Cambridge. Nlass.: Ilarvard UniversityPress. 19.63, p. 32.

' K.R. Nlinoque, "Sober Thoughts on University Government," Minerva. Vol.XIII. No. 2. Summer 1975, p. 324.

4 0

Changing Mms and Management 35

20 years, at least in the United States, it seems likely todiminish in the future. The pressure of the sheer expansion ofenrollments together with a decline in faculty recruitmenthave in a number of countries increased the teaching load offaculty, leaving them less time and zest for active participa-tion, in governance. In Britain, for example. some 500 facultypositions were unfilled as of fall 1975. an economy measureinevitably adding to the burden of existing faculty. A similar.situution exists in North America and some of the otherWestern European countries. The slowdown in facultyrecruitment is producing a teaching staff who are older, moreconservative, and sometimes apathetic toward activities ex-tending beyond their immediate concern with teaching andscholarship. Faculty unionization tend4 in the long run todiscourage faculty initiative in university affairs as some ofthe major issues, e.g. teaching load, then become the respon-sibility of the union.

Finally, the pressures toward greater efficiency in highereducation administration with all the apparatus and arcanelanguage or cost accounting and new management techniquesthat these entail reenforce the academic's tendency tocultivate hls/her own garden. At the University of Lancaster'ssecond International Conference on Higher Education. SirEric Ashby, then Master of Clare College. commented that"There Is a need to Include in higher education someexperience which will help people to learn the art of that sortof decision making which includes scientific data. estimatesor practicality, and a framework of ethical principles,' 2Although Sir Eric was mainly referring to the experiencestudents should gain, his recommendations might also applyto faculty so that they are not discouraged from ptaticipation

'In university governance and administration by Its increasedcomplexity, requirements of specialized knowledge. andbureaucratization, as WM. Plomnwr suggests they may he:

" P,th Ahhy, Tlu, Structure of Higher Education: World Plew, Nrw York;WED, Oremionol Pam No, 6. I 073. 11,

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And blind professors summarize and peerAnd catalogue, and will not understand;And where the bards once spread their glittering cheer,An electronic surfeit stuns the cynic's ear.4 3

Power of Administrators

The management of higher education institutions, includingthe preserviition and exercise of their autonomy, is more andmore falling to the growing ranks of administrators within_the institutions. Increased demands by ministries, coordi-nating authorities, and/or intermediary bodies interposedbetween the higher education institutions and governmenthave required an expansion in the administrative stall' of theinstitutions. What S.B. Frost wrote with respect to Canada,Australia, and New Zealand applies to other countries aswell:

As goVernments have concerned themselves more and moreclosely with tl e. day-to-day expenditure of the vast sums they aresupplying, they have demanded new forms of budgetary control,new refinements of statistical data and a new precision ofdetermination of stuff.. The provision of capital funds wasmade subject to complicated formulae based on norms whichrequired expert interpretation ... As a result universities havehad to staff planning departments, personnel offices, pension,fringe benefit and health offices and many others that were quiteuncalled for ten years ago. The advent of the computer and the,creation and staffing of a highly technical computer center hassimilarly made the creation of a systems management office aprime necessity. These functions have inevitably created a wholenew bureaucracy within the university.4 4

There is also a self-accelerating aspect to academic'bureau-cratization." As central or coordinating or intermediary

'Mortimer, tql, di p. 298.

44 Frost, op. elt, pp. 14-15.

4 ' Mr, Ibenayme preferred the word technocracy to bureaucracy, the latter In hisview denoting an incompetent technocracy.

4 2

1 Changing Aims and Management 37.

bodies expand their staff in order to scrutinize and some-times direct higher education inStitutions, the institutions'enlarge their administrative staff to keep pace with demands

V placed upon them by central bodies. And as the institutions1. take on new functions and programs, central bodies expand7their staff to keep track of these new activities. In stressing

this development Torsten Husdn observed that at theUniversity of Stockholm the central administration increasedfrom about five in 1945 to over 100 persons today,.and JohnVaizey referred to a dramatic increase in the staff of theUniversity Grants Committee (U.G.C.) in Britain in the last 15years.

Bureaucratic Impact

The French members of the Aspen seminar expressed a

strong concern about the impact of centralized decisionmaking at the government level on higher education systems.Do individual institutions of higher education maintain morevigor, cohesiveness and initiative when instead of their beingdirectly under a central government authority, an intermedi-ary or buffer body is interposed between them and govern-ment, as With the U.G.c.? Are individual institutions morehesitant to assert autonomy when they are directly undergovernment? In the case of France, Mr. Le Bris suggested thatthe establishment of an intermediary body would help isolatedecision making on higher education from "destructivepolitical forces and pressures." It would also contribute tohigher 'education institutions by reviewing their programs,advising on their finance, and evaluating results.

A basic conflict between the enlargement of a centralbureaucracy, whether in a governmental or intermediarybody, and democratic participation in decision making wasemphasized by Hush. At what pohit does a large centralbureaucracy generate such a momentum of its own that itsubmerges aeademie,demoeracy and the autonomy of indivkl-mil institutions? Looked at from another point of view, atWhat point, asked Howard Bowen, does an individualinstitution become so absorbed in crisis decisions of the day

4 3

38

that it cannot reflect on and give guidance-to the institution.'sfuture directions. an exercise vital to an informed exercise of

autonomy? At what point do individual faculty feel sothreatened or n ii tubed by the bureaucratization of theirinstitutions and the system that they opt out of activeparticipation in inStitntional decision making? Can a univer-sity be governed efficiently and democratically? Does system

coordination stultify or deter innovation. as Nell Eurichsuggested? These problems are allied partly with declininggrowth patterns in enrollments and financiah-eSources.. They--also involve the size or individual institutions.

size or thslitution

Several or the Aspen participants asserted that Faculty apathyand bureaucratization tend to set in after an institution hasreached a given size. The magic number in Dietrich Gold-schmidt's view is an enrollment'or 10.000. David RobinSon

argued that it is not the total enrollment but how -aninstitution is subdivided and its component units organizedwhich matter, as with New York University which main-tained a human scale even with an enrollment or well over20.000. It was recalled that the Robbins Committee Reportin Britain (1963) posited 7.500 as a maximum enrollment foruniversities. That an institution's size may have something todo with its manageability was agreed to. especially its qualityas a community. However, there was no consensus at Aspen

on what the maximum size should be except that LuisGaribay's suggestion that the 250.000 enrollment at theNational University or Mexico undoubtedly exceeds thelimit.

Erosion or "Community"

Th e. seminar participants all agreed that the notion ofcommunity is extremely important and were concerned forits future, The growth of higher education institutions andsystems and the increased specialization within them has

A 4'

Changing Aims and Managements 39

' caused a fragmentation or the higher education eommtinity,as have its increased complexity and diversity".Iii-ToitstenHusen's view. when because or enrolrlme_nt expansion univer-sities become "training camps," they cease to be communi-ties of scholars. However. as Dietrich Goldsdimidt empha-sized, the erosion or a community sense in many universitiesin recent years has been the result of circumstances, not fromany ill will on the part of those involved.

The diminished sense of community may also be a result orthe democratization of higher education institutions. Husenobserved that the notion of a. community in which scholarsteach and students learn from them, a notion implying aninherently hierarchical community. is undermined by deci-sion-making systems which put students on an equal levelwith scholars. Governance reforms have almost nowherelegislated total equality between students Lind scholars on aone person. one vote basis. However, to the extent thatstudents participate in decision making on an equal basis withfaculty (although less now than a few years ago). eroding thedistinction between teacher and taught. the nature or theacademic community is certainly changed.

The erosion or a sense or community in higher education isalso closely bound up with the question as to whether theuniversity is a separate community in itself apart fromcociety or is part or and actively participates in society:. Irhigher education is now so much an agency or instrument orsocial policy that it is inextricably linked with society thenotion of a coMmunity or scholars separated from society nolonger has validity. Certainly, higher education has alreadymoved far in this direction. Raymond-Frangois Le Brisremarked that the dichotomy between higlwr education andsociety in France has become blurred. A university today isnot a community or scholars but a community of society.Many scholars are integrated into society, and so manystudents now combine work and academie study that thestudent is no longer separate from society.

Everywhere the workls of work and of higher education

4 5

40

increasingly intersect and overlap. This appears characteristicof higher education systems as_they move from elite to mass,as they admit older and employed persons as students, and asthey become more expenAve. more dependent upon publicfunding, and more integral .to social policy. What MiriamCamps has reNrred to in the field of international relations asthe Management of Interdependence" is an issue in highereducation as institutions and systems are more and moreimpelled to devise policies and procedures for the manage-ment of their interdependence with society.

"Miriam Camps, Managenwnt pl. Interdependence: A Preliminary Vkw, NewYork: Council on Foreign Relations, 1974. (Council Papers on InternationalAffairs).

4 6

WHICH DRUMMER?

Higher education no longer marches to its own drummer, ifindeed it ever did. Warren Bennis, president of the University

61Ciiicinnati, has commented that "The university is, in asense, an anvil on which the hammer of a fragmented societypounds away. The anvil chorus is a dissonance, not aharmony."4 7

Pressures on the University

The pressures on the university are many and not allcompatible. There are pressures to respond to differentclienteles and different needs, local or regional, national, andinternational, in some countries new higher education institu-tions have been established to complement the universitiesbecause the latter either resist pressures to provide new kindsof educational programs or because it is considered inappro-priate for them to do so.

These programs tend to be for technical, business, andcommercial training with a practical or applied orientation.They respond to the relatively recent vocational and profes-sional education needs mentioned earlier. Part of the ratio-nale for some of these new prograrns and institutions lies alsoin the concept that they should be responsive to local orregional needs. And it is partly as a result of this that there isa continuing debate over whether these newer institutions are"separate but equal" to the universities, and whether theycater to different kinds of student interests or mainly servestudents aspiring to university who fail .to gain admission to

4/ Warren Bennis, "Managing the Unmanageable," Chronicle of Higher Educe.lion, September 22, 1975, p. 20.

4 7 41

42

Ahem.'" Nevertheless, a common characteristic of these newinstitutions is a. concern with their immediate communityand reeion.

The colleges of applied arts and technology (CAATS)established in Ontario in 1966 and the community colleges inother Canadian provhices have deliberately attempted toadapt to local and community needs, especially in the stu-dents they serve and the programs they offer. In Australiathe focus of the 78 colleges of advanced education (CAEs)which enroll about 45% of tertiary education studentS1Sallegedly more on applied and technical programs and onmeeting manpower needs of national development than onlocal and regional needs as such, although these are certainlyimportant to the CAEs. Community needs would havepriority in Australia's proposed National Institute of OpenTertiary EducatiOn as among its functions would be "toarrange surveys of needs of the community generally and ofspecial clienteles for degree and diploma programmes and forcontinuing vocational and non-vocational education of terti-ary level, and to identify gaps in present offerings."'" InFrance the Instituts Universituires de Tee/tiro/ogle have acommunity concern in trying to respond to the trainedmanpower needs of the regions where, they are located.

Regionalization and Higher Education

Sweden appears to be carrying the localization or regionaliza-tion of higher education farther than most other countries.Pref:ent plans aim at regionalizing higher education with the

.establishment of new boards of universities and colleges. Thecountry will be divided into six higher education regions withuniversity cities as their headquarters, each with a regional

" For a discussion or this in Britain and Australia see David II. [lain, "Duality inHight. Education: Are There Two Systents?" The Australian University, Vol.

I, May 1975, pp, 1934,

ii Tertiary Education, op. ell., p. 120.

4 8

Which Drummer? 43

board which will have a majority of membership fromoutside .the institutions of higher educatiom,The regionalboards will "coordinate planning of undergraduate andprofessional/vocational education.' They will be con-cerned with coordinating and planning undergraduate andprofessional education in their region, maintaining links be-tween teaching and research, and with the development ofnew curricula and of recurrent education programs.

The OECD sponsored a meeting in Grenoble. France. in1-97I- on what it called short-cycle institutions (SCI), non-

university institutions which typically have a shorter studyperiod than univeNities. the main exception being the Britishpolytechnics. Although, except for community colleges inthe United States, SCIs Were then relatively new and theirfunctions and relationship to university education were inmost countries still being worked out, it was emphasized atGrenoble that "Kis. as all higher education establishments,have an important role to play as agents or poles of regionaldevelopment.' Elements of this were seen to includetraining qualified manpower for the region. creating employ-ment opportunities. and attracting new industry as a resuftproducing qualified manpower. The report of the Grenoblemeeting stated that the establishment of SCIs "is or shouldbe an important element in the whole conception ofcomprehensive regional planning (I 'wnenugement du terni-folre)."5 2

The distinction between regionally oriented nonuniversityinstitutions and the universities has seemed to blur in the lastseveral 'years. In some countries the nonuniversity institutionshave expanded their academic programs to include thegeneral or liberal studies more commonly associated withuniversities, e.g. in Australian CAEs and British poly technies.

"Chtcrgren, op. eli., p, 34,

510ECD, Shorbeyele Higher Educallon, A Search Pr Ideolliy, Paris: 1973, p,35,

"MO, p, 35,

4 9

44

Universities, on the other hand, are developing more linkswith their surrounding communities. The French universities,for example, since the 1968 Orientation Law, include in theiruniversity councils "public personalities"people from indus-try, commerce, labor, and other locally based enterprises andinterest groups. Moreover, proposals in 1975 to regionalizethe universities by setting up seven academic regions withabout ten universities in each were aimed in part at forgingcloser links between the universities and local commerce andindustry.

Some of the British universities are also building more linksoutside their walls, especially with local industry, as with theUniversity of Manchester's Research Consultancy Servicewhich "assists industry, commercial companies and localauthorities to establish relevant contacts within the Univer-sity."53 In the United States, according to Nell Eurich, pri-vate as well as public colleges and universities are similarlydemonstrating a greater concern for the needs of theircommunities and attempting to respond to them with specialacademic programs and other outreach efforts.

Seminar participants mostly applauded this trend. How-ever, it was recognized that there is a considerable differencebetween regionalization in the sense of an individual collegeor unhersity's attempting to identify and respond to needs inits region, and a regional higher education policy providingfor substantial involvement by local interests and authoritiesin decisions on access, curriculum, and research, and forcoordination of higher education institutions in a region toensure that the total system contributes to its development.The first and more limited regional involvement implies nonecessary limits on autonomy. The second and more encom-passing version of regionalization may encourage moreinstitutional autonomy if it is part of a process of decentrali-zation in a centralized system, as proposed in France.

"International Association or Universities, Bullet/is, Vol X Y:11 No. 3, 1975,Paris: International Bureau of the Univershitn, p. 189.

Which Drummer? 45

Conversely, it may limit autonomy if it means moving towarda regionally coordinated higher education system in a

situation where no coordination had existed. In either case,as Luis Garibay emphasized, autonomy carries with itresponsibility, and institutions should be concerned abouttheir surrounding society. Whether or not this calls for the

'participation of regional interests in decisions on internalacademic policies is controversial.

---"National" Universities

Whik agreeing that higher education institutions should havethis concern, some, more than others of the seminarparticipants, were strongly of the view that every countryshould have universitks that are national, not regional orlocal only. But is a "national university" an instrument ofnational policy "in the nation's service," or should it have atruly universal character? Clearly, it is not necessarily thenational universities but national systems of higher educationwhich should respond to the problems raised by EdwardHeath when he pointed out to a student group at Edinburghin December 1975 that only "one in four of iww graduatesgo into industry and less than one in 10 enter commerce."5 4

Research Needs

The distinction between specific training and research needsand more universalkss parochial functionsalso applies atthe international kvel. Akxander Kwapong of the UnitedNations University outlined some of the objectives of that .

new institution. It will give priority to a series of interna-tional problems: "World huhger; the numagement and use ofnatural resources; human and social development,"" These

""Inertiu Our Enemy, Chung(' Our Ally, The Times Educational Supplement,December 19,1973, p. 6.

"The United Nations University, Present Status, Summer/Fall 1975; brochure ofthe university, Tokyo, 1975,

51

46

are indeed pressing world problems and the Amen seminarparticipants agreed to their urgency. But the issue is not somuch the urgency of what a given institution concentratesupon but who decides what the issues shall be.

In this connection considerable concern was expressed forthe future of the "national" or international university andits tbcus on research which was generally agreed is essentialto it. Will the democratization of access and the multiplica-tion of social demands at national centers of excellence as atother- institutions drive -out-- research? Dietrich Goldschm idt--voiced doubts that it would be in the long-run interest ofresearch to seek refuge in research institutes outside thehigher education system as it might end up less independentthan if it remained with the universities, even though subjectto enlarging societal pressuresand financial stringency.According to Vaizey, the most creative research occurs whenseveral disciplines interlace, a situation much more apt tohappen in universities than in specialized research institutes.How much' longer is such research possible at the universities,given encroaching societal pressures?

Conclusion

"To which drummer" was indeed a recurring theme in theseminar. Given the diverse and international composition ofthe,group, reactions varied but only in degree. The firmconsensus was that at least some universities should standapart from society rather than being a part of it, in the senseof responding to regional, national or even internationalneeds if they were determined from without. The "monitor-ing" function or higher education has been defined byGeorge Brosan, director of North East London Polytechnic,as enabling a university "by virtue of its independence toconsider all activities and comment on them freely. That is,it operates as a critic or contemplator of society."" He

"Ifam, op.' rit p, 21.5 "

Which Drummer? 47

contrasted this with training manpower and causing knowl-edge to be applied.

with so many other imponderables which the seminarconfronted. the definition of this critical function eludedprecise definition. However. as Vaizey said, the universityremains one of the few radical institutions in, society in thesense of trying to get to the root of matters. Moreover. in theface of the many societal pressures mentioned earlier, thecrifitfal function is increasingly difficult to carry outal though_ perhaps easier to justify because it is, more_ difficultand more needed. The value of this critical function byhigher education institutions and the people who frequentthem was atTirmed by the Aspen seminar. Basically it was acoming, together of higher education experts and practition-ers from countries facing comparable circumstances to reflecton common problems, and to ponder future directions. TheAspen environment was conduciv,: to such an exercise. Thecommunity of interest and experience which typified theseminar's discussions and conclusions amply validated theenterprise.

5 3

International Council for Educational Development

The ,International Council for Educational Development(ICED) is, an international non-profit association of personswith a common concern for the future of education and itsrole in social and economic development.

ICED's major interests are Strategies of education fordevelopment and the modernization and management ofsystems of higher education. In each area, ICED's purposesare to identify and analyze major educational problemsshared by a number of countries, to generate policyrecommendations, and to provide consultation, on request,to international and national organizations.

ICED's activities are directed by James A. Perkins, chiefexecutive officer and chairman of an international board.Philip H. Coombs is vice chairman. The headquarters office isin New York City.

The main support for ICED to date has come from theFord Foundation, the International Bank for Reconstructionand Development, UNICEF, the Clark Foundation, theCarnegie Corporation of New York, the Krupp Foundation,the Volkswagen Foundation, and the Charles E. MerrillTrust. Twelve national and international :Agencies supportedICED's 18-month study on Higher Education for Develop-ment.

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

James A. PerkinsChairman of the Board

Philip H. CoombsVice Chairman of the Board

Lord AshbyMaster of Clare College (retired)Cambridge, England

Ernest L. BoyerChancellorState University of New YorkAlbany. New York

Harlan ClevelandDirectorAspen Program inInternational AffairsPrinceton. New Jersey

Ricardo Diez Hoch leanerDirectorEducation and InternationalProgramsFundackin General MediternineaMadrid, Spain

Alvin C. EurichPresidentAcademy for EducationalDevelopmentNew York, New York

Felipe HerreraCoordinator GeneralECIEL ProgramRio de Janeiro, Brazil

...James M. HesterRectorUnited Nations UniversityTokyo, Japan

Torsten MienProfessor of Education andDirector of the Institute for

the Study of InternationalProblems in Education

University of StockholmStockholm, Sweden

Lady Barbara Ward JacksonPresidentInternational Institute for

Environment andDevelopment

London, England

Henri JannePresidentCo Ifte ScientifiqueInstitut de SociologieUniversite Libre de BruxellesBrussels. Belgium

Clark KerrChairmanCarnegie Council on Policy Studies

in Higher EducationBerkeley, California

Max KohnstammPresidentEuropean University InstituteFlorence, Italy

Peter F. KroghDeanSchool of Foreign ServiceGeorgetown UniversityWashington, D.C.

Alexander A. KwapongVice RectorUnited Nations UniversityTokyo, Japan

Raymond-Francois Le BrisLe Directeur du CabinetSecretariat d'Etat aux UniversitesParis, France

Hans LeussinkFormer Federal Minister of

Education and ScienceKarlsruhe, West Germany

Sol M. Linowitz, Esq.Coudert BrothersWashington, D.C.

Edwin M. MartinChairmanConsultative Group on Food

Production and Investmentin Developing Countries

Washington, D.C.

Robert S. McNamaraPresidentInternational Bank for

Reconstruction andDevelopment

Washington, D.C.

Martin MeyersonPresidentUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Michio NagaiMinister of EducationTokyo, Japan

5

Mfonso Ocampo LondoicoPresidentrompania Promotora

Pape lera Ltda.Cali, Colombia

Paola Coppola PignatelliProfessor of Architectural

DesignGruppo di Ricerche

sull'Edilizia perl'Istruzione Superiore

University of RomeRome, Italy

Joseph E. SlaterPresidentAspen Institute for

Humanistic StudiesNew York, New York

Jan SZCZepanskiDirectorI nsty tut FilozotliPolska Akademia NaukWarsaw, Poland

Puey 'UngphakornRectorThammasat UniversityBangkok, Thailand