DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 302 932 EA 020 617

AUTHOR Koech, Michael KipkorirTITLE Development and International Environmental

Education.PUB DATE Mar 88NOTE 24p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the

Comparative and International Education Society(Atlanta, GA, March 17-20, 1988).Speeches/Conference Papers (150) -- Reports -Descriptive (141)

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Conservation (Environment); *Curriculum Development;

*Developing Nations; Economic Development; ElementarySecondary Education; *Environmental Education;Foreign Countries; Forestry; Higher Education;Population Education; Rural Development; SoilConservation; Technological Advancement

IDENTIFIERS *Kenya

ABSTRACTIn six parts, this paper highlights the significance

of environmental education (EE) and its contributions to nationaldevelopment in developing countries and in Kenya in particular.Sections 1 and 2 provide an overview of environmental problems andthe history of worldwide environmental education, respectively.Sections 3 and 4 review the basic concepts and principles of EE andthe role EE plays in national development in developing countries.Section 5 discusses EE and development in Kenya. Section 6 summarizesthe paper, indicating that environmental education has beenincorporated into Kenyan primary school, secondary school, anduniversity curriculums. As a result, reforestation and soilconservation policies and procedures have been widely implemented inKenya by better environmentally educated citizens. A bibliography isprovided. (JAM)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. *

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DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

By

Dr. Michael Kipkorir Koech, DirectorCentre for Environmental Education

Kenyatta University

Prepared for:

The Comparative International Education SocietyAnnual Conference

March 17 - 20, 1988

Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.

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DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

By

Dr. Michael Kipkorir Koech, DirectorCentre for Environmental Education

Kenyatta University

Introduction

In the past many people thought that urbanizationand industrialization were the necessary indictors for adeveloping country, and even as recent as 1970, manypeople believe that economic growth, industrial, andtechnological development will improve the quality oflife by producing more marketable goods and increasingthe excavation activities for mineral and energysources. But, it is now evident that these notionsare not completely true due to rapid, and more oftenunplanned developments that have created many environ-mental problems (deforestation, pollution).

The purpose of this paper is to highlight thesignificance of Environmental Education (EE) and itscontributions to national development. .Sections oneand two will provide an overview of environmentalproblems, and the evolutions of EE respectively.Sections three and four will discuss the basic conceptsand principles of EE, and the role of the EE innational development and sections five will discussEE and development. in Kenya; and last, but not least,section six, will present a summary and someaccomplishments.

SECTION ONE

An Overview of Environmental Problems

The pressures on the .invironment are many, andcome from many diverse sources such as poverty, lowlevels of technology, mismanagement of resources, lackof adequate education and trained personnel, under-development, pollution and many more. Perhaps, povertyis one of the worst type of 'pollution' and with theintensification of development and technologyin the developing countries to attain higher levelsof standards of living. More often this processinvolves the alterations of natural environments, andin many instances these modifications affect theenvironment negatively. For example, the construction

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of the Aswan Dam in Egypt and ether similar dams thathave spread the schistosomiasis/bilharzia to the humanpopulations. Schitosomiasis infect an estimated 250million people in the countries of Africa, Asia, andSouth America. It is now considered that, "Aftermalaria, schistosomiasis is ... the world's most wide-spread, serious infectious disease ".1 The constructionof dams for agricultural and electricity purposes alsodisplace large numbers of people. The AkosomboDam in Ghana moved 1% of its national population in themid 1960s (78,000 people) to provide room for the 4am.The dam covers an area of 8,482 square kilometres.'This type of development, illustrates just one way inwhich human beings tamper with the environment for thesake of "development".

There are many types of environmental problems. Theseproblems can be grouped into three broad areas: global,regional, and local. The globalaare internationalenvironmental problems in nature, and they are perhapsthe most dangerous because in this category insecticide/peSticide residues have tendencies of persisting in theenvironment for long periods of time, and through agentslike wind, water and living things, chemicals in theenvironments frequently travel beyond their orginal sitesof applicaiton; the pollution of the oceans and riversbecause of the soil erosions and chemicals from the landbased man's activities and dumping activities in the worldoceans; and pollution of the atmosphere through theoperations of industries in the burning of fossil fuelswhich have resulted into the negative effects of the:"acid rain" and the like.

The second category involves regional problemssuch as the spreading of edesertificatioh. , and riverdevelopment up to or downstream across nationalboundaries, and air pollution between neighbouring countries.The third type include local problems which are oftenconfined within national boundaries. For exaraple, theeutrophication of lakes from fertilizer runoff, insufficientprovision%of clean water and unsafe disposal of wastematerials. These problems can be viewed from twoperspectives: those that evolve as a result of abjectpoverty and thse are manifested through many years ofmismanagement of the environments. This mismanagementhas become very apparent in overgrazing, soil erosion,industrialand air pollution, deforestation, surfacewatervpollution, desertification, and drought. Examinedfrom the other perspective, there are those problems thatsurface in the name of "development" process.

Many African nations feel the pressure to provideadequate food for its people and this means intensifying

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agricultural activities through reclaiming arableland through cutting down forests, constructingirrigation, excessive use of pesticides and chemicalfertilizers on the environment. This requirementputs heavy demand on soils and without proper managementsoil erosion increases. One report indicated that,

The global area destroyed/degradedsoils-once biologically productive-totalled 20 million square kilometers.This was described as more than theentire worldwide arable area usedfor contemporary food production...the continuing:annual loss toagriculture was about 60,000 squarekilometres, via processes of erosion/destruction mainly caused by humanactivities and malpractices.3

The effects of this mismanagement and abuse may beirreversible, and precautionary measures must beimplemented by every nation concerned with the environment.Preventive measures are less costly than curative actions.With this brief overview of environmental problems, itis necessary to provide a short historical developmentof Environmental Education (EE) globally.

SECTION TWO

Evolution of Environmental Education

In recent years, nations all over the world havebecome conscious about man's relationship with an impacton the environment. This awareness began developing inthe industrialized nations. These environmental concernsbegan to grow stronger in the 1950's as a result ofhuman activities such as the air pollution in Londonand New York and the decrease of aquatic life in theNorth American Great Lakes. Many birds died as aresult of unexpected side effects of the use ofdichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane (DDT) and otherorgano-chlorine pesticides. The extensive oil spillpollution from the wreck of Torrey Canyon (super tanker)in 1966 created extensive damage to natural resources.Because of the highly publized issues, fearsdeveloped that human lives could be negativelyaffected by pollution and the human tempering with theenvironments.

As early as 1960, National Rural Studies Association(NRSA) developed in Britain began addressing environmentalissues, commencing with school teachers who were interesiddin&natural

history and rural education. More than aAde latk'NRSA'enaii ed it

,

for Environmental Education in the early 1970's. As theenvironmental concerns continued to develop, other groupsin Britain, such as lecturers of universities and collegesformed their own organization, Society for EnvironmentalEducation (SEE) in 1970 to deal with similar environmentalissues as the NRSA, but in 1976 the two societies united toform one organization with the aim to educate people aboutenvironmental matters.

While environmental conciousness was growing inBritain, other similar developments were being initiatedin the United States of America to tackle similarenvironmental problems (population growth and density,industrial pollution). In 1962 Rachel Carson's bookThe Silent Spring delineated many environmental problems.Following this publication, in 1970 major internationalbodies such as the International Union for the Conservationof Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) convened aconference on environmental concerns and the role ofeducation within this context. The conference was heldin Nevada, U.S.A., to deliberate on environmentalproblems and how to educate the public. After thismeeting, several major international conferences followed,including the Stockholm conferences in 1972, Unesco-Unep-IEEP in Belgrade in 1975, and the Tblisi Conference inRussia in 1977.

a) The Stockholm Conference - Sweden 1972

The year 1972, is the year during which the UnitedNations Conference in "Human Environment" was convened inStockholm. Environmental pollution was one of the key itemsin this conference. The representatives of the industrializedcountries in this meeting approached the conference withenvironmental pollution problems as one of their priorities.As these industrialized nations emphasized these issuesJpollution, protection of the global resources), the developingcountries presented slightly different agenda at theStockholm Conference.

The developing countries approached the StockholmConference with different t_xoblems of their own. Theseproblems included: inadequacy of human settlements,insufficient provision of clean water, unsafe disposalof human body wastes, the continued infectious diseasesand rampant poverty. Along with tackling these problems,the developing nations stressed that they are in aperiod of rapid change of development with meagrefinancial resources and acute shortages of skilledpersonnel. While issues like pollution were not highon their agenda these countries nevertheless,agreed in principle, that inexpensive routes to

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industrialization should be sought while being verycareful about minimizing negative effects of industrial.pollution. The Stockholm Conference generated severalrecommendations and action plans. One of theseessential recommentations is No. 96. It states that,

the Secretary General, the organizationof.the United Nations system/ especiallythe United Nations Education, Scientificand Cultural Organizations (UNESCO) andthe other international agencies concernedshould, after consultation and agreement,take the necessary steps to establish aninternational programme in envircnmentaleducation, interdisciplinary in approachin school and out of school encompassingall levels of education and directedtowards the general public in particulart1-.a ordinary citizen living in ruraland urban areas, youth and adults alike,with a view to educating him as to thesimple steps he might take within hismeans, to manage and control hisenvironment.

This recommendation strongly suggests that there isa global need for developing and establishing internationalenvironmental education. It also implies thatenvironmental education can contribute towards developingand improving the environments for better humanhabitation.

Close co-operation was then established betweenUNESCO and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).'With the guidance from UNESCO-UNEP many environmentalprogrammes emphasing training, materials development,research information exchange, e.t:c. have beenimplemented by many nations. In Kenya, for instance,the National Environmental Secretariat (NES), an agencywithin the Ministry of Natdral Resources and Environmenthas researched and published a series of reports onseveral aspects of the environment. Other institutionsof higher learning in Kenya, such as Kenyatta University,Moi University, Kenya Science Teachers College andothers, are providing courses in environmental studiesfor future teachers.

b) Unesco-Unep-International Environmental Programme-

Belgrade 1975

The year 1975 signifies the establishmentof UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental EducationProgramme (IEEP). The objectives of the IEEP are the

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implementation of the recommendations of the TbilisiIntergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,held in 1977 (see below) through encouraging andassisting governments, national, regional andinternational institutions to incorporate environmentaleducation into formal and non-formal education systemsand programmes, to make people aware.of the relationshipbetween man and the environment on which he depends,to impart knowledge and skills for solving environmentalproblems for the protection and improvement of theenvironment and its quality. An additional objectiveis to assist people and nations to provide potentialsolutions to the existing environmental problems,and to prevent people and nations from creating newenvironmental problems.

c) Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education-Tbilisi, 1977

This was the first Intergovernmental Conference onEnvironmental Education organized between UNESCO and UNEP.This was a follow-up to the Stockholm Conference on thehuman environment. In essence, the standing contributionof the Tbilisi Conference was the formulation and endorsementof environmental education goals, objective and guidingprinciples which have since served as a common denominatorin the development of most environmental education activitiesat the international, .and regionalllevels. The conferencegenerated strategies for the development of environmentaleducation and training. Recommendation NO. 21 of thisconference stated that,

...the institutional and educationalchanges required for the incorporationof environmental education intonational_ education system should bebased not only on experience but alsoon research and evaluation aimed atimproving educational policy decisions.Recommended to all Member States: thatthey carry out research concerning: (1)

the goala and objectives of environmentaleducation; (2) the epistemological andinstitutional structures that affectconsideration of environment demands;and (3) the knowledge and attitudes ofindividuals, in order to identify mereprecisely that most effective educationalconditions, types of action by teachersand processes of assimilation of know-ledge by pupils, as wells as obstaclesto the modification of concepts, valuesand attitudes which are held by individualsand are involved in environmental behaviour.'

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Since the Stockholm Conference, many meetings,workshops, symposia, pilot projects and other actionprogrammes have been conducted at t'le global, regional,national, local community and institutional levels. Thefindings of such activities have been collected,discussed and refined, and recommendations for theirextended investigation or implementation have beendocumented in many meetings held for example, in BrazzavilleIn the case of Kenya, examples of initiatives are theNational Symposium, the Association of AfricanUniversities Workshop and the Kenyatta UniversityWorkshop. At meetings such as these, problems relatedto Environmental Education were raised, particularlywith regard to its concepts and audiences; environmentalissues and problems; aims and objectives; programmedevelopment strategies; information network; global,regional, national environmental needs and priorities;teaching/learning materials development, research andstaff training needs and so on. Recommendations werealso formulated as they apply to the various audiencesand educational levels.

Specific examples'of the machinery which have beenestablished to promote EE include UNEP and Habitat, bothheadquartered in Nairobi. Kenya is fortunate to havethese vital UN bodies dealing with environmental issuesat its doors. The Kenya government and its institutions,including schools, colleges, universities, and otheragencies can positively exploit the resources at theseU.N. bodies, especially UNEP for their own good inenhancing people's awareness and educating them aboutways of improving the environment for the bettermentof all. Specifically, Kenya has established viablebranches such as the National Environment,Secretariatto do research, publish and educate the public aboutthe environment and, simulataneously, the Kenya'stPresidentialCommission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation isbusy with providing practical solutions (gabions) forpreventing soil erosion, water management, tree planting,and conserving:forests and other environmentalinitiatives are continuously being deliberated, decisionsformulated and implemented.

Based on the types of environmental problems nowexisting worldwide, it can be observed with absolutecertainty that there is a need fcr EE. The need forEE was recognized by the international community in1972 Stockholm and 1977 Tbilisi Conferences. EEbelongs to every sector of the national economies. Forinstance,

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with growing awareness of environmentalproblems consideration is being givento the type of education programmesneeded to meet our requirements ... Onlyrelevant education for the public onhorizontal scale remains the mostpowerful instrument currently availableto bring about improvement and change.5

There is an increasing role of EE in nearly every settingof national economies, hence, an understanding, of itsbasic concepts, values, and principles are prerequisitesto developing EE programmes and contributing to nationaldevelopment.

SECTION THREE

Basic Concepts, Values, and Principles

As it is in many subjects and fields of knowledge,concepts, must be clearly presented and explained. Inthis section the following broad concepts will be discussed:environment and environmental education.

a) Environment

What is environment? Environment can be conceived ascomprising of nearly everything that is associatedwith all organisms and this also encompasses otherorganisms in the living and non-living world wherelife exists. Included. in these associations arethe weather, seasonal changes, the physical andchemical composition of the soil and all aspects ofan organism's surroundings. The term "environment"can be synonymous to the concept "surroundings" ofan organism in its habitat. Sometimes "the concept

environment :.is regdrded as including all

aspects of people and their surroundings individuallyor collectively. This pattern of thought considersall the natural and socio-cultural elements whichaffect human beings directly or indirectly in theliving as well as working conditions Theenvironment can be conceptualized as encomposingfour components - supra, living, social andpersonal - as shown below.

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Figure 1: Man and His Environment

LONG

TERM

SOURCE: UNESCO -UNEP Consultation Meeting on theIncorporation of EnvironmentalEducation into Technical andVocational Education ColomboPlan Staff ColleTror TechnicianEducation Singapore March 1986.p. 11.

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The Glossary of Environmental Education Terms -Unesco-UNEP, 1983 describes the environment as"The aggregate of surrounding things (biotic andabiotic) and conditions that influence the lifeof an individual organism of population, includinghumans. The Unesco concept of the environmentincludes a complex of natural,built and socialcomponents in the life of humanity." No organismsincluding man exist without environments-thebiosphere where the ecological relationshipsseem to aggregate and mutual interdependencyexist.

b) Environmental Education

"Education" is a ccntinuous process, whileenvironmental education is one specializationamong many in education. What then isenvironmental education? And what makes educationenvironmental? Environmental education meansdifferent things to different people in all walksof life.. Some people define or describeenvironmental education as a branch of scienceeducation, nature study, the study of ecologicalrelationships, conservation education, preservationeducation, a function of economics, or resourcemanagement education. According to the Glossaryof Environmental Education Terms Unesco, 1983 isdescribed as "The educational process that dealswith the human interrelationships . with theenvironment and uti 'Iizes an interdisciplinaryproblem-solving approach with value clarification."Many definations of environmental education havebeen formulated by different groups dealingwith environmental education. Of these definitions,the majority of environmental educationists andother groups endorse and use the following:

Environmental education is the processof recognizing values and clarifyingconcepts in order to develop skillsand attitudes necessary to understandand appreciate the interrelatednessamong man, his culture and hisbiophysical surroundings.Environmental education also entailspractice in decision-making andself-formulation of code of behaviourabout issues concerning environmentalquality.7

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This definition was accepted and recommended for wide use

by participants in the International Working Meeting on EnvironmentalEducation in the School Curriculum, organized by the MON Commission ofEducation under the sponsorship of Unesco, 1970. This definition hasbeen endorsed by the National Association for Environmental Educationin the United Kingdom.

Out of this definition a few additional important educationalconcepts can be extracted. These are values, attitudes and skills.These elements are essential in the facilitation of the implementationof environmental education programmes. Values may differ from onesociety to the other, but inspite of the differences, values producebehaviour in.people (emotional, judgemental). Attitudes representhuman behavioural dispositions or tendencies. Attitudes can be positiveor negative. Environmental education is linked to value and attitudetypes of education.

In order to interact fully and effectively with the environment,skills are essential. The skills can take the form of exploring,probing, discovering, interpreting, communicating, evaluating andarriving at implementable formulated decisions. Skills also includeobservation, inquiry, problem-solving, value clarification and others.Armed with these values, attitudes and skills, environmental educationconcerns itself with educational processes, knowledge and understandingof and commitment to solving environmental problems. The need forenvironmental education is continuous because each new generation needs tolearn and practice protection, management and conservation of naturalresources for itself and future generations.

With this conceptual framework of EE and its rationale,there is no doubt that this important subject has significantcontributions to make towards improving the environments andquality of life. EE aims at improving all ecologicalrelationships and interactions between humanity and nature andat the same time improve the environmental interactionsbetween peoples. To accomplish this, the overall goal ofenvironmental education should be to develop a worldpopulation that is well informed and Concerned about theenvironment and its myriads ecological problems. This well'informed population need to be APP d with skills, attitudes,knowledge, and to commit itself towards providing potentialsolutions to the prevailing environmental crises and toavoid the possibilities of creating new problems.

c) Principles of EE

Like in all fields of knowledge, EE has its own baseand the principles on which it operates. In the definitionsof EE, already provided, principles were certainly implied.For instance, skills, attitudes and values. Throughenvironmental education, everyone can and must acquireknowledge and skills which equip the individual toparticipate actively in all decision-making processesrequired in the environmental problem-solving exercisesin the society.

Some of the principles of EE include the following and must:

1. Consider the environment in its totality-natural and built, technological and social(economic,) political, cultural-historical,moral ethical)

2. Be a continuous lifelong process, beginningat the pre-school level and continuing throughall formal and non-formal stages;

3. Be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawingon the specific content of each discipline inmaking possible a holistic and balanced perspective;

4. Examine major environmental issues from local,national, regional and international points ofview, so that students-receive insights-intoenvironmental conditions, in other geographicalareas;

5. Belp.alearner discover the symptom:. and realcauses of environmental problems;

6. Focus on current and potential environmentalsituations, while taking into account thehistorical perspective;

7. Utilize diverse learning environments and abroad array of educational approaches to teaching/learning about and from the environment with duestress on practical activities and first-hand-experience.8

Goals, Objectives and Training in EE

In order to implement Environmental EducationProgrammes effectively, clearly articulated goals,

..objectives, and training using various methodsQ.nterdisciplinary, multidisciplinary) are essential.Environmental Education operate on three broad areasof goals.

The goals include:

1. Fostering clear awareLess of, and concern abouteconomic, social and ecological interdependence inurban and rural areas;

2. Providing every person with opportunities toacquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment

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and skills needed to protect and improve theenvironment;

3. Creating new patterns of behaviour ofindividuals, groups and society as a wholetowards the environment.

To complement these goals there are five categoriesthrough which information and training can be impartedto members of the international community. Theseobjectives are outlined below.

b) Objectives

1. Awareness: To help social groups andindividuals acquire an awarenessand sensitivity to the totalenvironment and its alliedproblems;

2. Knowledge: To help social groups andindividuals gain a varietyof experience in, and acquirea basic understanding of theenvironment and its associatedproblems;

3. Attitudes: To help social groups andindividuals acquire a set ofvalues and feelings of concernfor the environment and themotivation for activelyparticipating in environmental

\improvement and protection;

To help social groups andindividuals acquire the skillsfor identifying and solvingenvironmental problems;

5. Participation: To provide social groups andindividuals with an opportunityto be actively involved atlevels in working towardsresolutioy of environmentalproblems.

In any training process in EE a combination of theseobjectives can facilitate the acquiring of skills,knowledge, and participation in environmentalproblem-solving activities.

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c) Objectives of EE and training in Africa

Out of many deliberations on environmental issuesin the African region, a meeting of experts in thescientific community convened in Nairobi, Kenya inApril of 1983 to deal with key issues in EE andtraining. These issues included increasing theawareness of people, especially the leadership,concerning human activities (deforestation, soilerosion) related to the environment. These issuesalso required skills necessary for building anenvironment in which people may live, develop,and flourish. From this conference a number ofobjectives necessary for actions were generated andthey include:

1. To provide a framework for catalyzing,coordinating and organizing environmentaleducation and training activities inAfrica at the national, regional andsub-regional levels for all systems ofeducation;

2. To provide an agreed upon framework for theprogramming of environmental education and-training activities in Africa, which countriescan use to assess and promote the incorporationof environmental dimensions in their educationand training systems;

3. To promote general awareness of the need forenvironmental education and training in theregion based on information exchange abouta Amities, programmes and materials whichhave been developed;

4. To provide a framework to facilitatecompilation and production of materials fordeveloping environmental education andtraining in the region;

5. To create educational conditions which willmake people in the African region aware of'concerned about, committed to, and equippedwith skills necessary for solving environmentalproblems and preventing new ones."

In order to accomplish these objectives, UNEP'sEnvironmental Education and Training Unit seeks a strongcollaboration of four vital elements: a) institutional(governments) b) curriculum development incorpoiatingenvironmental education in the existing curricula;,c) training programmes ecompassing the preparation oftea0ing guides, bibliographies and diversified

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instructional materials to aid educators in theimplementation of the programme; and d) researchin institutional and methodological changes neededto incorporate environmental education and traininginto educational and training systems. These fourelements will complement each other in theirapproaches and in their efforts to disseminateinformation and impart knowledge on environmentaleducation and national development activities.

SECTION FOUR

The Role of EE in National Development

As presented in the previous sections of thispaper, it can be observed that environmental educationmovements worldwide have made some contributions towardsnational development activities in many nations. Forexample, in 1979 the Senegals's National Council forUrbanism and the Environment "initiated specialmeasures for Vite conservation and improvement of theenvironment".

To complement these measures, the Senegalesegovernment implemented EE throughout the nationthrough integrating EE in the school programmes.Following the Stockholm and Tbilisi conferences EEprogrammes with in built activities for developmenthave been developed and implemented globally. Theannual national tree planting activities carriedout by many countries (Kenya) are some of thepractical efforts necessary for development.

There are many international agencies participatingin development and are concerned about the environmentand sustainable development. In this section twoexamples of these agencies will be presented verybriefly in terms of their role in development: UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) and The WorldBank.

UNEP

After the -:Stockholm Conference, UNEP was "born"and was headquartered in Kenya where it is carrying outits environmental policies, and advocating sustainabledevelopments in developing economies and the protectionof the world renewable (forests, fish) and non-renewable(soil, coal) resources through educating the people.One of the main functions assigned to the GoverningCouncil of UNEP by the General Assembly in Resolution2997 (XXVII) of 15 December, 1972 is:

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To keep under review the worldenvironmental situation in order toensLre that emerging environmentalproblems of wide internationalsignificance received appropriateand adequate consideration byGovernments.12

Chapter II of UNEP's 1987 "State of the World Report"population growth, human settlements, transport andtourism, agriculture and food production; industria3development; and energy are well discussed andanalyzed. One of the striking facts noted in thisReport emphatically states that, "As for the globaldistribution, 80 per cent of the increase in theworld population during the last 30 years occurredin the developing countries".13 This rapid humanpopulation has many implications on world resources(food, forests,). EE can contribute in the managementand conservation of these resources.

The World Bank

This agency is a major lending institution tomember countries and world-wide. The Wo:::ld Bank lendsmoney to these member countries for many developmentprojects. With the growing concern of the environment,the Bank established the Office of EnvironmentalAffairs in 1970 to assess and promulgate environmentalstandards as they affect economic developmentprocesesses. For instance, the Bank has establishedenvironmental guidelines e.g. Social aspects:Human relations in settlement patterns (cement plants)Optimization: Cost analysis of alternatives.14

In an address to the United Nations Economic andSocial Council (ECOSOC) in $970, a former WorldBankPresident, R.S. McNamara pointed out that,

...one problem facing financeinstitutions was how they mighthelp developing countries avoidor mitigate some of the environ-mental damage that economicprojects can cause - withoutslowing the pace of economicprogress. ... the costsresulting from adverse environ-mental change could be enormous,and that a small investment inprevention would be worth manytimes what would later have tospent to repair any damage.-T5

(Emphasis added).

at"

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It is apparent that environmental conservation andprotection and "Development Without Destruction" arebeing realized in many countries. This realizationhas resulted into concrete actions such asconstructions of gabions to curb exessive soilerosiol,s in many localities.

SECTION V

EE and Development in Kenya

Environmental Education is vital to the survivalof mankind. Without educating the masses, they willcontinue to mismanage and destroy the environment onwhich their existence depends. In this respect theycan contribute towards negative developmentactivities (deforestation, overgrazing).

Kenya has demonstrated a major comitment toeducation and training of all its citizens in thepreservation and conservation of all resources forthe present and future generations. Because of thiscommitment, the Kenya Government has includedenvironmental matters and EE in its major policydocuments. In the 1979 - 83 Development Plan "RuralAfforestation Scheme" and "Local Afforestation Programme"are very well articulated. For example, paragraph 6.206states that,

The main objectives of thisprogramme include the preventionof soil erosion, protection ofwater catchment areas as well asthe provision of fuel wood andbuilding poles for the ruralpopulation.16

Several of these programmes have be-n implemented throughthe local afforestation programmes in the Republic, and\through education and training programmes undertakenby many foresters and forest assistants:at the LondianiForest Training School in Kericho District and othertraining institutions.

Afforestation programmes are very necessary forKenya's national development. Without active andpractical afforestation efforts, the Republic'sforests may be reduced to denuded areas by humanindiscriminate deforestation activities. It was

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recently reported that, "Kenya's forests aredisappearing at an alarming rate of 2.5 per centannually".17 This report further indicated thatin 1980 and 1983 twenty (20) million and thirty (30)million trees were planted respectively. During the1984 - 85 year (50) fifty million were planted andin 1988 between eighty to eighty five (80 - 85)million seedlings are anticipated to be planted.The goal is to plant at least two hundred andninety (290) seedlings annually. 18

Perhaps it is appropriate to mention at thispoint that the Presidential Commission on SoilConservation and Afforestation is a national.bodythat coordinates all the activities related to soil/water conservation and afforestation programmes.Another body, the Kenya National EnvironmentSecretariat (NES) was established in 1974 followingthe Stockholm Conference to coordinate all mattersthat relate to the environment in the Republic.The Kenya government recently released the KenyaAfrican National Union (KANU) manifesto which placesthe environmental conservation, environmental educationand training and development in the third position inpriority.19 The Kenyan government takes environmentalmatters very '.seriously. In addition to all theseefforts, the Non-Governmental Organizations (e.g.Mazingira Institute) play significant roles inenvironmental education and national development.

Agents for EE and Development in Kenya

These agents include the following:

1. The NGO's (CAREKenya - Pied Crow Magazine),2. United Nations agencies (UNEP),3. The Government m:;aistries,4. Schools, Colleges and Universities,5. Mass media (TV, Radio, Newspaper, local barazas,

songs) and other methods. .

SECTION SIX

Summary/Accomplishments

This paper has presented, discussed andanalyzed the evolution of EE and its contributionsto national development activities. Through EE anddevelopment efforts, the Kenya government hasaccomplished many things. These include:incorporation of environmental education in theprimary and secondary school formal curriculums;

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environmental education progrommes have been developedand implemented at the tertiary level; millions oftree seedlings are planted annually through ruralafforestation programmes throughout the country;gabions and terraces are being constructed in manyparts of the country to curb soil erosion problems,and the contributions of government ministries andNGO's towards positive national development.

It can be observed that EE and other nationalstrategies are potential and viable tools for "developmentmethods require well articulated, planned and viabledecisions with systematic evaluations.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Tucker, J.B. "Schistomiasis and Water Probject:Breaking the Link" Global Ecology (Ed.)C.H. Southwick, Sinauer AssociatesPublishers, Sunderland Mass. 1985 p. 274.

2. Timberlake, Lloyd, Africa in Crisis: The Causes,the Cures of Environmental Bankruptcy,Earthscan 1985 p. 83.

3. Republic of Kenya, National Environment SecretariatEnvironmental Management Report, Nairobi,1982 p. 4.

4. Unesco, Environmental Education in the Light ofthe Tbilisi Conference 1980, Paris, p. 84

'5. Nyaitondi, Araka, "New Areas of Learning AboutSurroundings" Daily Nation, Nairobi, November8, 1986 p. 14.

6. Unesco-Unep, Glossary of Environmental EducationTerms 1983, Hungary p. 12.

7. Unesco, Trends in Environmental Education, 1977Paris p. 25.

8. Unesco, Environmental Education in the Light ofthe Tbilisi Conference 1980, Paris p. 69 - 100See also Unesco, Living in the Environment.A Source book for Environmental Education,1977 Paris. These sources provide acomprehensive background for EE goals,objectives, principles, strategies andmore.

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9. Unesco-Unep, Connect Vol. III, 1 January, 1978Paris, p. 3.

10. Unep, "Conference Paper" April, 1983 Nairobi,p. 5.

11. Unesco-UNEP, Connect Vol, VIII No, 1. March,1983 p. 1.

12. UNEP, State of the World Environment UNEP,Nairobi, April, 1987, p.

13. Ibid p. 35.

14. World Bank, Environmental Health and Human EcologyConsiderations in Economic Development ProjectsWorld Bank, Washington D.C. 1974 p. 5. Seealso Environment and Development World Bank,Washington D.C. May, 1979 Chapters 1 - 3 andAccelerated Development in Sub-SaharanAfrica An Agenda for Action, World BankWashington D.C. 1981 Chapters 2, 5, 6, 8.

15. World Bank, Environment and Development May, 1979p. 3 - 4.

16. Kenya, Development Plan 1979 - 83 Part 1, TheGovernment Printer, Nairobi, 1979.

17. Nation Reporter, Daily Nation "Loss of ForestsAlarmaing - Official" April 16, 1988 p. 4.

18. Ibid p. 4. The official was the Chief Executiveof the Presidential Commision for SoilConservation and Afforestation - Mr. R.C. Nyaga.

19. KANU, Sunday Nation "Kanu Releases Manifesto onStrategies for Development" Feb. 28, 1988

'pp. 6 to 7.

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Selected Bibliography

Benarde, M.A. Cur Precarious Habitat, W.W. Norton,New York, 1970.

Carson, Sean McB. Environmental Education: Principlesand Practice.Edward Arnold Publishers, London,1978.

Ehrlich, Paul R. and Anne H. Ehrlich, Population,Resources, Change Brasil Blackwell, Oxford, 1981.

Holdgate, M.W. Mohammend Kassas, and G.F. White (Eds.)The World Environment 1972 - 1982 UNEP, Dublin,1982.

Koech, M.K. "Training Needs on Natural ResourcesConservation at Primary and Secondary SchoolLevels in Kenya" A paper presented at theFirst Conference on Natural Resources Conservationand Utilization, organized by Unep and the AfricanCaribbean Institute, United Kenya Club, Nairobi,April 1 - 5, 1986.

Republic of Kenya, Environmental Management Report. TheNational Environmental Secretariat,Nairobi, 1982.

Mathews, W.H. Resource Materials for EnvironmentalManagement and Education. The MIT Press,Cambridge, Mass. 1976.

McInnis, Noel and D. Albrecht (Eds.). What MakesEducation Environmental? Environmental EducatorsPublishers, Washington D.C. 1975.

0 huche, R.O. and B. Otaala, (Eds.) The African Childand His Environment. UNEP, Pergamon Press,Oxford, 1981.

Owen, D.F. Man's Environmental Predicament: An introductionto Human Ecology in Tropical Africa OxfordUniversity Press11973.

Saveland, Robert N. (Ed.) Handbook of EnvironmentalEducation. John Wiley and Sons, London, 1976.

Scherry, R.W. Plants for Man Prentice-Hall, New Jersey,1972.

Southwick, Charles H. (Ed.) Global Ecology SinauerPublishers, Sunderland, Mass. 1985.

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Swan, J.A. 'and W.B. Stapp. Environmental Education:Strategies Towards a More Livable Future. JohnWiley and Sons, New York, 1974.

Timberlake, Lloyd. Africa in Crisis: The Causes, theCures of Environmental Bankruptcy. Earthscan,London, 1985.

Unesco, Living in the Environment: A Source book forEnvironmental Education. Naukova Dumka Publishers,1985.

Unesco, Environmental Education in the Light of theTbilisi. Conference, Paris, 198J.

Unesco-Unep, Interdisciplinary Approaches inEnvironmental Education, Paris, 1985.

Unesco, Trends in Environmental Education, Paris,1977.

World Bank, Environment and Development, Washington;D.C. November, 1979.

World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Sahara Africa.The World Bank, Washington D.C. 1981.

World Bank, Health and Human Ecologic ConsiAeration inEconomic Development Projects. Washington D.C.1974.

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