DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 231 330 IR 010 727

TITLE Development Communication Report, No. 41, March1983.

INSTITUTION Agency for International Development (Dept. ofState), Washington, D.C. Clearinghouse on DevelopmentCommunication.

PUB DATE Mar 83NOTE 18p.PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) -- Viewpoints (120)

-- Reports Descriptive (141)JOURNAL CIT Development Communication Report; n41 p1-16 Mar

1983

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Audiovisual Aids; Comics (Publications); Computer

Programs; *Developing Nations; Educational Radio;Electricity; *Foreign Countries; Health Education;*Instructional Materials; Marketing; Second LanguageInstruction; *Telecommunications

IDENTIFIERS *Distance Education; Honduras; Nepal; Pan AmericanHealth Organization; South Pacific; United States

ABSTRACTThis newsletter on development projects in developing

nations include the following major articles: (1) "An Insider'sPerspective: Dr. Henry Cassirer Talks to DCR about DevelopmentCommunication and Unesco"; (2) "Comic Books Carry Health Messages-toRural Children in Honduras," by Oscar Vigano; (3) "Computers Come tothajlid 9f Planners: New Software Package Available," by Judy Brace;(4) "Radio Improving Status of Women in Nepal," by Kathleen Goodmanand Mana Wagley; (5) "Social Marketing Strategies for DiarrhealDisease Control Programs--PAHO 'Communications for Health' Workshop,"by Ann Jimerson and Michael McQuestion; (6) "South Pacific Islanders

. Use Satellites in Nutrition Communication," by Gloria Renda and BrianRiordan; (7) "Breaking the Cycle," by Jacques Dupont; (8) "The 'DirtyPower' Problems" (about unstable electrical power) by Gary Garriott;(9) "Using Audiocassettes in Distance Education," by Jo Bradley; and(10) "Foreign Television by Satellite Enhances Language Studies inU.S.A.," by Victor Aulestia. Reviews of recent publications and ofERIC documents, as well as development-related conferenceannouncements are included. (LMM)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

US. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER IERICI

lit This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

. Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thii docu-ment do.not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.

AN INSIDER'S PERSPECTIVE:/

Dr. Henry Cassirer Talks to DCR AboutDevelopment Communication and Unesco

Development Communication ReportMarch 1983No. 41 ,'

2

An Insider's Perspective:

Dr. Henry Cassirer Talks to DCR aboutDevelopment Communication and Unesco

.

In a long and distinguished ca-reer, Dr. Henry R. Cassirer hasworked closely with linesco. Hehas been a U.S. broadcaster, a

freelance documentary film producer, amedia consultant, an advisor on educatibnalradio and TV for scores of countries aroundthe world, a teacher, and director of educa-tional media for Unesco. This interview, con-ducted both in person and by mail, reflectsthe perceptions arid experience of a man whohas been involved with development commu-nication for many years.DCR: In light of the fact that most ofUnesco's recent energies and efforts in thearea of communication seem to have beenfocused on issues of information flow andthe New World Information Order, do yousee the possibility of the organization's re-turning to, or developing a real concern for,the area of our interest, development com- .mu nication7HC: Let's begin by trying to clear up somemisunderstandings. Most of the noise aboutUnesco's concern with communications turnsindeed around the issues of information flowand the New World Information Order. Buta closer look at Unesco's activities and bud-getary commitments indicates that the coreof its work is devoted to the "development of

communication." It is this operational sectorwhich, according to the Director General,"accounts for over 77 percent of the fundsdevoted to communication . . ."

DCR: How do you distinguish betweentS.. "development communication" and "the

development of communication?"HC: Theyare, as you know, quite different.To get a cfedrefTiatm-we-will-have-to-g

'1! back a little. Unesco has always been in-volved in fOur different aspects of com-munication: 1) the free flow of communica-tiod between all countries; 2) the develop-ment of communication media; 3) the use of

communication for education, science, andculture; 4) the dissemination of public infor-mation about Unesco.

These four areas were given varying em-phasis and resources in response to changingconditions. But, though they influence eachother, the four are in fact distinct and shouldbe understood as such to avoid harmful mis-understandings.

DCR: Why are we hearing so much aboutthe first two points today, the free flow issueand development of the media?HC: Developing countries have become in-creasingly aware of, and impatient with, be-ing largely on the receiving end of interna-tional communication. They have also foundit politically convenient to protest 'against"western domination" rather than to lookwith equal criticism at the domination oftheirOwn people by media controlled by gov-ernment or wealthy elites. Imbalance of com-munication is indeed a major social injustice,but, in my opinion, authoritarian govern-ments who deny freedom of expression totheir own people are ill-placed to carry theflag of free flow of communication. Westerncountries, on the other hand, by focusing onUnesco's role in international communica-tion in the name of defending freedom of in-formation and the independence of jour-nalists, divert attention from the sociopoliti-cal impact of their own communication prac-tices and neglect the potential uses to whichthe media could be put in the interest ofdevelopment.

DCR: Does Unesco's focus on public state-ments about international disequilibrium re-

oficct-a-policy_change within the organization?

March 1983No.41

"technical" issues of communication, whilepolitical issues were a matter for the UnitedNations to deal with. But the present Di-rector General, Amadou-Mahtar M'Bow,has a different approach. He considersUnesco to be the UN agency to deal with allbut the technological aspects of communica-tion for which the ITU is responsible. Thishas evidently accentuated the political issues.

DCR: What sort of projects is Unesco cur-rently emphasizing in its communication pro-gram?HC: According to an October 1982 state-ment by the Director General, the key ob-jective of the Major Project Communicationin the Service of Man is "to help bring abouta more equitable situation regarding commu-nication and the media." He adds that,"with this end in view, a substantial programfor infrastructure developmcnt and gainingof manpower has been defined with ttie aimof gradually attenuating the inequalities ex-isting at present."

DCR: Could we return to the question of theconfusion between development of com-munication and development communica-tion?HC: Yesthis issue is a further cause fo'misunderstanding. Development of com-munication resourcesboth technical anct

(continued on page 2)

In this issueIlenty,Cusirer InterviewA New Role For Comic Booki in

RuralHonduras ... ..... . .........ComPutei Software for PlannersRadio Outreach to Women in

Nepalese VillagesPAHO Workshop on Communications

fix, Health , . .. . .A Communicator's Checklist ,Satellite CommUnication for

Breastfeeding 10OdPile at ERIC . . ... ........ .. . . 12

HC: It does, at least in part. In previousyears, the then Director of Mass Com-munication, Tor Gjesdal, supported by. Di-rector. General Rene Maheu, stressed thatOnesco was only dealing with the

Solutions to "Dirty Power" . 12Audiocauettes and Distance Ed .. .. 14Foreign Television for U.S.

Language Students . . 16

A publication of the Clearinghouse on Development CommunicationSupported by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the S. Agency for International Development

(continued from previous page)human (through training)is a prerequisitefor the application of media to deiielopmentneeds. Nor can contribution to socioeco-nomic development ever be considered thesole concern of the media. Information andentertainment remain primary preoccupa-tions of national authorities, the media, andthe public at large. But there are pitfalls in apurely technological approach.

DCR: What pitfalls or dangers do you see intoo much reliance on technology?HC: The introduction of sophisticatedtechnology and the imitation of westernmedia practices may well be counterpro-ductive to development and lead to increaseddependence on imports (both of hardwareand software). Television and satellites canpresent such risks. Their high cost and com-plicated production techniques favor trendsto ward centralization and the importation ofequipment and slick programs whose enter-tainment appeal is greater than that of pro-grams most developing countries are able toproduce. If communication is to contributeto socioeconomic development, an "appro-priate technology" must be selected for themed ia.

DCR: Could you explain in more detail whatyou mean by "appropriate techn^logy" in.this case?HC: For example, satellites may be gearedprimarily toward the distribution of TVsignals, in which case they tend to reinforcetrends of dependence and centralization. Butthey may also fulfill a vital need for grass-roots communication by introducing wide-spread access to narrow-band telecommuni-cations;qo telephone, telex, digital informa-tion, and to radio. Officials at Unesco arequite aware of these alternatives. The risk ex-ists, however, that international tech-nological assistance may promote the in-terests of foreign manufacturers and localelites rather than promoting self-determina-tion and democratic participation.

To go back, though, it would be wrong tosay, as your earlier question seemed to imply,that Unesco is not at all involved in develop-ment communication as such. In fact, someof the objections to Unesco, particularly inthe United States, seem to arise fromUnesco's concern for the application of themedia to development heeds. At Unesco'slast Executive Board session, the US Del-egate, Mrs. Geratd, said that there was some_criticisrrt in the U.S. of the notion that themedia should be 'used' for specific purposes,since this was an opening wedge for the 'use'of journalists by government authorities. Di-rector General M'Bow responded that themedia "certainly have a 'role' to play inspreading culture and in contributing to theadiiancemeht of knowledge. This by nomeans implies that in order to play this rolethey must be subject to a public authority or

to particular interests of large-scale privateenterprises or to transnational corporations,of which mention was made in severalspeeches."

Service to critical social tasks is expected ofall social institutions, from the judiciary tothe education system, from the military tomunicipal authorities. Even industrial enter-prises are expected to perform socially usefulfunctions. Are only the media exempt, in thename of free enterprise and freedom of ex-pression?

The American tradition of investigativejournalism has long made it evident that pub-lic service, far from impinging on journalistichonesty, can only flourish in a climate offreedom of expression. A genuinely demo-cratic journalist not only reports the views ofadhorities and expounds his or her own ap-preciation of the current scene, but act:: as agenuine 'mediator' who gives voice to thosewho are condemned to silence. He or shebends an ear to the grassroots, relays to therest of society the needs, views, and aspira-tions of minorities whose challenges are animpetus for change and 'development.' Ex-pectation that the media render public serv-ice, far from restricting journalistic freeddm,makes its protection a prerequisite. Whenthere is resistance 'to public service and frankdialogue with the public through the media,society is ill prepared for 'development com-munication./

What, may I ask in turn, is your own com-ment on the issue of whether it is an infringe-ment on joprnalistic freedom and media au-tonomy to ;expect journalists to render serv-ices to society?

DCR: I think I would have to answer that inour traditi' n, finding and reporting the truthis in itself onsidered to be a service to socie-ty. The m tto "You shall know the truth andthe truth shall make you free" is one that isdearly held in this country. So producing so-cial change and servico to society are oftenseen as important byproducts of journalism,but I do not think they are the primary objec-tive of most journalists.HC: Personally, I doubt whether you can ef-fectively promote development communica-tion unless the media and at least some oftheir professionals are expected to devotepart of their efforts to meeting the challengesof socioeconomic conditions.

DCR: Turning back to ah earlier'question,Dr. Cassirer, could ou cite some ofUnesco's involvement in projects specificallyconcerned with development Lommunica-tion?HC: A look at the record shows that Unescoapplies itself to development communicationin both its training programs and operationalprojects. The Asia-Pacific Institute forBroadcasting Development, for instance,which was set up with Unesco aid in KualaLumpur and continues to receive itti assist-

ance, includes in its training such topics aspopulation and development communication(radio); environment development; educa-tional media for literacy; communication forthe advancement of women; broadcasting inthe service of culture; regional workshops oncommunity media with special reference tolocal radio; distance learning through radio;and TV programs for young children: Itmight be of interest to readers of DCR tolearn more about these and other trainingcourses and workshops offered by the AIBD.(Note: The address of the Asia-Pacific In-stitute for Broadcasting Development is P.O.Box 1137, Pantai, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.)

DCR: Yes, we at the Clearinghouse are wellacquainted with the excellent work done bythe AIBD. Both theit director, Dr. Balakrish-nan and Ms. Eileen Wahab of their programstaff have visited the Clearinghouse.

Turning to another communication in-terest of Unesco, would you say somethingabout airal newspapers?HC: Newspapers are usually an uroan phe-nomenon since literacy, population density,and relative affluence provide ready marketsin the cities for publishers and advertisers. Tocounterbalance this trend, Unesco empha-sizes the establishment of the rural press inAfrican and Latin American countries. Ob-jectives for developing the rural press werelisted in the 1971-72 Unesco program andbudget, and included such things as pro-viding reading material to new literates inrural areas in their own language, facilitatingdialogue between authorities and rural peo-ple, decentralizing information, and infm.m-ing readers about local events as well as aboutevents in the world at large. These objectivesfit well into those of development com-munication and have since guided Unesco inthe establishment of rural newspapers in adozen African countries.

DCR: There is also an emphasis on localradio, if I am not mistaken.HC: Local radio is an area where Unesco hasbeen very active. In Sri Lanka, for instance,the Broadcasting Corporation is establishingthe Mahaweli Community Radio with thesupport of Unesco, which in turn uses funds-in-trust and an expert provided by Denmark.Serving a colonization scheme in a newly irri-gated area, the Mahaweli Community Radioaims "to motivate the listeners to changetheir pattern of work and life in order to im-prove their. socioeconomic situation." Pro-grams are produced by mobile open-airstudios in-fhe- villages, in conSDltation withthe peasants. When problems are raisedwhich require discussion with government of-ficials, "the officer concerned will bebrought to the village so that the recording isdone when the explanation or advice is givendirectly to the villagers . . . All editing andmixing of the programs take place in the vil-

(continued on page 13)

Comic Books Carry Health Messagesto Rural Children in Hondurasby Oscar Viganó

Innovation is using something old in a different way.Dewey

r-?-1

A new project in rural western

message-carriers to teach vil-Honduras is using children as

lagers important health lessonsabout clean water and sanitation. Workingwith a specially created comic book, the chil-dren learn the health concepts in school andthen share them with their families. ThisHonduran Water and Sanitation Project rep-resents a cooperative effort on the part oftwo institutions which usually work inde-pendently: the Water and Sanitation Depart-ment of the Ministry of Health, and the Na-tional Autonomous Watei and Sewer Sys-tem. The Project is the first in Honduras tohave a specific health education componentwritten into the project design from thebeginning.

Organizationally, the Ministry of Educa-tion is directly responsible for the healtheducation component, and for the construc-tion of wells, latrines, and windmill systems,while the National Autonomous Water andSewer System is responsible for the construc-tion of aqueducts and sewer systems. TheProject will benefit 100,000 people living insmall rural communities of up to 50 familieseach. Most of the communities in the Projectarea have nearby schools and health unitswhere children can easily be reached.

The objective of the health.education com-ponent of the Project is to change attitudesand behavior of community members withregard to water consumption and use, andmaintenance of latrines, wells, and aque-ducts. Investigators found, during the surveyconducted to help design the Health Educa-tion Implementation Plan, that in Honduras,as in most rural areas, children play animportant role in providing and handlingdrinking water, as well as in caring foryounger members of the family. The childrenare, in turn, most affected by health prob-lems related to water and sanitation.

When Project designers considered howbest to readh the children with the healtheducation messages in coordination withProject activities and objectives, ruralprimary schools surfaced as one of the mostimportant channels of communication. How-ever, to tap the children s potential, it wasnecessary to design a system simple enough tobe used in the schools without much training,economical to produce, effective and attrac-tive to children, and above all, in line withthe Project's ph'ilosophy that dialogue andparticipation are an essential part of healtheducation. Any materials used should con-tain basic information about the subject,

ideas and exercises to conduct in a classroonsituation, and information for children de-signed to encourage classroom participation.. AnalyzLg the different possible combina-tions of materials, the team came up with theidea of using a teaching module consisting ofa Class manual for the teacher with informa-tion about the learning objectives, water-related health problems, industrial and in-home techniques to purify drinking water,exercises for each particular class, evalua-tion, suggestions, and an accompanyingcomic book for each child.. Comic books were selected because theirformat has many advantages. Comic booksare obviously entertaining, are fairly easy toproduce, can ielay information visually andstep-by-step, combining action and a writtentechnical vocabulary, and can be consultedagain and again. In addition, children cantake comic books home and pass them on tomembers of their family or to other children,multiplying the educational message.

It is interesting to note that despite all theiradvantages, comic books are seldom, if ever,applied in education for development as anintegrated aid to classes. Efforts to use themhave been mostly informational, such aspamphlets given away for people to readwithout any follow-up content discussion.

The main concern in developing the comicbook centered on the style of illustration tobe used. The designers chose a humorousstyle, something children relate to very well.

COMO ESPOSIBLE QUEPUEPASENFERMAR

ALGUIEN

ado\

QuEI.AHORA 'INGODEMTRO DE. MIMUCH ASCOS/6\S QUE

ENFERMANL,

Y CUANDO LAS'PERSONAS MEBEBAN ESTASCOSAS EMTRAR4)e LI IGO_Y _LAS *-

I NFERMARKNA

Suggestions for cParacters were narroweddown to two children, a girl and a boy whowould discuss health and sanitation matters.Then the problem became how these childrenknew or learned about the subject, and whichone would be the expert. Finally an "expert"was born; nobody knows more about waterthan water itself, therefore a talking Drop ofWater became the second character, and thecomic books were called "Juanita y laGotita" (Little Jane and the Drop of Water).

Content Description

The subjects of the comic books follow theProject objectives and are related to healtheducation in water and sanitation. Each com-ic book contains single-concept messages;such topics, for example, as one cause ofwater contamination, or one way to purifywater. Special care was taken to ensure thatthe illustrated sequences were not confusingand would be easily understood by children.

In the scripts the story develops sequential-ly, the events follow one Another in the pres-ent time, without showing past or future ac-tions. The script writers drew technical infor-mation for the different subjects from booksand validated the data through area expertsworking with the Project or the Ministry ofHealth.

In order to correct any content or languageerrors, once technical changes are made, arough copy is illustrated, photocopied, anddistributed among area experts and personnelfamiliar with the subject and with rural au-diences. It should be noted that the comicbook has been designed for the formalschools, so although very simplified, thelanguage used does not contain any slang.

° Subject and Learning Objectives

The first comic book (see Alustration)(continued on next page)

BUEN.10..,CME HAR1ASUN FAVOR PARAAYUPARATOPOS LOSQUE ME I3EBAN?.

diePON EL BALPESOBRE EL FUEGOY HIERVEME FORQUINCE MIrJUTcJS,.

3

n this sequence, greatly reduced here, the Water Drop is explaining to Juanita that, befere he isboiled, he can make people sick when they drink him. But if she will boil him for 15 minutes. .:The comic books have an average of 8 pages, and contain a glossary to define new words and aquestionnaire for the children to complete.

4(continued from previous page)

dramatized the causes of water contamina-tion and how to decontaminate water by boil-ing it. Learning objectives were: 1. identify inwriting one cause of water contamination, 2.identify in writing one way to decontaminatedrinking water within the reach of the ruralfamily, 3. describe in writing what bacteria isand describe its effect on drinking water, and4: describe in writing the dangers of drinkingcontaminated water.Pretest Results

Once the design of the first module wascompleted, drafts of the teaching guide andphotocopies of the comic book were pre-tested in three rural schools with threeteachers and 54 third to sixth grade children.During the pretest of the comic book, eachchild was given a questionnaire with fivequestions related to the content of the healtheducation class to be answered before theysaw the comic book. Afterwards, childrentook the comic book home to read; the fol-lowing day the teacher conducted a health ed-ucation class using the teaching guide contentand asking 4trestions related to the comicbook story, expanding each answer with in-formation taken from the guide. Once theclass was over, questionnaires with elevenquestions (five from the earlier question-naire, plus six about comic bock content)were given to children.

Correct answers for the first five questionswent up from 59 percent to 80 percent. Dur-ing the test, the correct answers about boilingwater to purify It rose as much as 90 percent.Ninety-five percent of the children indicatedthat they liked the characters, and teachersexpressed their satisfaction with the materialsand welcomed the opportunity to use them.

Production plans include 12 modules con-taining educational materials about such top-ics as the prevention of water-related sick-ness, and personal hygiene. Five thousandcopies of the first comic book have beenprinted, and the Project expects to reach 100rural community schools, distributing anaverage of 40 copies per school. To date,1,200 copies have been distributed amongschool children in 30 rural schools, andteachers are sending back information whichwill be used in the design of future modules.

The relatively low production cost, US$0.30 per copy, the comic books' acceptanceby teachers and school children, their poten-tial for carrying sequential visual and writtencommunication, and their effectiveness inrelaying the educational message all make thecomic book a perfect medium to introducehealth education in therm al schools-.Oscar ViganO, the comic book'S artist, is the FieldProject Director of the Joint Ministry ef Heolthand SANA .Water and Sanitation Project beingfunded by USAID/Honduras under a contract tothe Academy for Educational Development.For further information, contact OscarVigan6, Field Director, AED/PRASAR,

A.P. 140, Tegucigalpa, D.C, Honduras.

Computers Come to the Aid of Planners:New Software Package Availableby Judy Brace

Ministries of physical planningand other government institu-tions involved in urban and re-gional development should be

heartened to learn of a new planning toolavailable to them through the United NationsCenter for Human Settlements (UNCHS): amicrocomputer software program. Statingthat this is appropriate technology at its mostaccessible., the program's project manager,Jerry Coiner, has taken special pains to seethat the costs of using the program are keptto a minimum, that workshop training isavailable to those who will use the programand whose needs it will meet, and that back-up consultancy is provided as needed for upto six months after the program is intro-duced.

Package Designed for Many NeedsThe Urban Data Management Software

(UDMS) package has been designed byUNCHS to meet the needs for data storage,analysis, display, and mapping for physical,social, health, environmental and land-useplanners, housing officials, resource man-agers, and regional scientists. The package iswritten in CBASIC for any C/PM disc op-erating system which allows it to be used onalmost any microcomputer on the market.

Because costs for microcomputers aresteadily falling while their capabilities are in-creasing (due to technological advances), Dr.Coiner recommends a minimum investmentin hardware. His suggested requirements fora 48 kilobyte microComputer, at least 500kilobytes of disc storage two disc drives, avideo terminal and a standard line printer,can be met in the U.S. for US$8,000. Thecopyrighted software package and necessarymanuals are available free of charge to gov-ernmental organizations. Should a govern-ment require technical assistance to put theprogram in place, install the software andtrain personnel, the total cost, includinghardware, will vary between US$40,000 and$80,000, depending on local conditions.

Dr. Coiner has received requests to datefrom over 30 countries interested in using thistool for physical planning. The National Uni-versity of Colombia's Habitat Center and SriLanka's Urban Development Authority aretwo institutions that have successfully in-troduced this program. Jamaica's Urban De-velopment Authority is about to institute the

-sstem.International Requests

It is essential that an institution's need de-termine the kind of hardware and software itacquires, with the appropriateness of thesoftware being absolutely crucial. By usingthis high technology.at the small-scale opera-tional level to process its own data in a useful

way, the institution will avoid the commonpitfall of having too much data with too fewuses, while at the same time becoming com-fortable with the technology.

A number of publications are available toaccompany the program. One manual in par-ticular, however, can stand alone as an ex-cellent guide to the concepts of data manage-ment. Designed for human settlements plan-ning and management agencies, these con-cepts are nonethelesS relevant to others inter-ested in a clear understanding of data proc-essing technology. Each chapter of DataManagement for Urban and Regional Devel-opment deals with a specific set of actionsthat must be taken to determine the utility ofdata management concepts and to select theapPropriate technology for specific tasks.These chapters are grouped into "Basic con-siderations," "Assembling an informationsystem" and "Technical and personnel as-pects of information systems." A glossary, abibliography, and a list of acronyms are in-cluded. The cost of this publication (numberCHS/PP/81-1/S) is US$10.00.

Judy Brace is Resource Center Manager and Act-ing Director of the Clearinghouse.

For further information on this UrbanData Management Program, or to 'order theabove publication, contact Dr. Jerry Coiner,UNCHS (Habitat), P.O. Box 30030,Nairobi, Kenya.

Seeking Songs for Health

Dear Colleague,

In a number of countries pOpularsongs, appropriately ye-worded, are usedto encourage good health practices. If youknow of any such songs we would be verygrateful if you would send us details. Wewould like to have the translation of songswhich are not in English and we would begrateful for the words of the original songif it is one which we are not likely toknow. In such a case it would be helpful ifyou could also send us the music or atleast the vocal part, if this is possible. Ofcourse the words and music on a tapewould be best of all, but we realise thismay not be possible.

Your help with this would be much ap-preciated.

lours sincerely-,David Morley and Dhncan Guthrie

Child-to-Child Programme, c/o In-stitute of Child Health, 30 GuilfordStreet, jiondon WC1N 1EH,United Kingdom.

International Conference on Radio Improving Status of WomenOral Rehydration Therapy (ICORT)

A major International Conference on OralRehydration Therapy (ICORT) is beingplanned to take place at the Shoreham Hotelin Washington, D.C., from June 7 to 10,1983. ICORT will be sponsored by the Agen-cy for International Development (AID) withthe cooperation of the International Centerfor Diarrhoeal Disease Research/Bangladesh(ICDDR/B), UNICEF, and the WorldHealth Organization's Diarrheal DiseaseControl Program (WHO/CDD).

The purpose of the Conference is to in-crease professional and lay awareness of thevalue of oral rehydration therapy (ORT) inthe control of diarrheal diseases, the majorcause of infant morbidity and mortality inthe developing world.

World experts in oral rehydration therapyfrom both the developed and developingworld are being invited to participate. ATechnical Advisory Committee made up ofrepresentatives of the organizations involvedand outside consultants has developed theagenda and both plenary and panel sessionswill be held over the three-and-a-half dayconference. The agenda is designed to openlydiscuss oral rehydration therapy, its justifica-tion, practical utilization, program experi-ences, and issues related to implementationof ORT programs. A session will also be de-voted to Future Directions including Direc-tions for Future Research.

The ICORT conference will be an openmeeting but registration will be required. Forfurther information, contact Mary Beth Al-len, ICORT Conference Staff, Room 3534,NS, Agency for International Development,Washington, DC 20523, USA. Telephone202-632-0226.

Leadership for DevelopmentThe National Training Laboratories (NTL)

Institute is currently receiving applicationsfor its international program Leadership for,Development to be held in Bethel, Maine,USA, August 8-21, 1983.

The Leadership for Development programis intended for men and women currently inleadership positions who are responsible fordesigning and implementing developmentprograms at the community level in ThirdWorld countries.

The course will be conducted in Englishand the cost is US$1500 (excluding travel andp_er_ diem). Senior staff will be Dick andMarion Vittitow. Application forms may beobtained from: Ms. Virginia Sprecher, NTLInternational Programs, P.O. Box 9155,Rosslyn Station, Arlington, Virginia, 22209USA. For further information contact DickVittitow, 90 Tamalpais Avenue, Mill Valley,CA 94941, USA.

by Kathleen Gobdman and Mana Wagley

An innovative project in Nepal isusing a wide variety of instruc-tional radio programs for up-grading the skills of primary

school teachers. While the project was not,.designed specifically to promote improve-ments in the status of women in Nepal, areview of data on literacy rates and schoolenrollment in Nepal clearly indicates that im-proving women's participation in formal andnonformal educational activities should beincluded as a part of the overall objectives ofany educational project in that country. Con-sequently, the project is using radio broad-casts to encourage girls to attend school moreregularly, and to stay in school beyond thethird grade, and is generally presentingstrong and positive female role models towomen throughout Nepal.

The Radio Education Teacher TrainingProject (RETT) is sponsored by the UnitedStates Agency for International Development(USAID) and implemented by Southern Il-linois University (SIU) and His Majesty'sGgvernment (HMG) of Nepal's Ministry ofEducation and Culture (MOEC), the In-stitute of Education (I0E), and Radio Nepal.The RETT Project attempts to upgrade theteaching skills of untrained primary schoolteachers who have not cornpleted their ownsecondary school training. Instruction is pro-vided over the radio with the support of writ-ten materials to primary teachers working ineven the most remote areas of this mountain-ous kingdom.

Women are under-represented throughoutthe entire educational system in Nepal. AnAID-sponsored study on the status of womenin Nepal (1981) reports that lack of literacyand education are important constraints towomen's active participation in economicgrowth, hnd they limit access to the develop-ment activities of their kingdom. The 1977census in Nepal reported literacy rates ofaround 5.2 percent among women. Nepal'sMinistry of Education and Culture (MOEC)data indicate that only approximately 28 per-cent of students enrolled in primary schoolare girls. Girls generally are needed at hometo look after younger siblings, tend animals,and help with household chores like gather-ing wood and carrying water. In general,educating daughters is considered to be lessimportant than educating sons.

Nee!' to Encourage Girls in School

Although these attltuclesarechanging,--special efforts are still needed to encourageparents to send their daughters to school andto allow them to attend regularly. Even whengirls are enrolled in school, their attendanceis often sporadic and they frequently bringtheir younger siblings with them. This situa-

5

in Ne)34aI

tion makes it difficult for teachers to organ-ize their instruction and for girls to performwell in classroom activities. In many parts ofthe country, girls are found clustered in theback of the classroom with their younger sib-lings, shyly watching the teacher or leafingthrough their textbooks with little or no in-volvement in the classroom instruction. It istherefore not surprising that still more girlsdrop out of school after third grade, with thepercentage of girls in fourth grade around 21percent (1980).

Unfortunately, the lack of educatedwomen may also contribute to the low repre-sentation .of women in the teaching profes-sion. Of the estimated 6,004 untrained, non-matriculated teachers targeted by the RETTProject, only 361 are womenapproximately4 percent.

Increasing the participation of women atall levels of education has been integrated in-to RETT. Project goals. To achieve this ob-jective, RETT's team of Nepali writers andproducers has developed four basicstrategies:

Radio Training for WomenPrimary School Teachers

RETT has been able to directly attack thelow representation a women in teachingpositions in two ways. All untrained, non-matriculated women who are currently teach-ing will be included in the RETT trainingprogram and, thus, will have the opportunityto become trained teachers and receive asalary increase for successfully completingtraining. This will have the effect of makingtheir positions more secure as well as in-creasing their salaries. Consequently, RETTwill help women currently teaching to remainwithin the educational system. Second, sinceRETT training is now readily available to alluntrained, non-matriculated teachers and ap-proximately 3,000 new teachers must be pro-vided each year to keep up with increased stu-dent enrollment, School Management Com-mittees may also be more willing to hire un-trained women to teach in their primaryschools, thus providing new employment op-portunities for women.

Characterization of Women in RETTBroadcast and Written Materials.

The strongest impact of RETT onwomen's status in education may come aboutthroughthe-comprehensive_integration ofwomen's programming into the instructionalmaterials. Radio is a powerful medium andlisteners are influenced in many ways by thethings that they hear. During RETT broad-casts, voices portray various types of vil-

(continued on next page)

(Nepal continued from previous page)lagers, teachers, and teacher educators. If thecharacters were all men, RETT programmingwould act to perpetuate the stereotype thateducators are 'generally men. Moreover, ifcharacters played by women actors were inef-,Tective or incompetent in some ways, theRETT programming might establish an im-age that female educators are not as good asmale educators. Consequently, RETT pro-gramming has been carefully designed to en-sure that there are a significant number ofwomen characters and that they are alwaySportrayed in a strong positive way.

In RETT programming, roles played bywomen include one teacher, two teacher edu-cators, and one health educator. These areamong the more prestigious roles in thescripts and certainly occur more frequently inRETT radio scripts than the actuaf represen-tation of women at comparable levels in theeducational system in Nepal. In addition,when classroom situations are depicted, 50percent of the children's voices aregirlswell above current classroom averages.Hearing women acting in the role of teachersand teacher educators provides the opportu-nity to RETT women teachers and other wo-men listeners to imagine themselves workingin these situations and to establish career ob-jectives compatible with these higher level as-pirations.

Special Programming for Women'

Because teachers enrolled in the RETTProject listen to the instructional broadcastsin their homes, the broadcast is generallyavailable to all individuals within hearingrange and is not limited to enrolled teachers.The broadcast is timed to occur when mostwomen have completed their work in thefields so the wives and families of enrolledteachers can benefit from the non-formalportion of the broadcast or magazine pro-gram. With this in mind, programming hasalso been developed to ensure that areas Ofspecial interest to women are included in themagazine portion of the radio broadcast. Ef-forts have also been made to include inter-views with, and information on, importantwomen in Nepal who could serve as positiverole models for women listeners.

Another example of this type of program-ming is a "soap opera" on women's legalrights under HMG's legal system. A third ex-ample includes special materials on "womenin development" programs and activities inNepal, and how listeners may gain access tothem. A total of 24 such magazine segmentshave been developed specifically for women.

It is important to note, however, that mostprogram segments are of general interest tomen and women. Topics include agriculturalmethods, improved resource conservationpractices, health, and nutrition. While thesesegments are not specifically developed forwomen listeners, they refer to activities fre-

"Wherever possible, specialprogramming for women hasbeen incorporated into theregular curriculum."

quently performed by women. Ideally, wo-men who listen to the programs will also di-rectly benefit from ideas contained in thesesequences.

Programming 16 Increase Female StudentPart icipat ion

RETT has also tried to address the prob-lem of the low enrollment of girls in primaryschools through the training provided to pri-mary school teachers. If primary schoolteachers can become more skilled in recruit-ing girls for school and in improving girls'performance in the classroom, then onecould expect to see a related increase in thenumber of girls who complete their educa-tion. RETT writers carefully reviewed theteacher training curriculum to find ways toimprove primary school teachers' skills in re-cruiting and working with their female stu-dents. Wherever possible, special program-ming for women has been incorporated intothe regular curriculum. Lessons have in-cluded:

one unit in Education on classroom man-agement techniques which features specialideas to encourage girls to participate moreactively in classroom activities;one unit in Social Studies on CommunityServices which suggests using roleplayingas a method to teach children about thedifferent government positions in their vil-lages. Teachers are specifically instructedto make sure that all children in the class-room roleplay each type of job; andsome units in Social Studies which describethe role of great women, like Bhrikuti, inNepal.

Increased Participation by Women as StaffMembers in RETT

Since RETT writers and professional staffdoubled as actors for the iadio broadcasts, ithas been imperative that women be well rep-resented on the Project staff. This situationhas given additional impetus to the already-strong commitment to integrating women inall levels of RETT Project development andimplementation. Although overall staffinghas varied considerably during the Project,for the majority of the production phase, 32percent of the professional staff working inthe Project were women. Although these fig-ures do not begin to approach equal repre-sentation, they are well above current levelsof representation by women in the education-al system in Nepal. Achieving this level ofparticipation by women required considera-ble effort by all involved with the Project.The following are examples of the kind of ac-

tivities and accommodations used to increasethe participation by women in RETT.

I. Flexibility was maintained in programscheduling to allow female HMG staff tocontinue working on the Project, materialsand participate in training opportunities andstill take maternity leave and spend time withtheir small babies.

2. RETT Production -Staff worked manyhours with individual staff women to try toimprove voice and pronunciation so that theycould participate in the actual broadcastingof Project materials. Since RETT has a largenumber of male staff members, if a malestaff voice was not radio.quality or if teacherscomplained about not being able to under-stand the voice, then this person's voice wasnot used again. However, since RETT has aErnited number of femaie staff membcrs, ef-forts were made to incorporate as many aspossible into the radio broadcast. This in-cluded trying to use the voice of Women typ-ists, administrative assistants, and cleaningpersons.

3. All eligible women staff members re-ceived short-term training out of Nepal(either in the USA or at the AIBI? in Malay-sia) in addition to that provided in-country.

RETT broadcasts cover the ptire King-dom of Nepal, even the most remote, isolatedvillages. It is hoped that the use of education-al radio will enable women who cannot easilyaccess other methods of communication togain skills and information.

Kathleen Goodman is Assistant for InternationalDevelopment with the Office of Internatiofial Ed-ucation at Southern Illinois University, Carbon-dale, Illinois, and is Curriculum Coordinator andSelf-instructional Materials Specialist with theREIT Project in Nepal

Mana Wagley is with His Majesty's Government'sMinistry of Education and Culture, and Coordina-ior of the RETT Project in Nepal.

For more information, write Kathleen Good-man, Office of International Education, SIUat Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA,

Development Communication Report, publishedquarterly by the Clearinghouse on DevelopmentCommunication, has a'circulation of over 5,000. Thenewsletter is available free of charge to readers inthe dev9loping world, and at a charge of US $10.00per year to readers in the industrialized countries.

A center for materials and Information on impor-tant applications of communication technology todevelopment problems, the Clearinghouse is oper-ated by the Acaderhy for Educational Development,a nonprofit planning organization, and supported bythe Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S.Agency for International Development as part of itsprogram in educational technology and develop-ment communication.

The views expressed in Development Communi-cation Report are those of the authors and not

-rtecessarily-those of its-sponseferGral-materkdin the Report may be teproduced without prior per-mission provided that full credit id given and that twocopies of the reprint are sont to the Editor

Readers are invited to submit typed manuscriptsof no more than 1000 words, and to send inphotographs.

Social Marketing Strategies forDisease Control Programs

PAHO "CommunicationsWorkshopby Ann Jimerson and Michael McQuestion

Primary health care, with itsfocus on the "client," has muchin common with a seemingly dis-.tant discipline: marketing. Health

planners are finding increasing relevance inthe techniqueg developed by marketers foranalyzing the needs of the target market; de-signing appropriate services and products;and utilizing effective pricing, distribution,and communication to inform, motivate, andservice that market. Marketing strategies are

_ -tailored to the consumer, and, while they can

'vary widely in scope and applicatiOn, all aim,---to-pAit the client at the center of planning ef-

, fortsow to apply social marketing to one

aspe t of primary health care, the control ofdiarr eal diseases (CDD), comprised thefocus of a recent workshop sponsored by theCDD Program within the Pan AmericanHealth Organization (PAH0). The two-weekworkshop, which took place in December1982, brought together twenty-one healthprofessionals and educators from ten LatinAmerican countries at the Latin AmericanCenter for Educational Technology in Health(NUTES/CLATES) in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil.

Need for Effective Planning

The idea for the workshop, designed to in-augurate a yearlong project in each of the tenparticipating countrieS-, grew from concernsover the quality of communications/educa-tional materials which were being producedto support CDD activities. In countries whereposters, pamphlets, or radio spots had beendeveloped, the materials were too often pro-duced with little or no interaction with thepeople for whom the information was in-tended. Requests from some countries for as-sistance in designing effective communica-tions campaigns confirmed the need for ameeting on the topic. Representatives fromcountries with active CDD Programs, in-cluding several 'with full-scale informationcampaigns on diarrheal diseases alreadyunderway, were invited to attend.

PAHO and NUTES/CLATES collabo-rated' to design an active workshop whichwould be a model of the participatory stylebeing promoted. Roleplay, games, discus-sions, small work groups, readings, and case.studies were used to involve all of the par-ticipants and to introduce various methudol-ogies to analyze, design, test, produce, andevaluate communications materials.

Diarrheas

for Health"

To better understand the communitiesmaking up their target audiences, the par-ticipants were introduced to the "focusgroup" technique of structured discussiongroups. They then discussed the selection ofappropriate media and tone for reaching thatgroup. Pretesting methodologies were pre-sented for trying out concepts and prototypematerials, to lessen the chances of investingtime and money in possibly misdirected at-tempts. Formative evaluation was discussedas an often-overlooked means of continuingthe fine tuning of a campaign once L is

underway.A simple circular flowchart, incorporating

the main steps in the social marketing strate-dr, provided the conceptual framework forthe workshop. The chart helped to remindthe participants that materials design is notan isolated activity wnich can be successfullycarried out without venturing beyond thefour walls of an office. The marketing meth.:odologies which were introduced all fit intothis broad scheme, each step of which putshealth workers in touch with the needs, attitudes, vocabulary, and perceptions of thetarget audience. As health educators, the par-ticipants quickly recognized the stages in theflowchart as the familiar steps of planning,testing, and feedback which are basic to anygood health education program.Technical Design Stressed

Four small groups worked with theNUTES/CLATES production technicians tocreate model materials ;:arrying messages re-lated to national diarrhea! control programs.The "hands-on" production of a radio spot,a poster, community participation materials,and a short slide tape, served to reinforce themarketing approach step by step and pro-vided the doctors and educators with an in-side glimpse of the technical end of commu-nications work.

The workshop was unusual for its built-infollow-up component. Before leaving thecourse, participants from each country drewup a plan of action for applying the market-ing strategies to existing or to new projectsback home. The PAHO Washington officewill act as a clearinghouse for reports fromparticipants, sharing information on theprojects among the countries throughout theupcoming year. The participants will meetagain at the end of the year to critique thematerials that have been produced and to ex-change further ideas and experiences amongthemselves.

7Participants were requested to bring sam-

ples of educational materials already beingproduced by their national CDD programs.Their spontaneous discussions as they tapedposters and booklets to the classroom wallsearly in the first week underlined the par-ticipants' eagerness to know what is beingdone in other countries. PAHO plans tosponsor visits among participating countries:,_during the coming year, as part of the follow- :up _omponent, since the participants them-selves are perhaps best qualified to offer oneanother support in the development of theircommunications projects.

Future Workshops Planned

The CDD Program plans to replicate theworkshop for the English-speaking Carib-bean later this year, with several changes inthe course format. The participants in thepilot course agreed that field practice wouldgreatly enha..ce the classroom discussionsand roleplay. Work in villages near the work-shop site will thus be included as a means ofreinforcing the concepts and providing theparticipants with actual opportunities to con-duct focus groups, pretests, and formativeevaluations.

Participants Help Design New Workshop

In evaluating the workshop, the par-ticipants generally expressed the need fordeeper theoretical background m com-munications methodologies, and suggestedemphasis on the production of model ma-terials. Cutting down on production timewould allow a shorter workshop (two weeksseemed too long for some of the participants)even with the addition of field trips.

The course will undergo further reyisionand adaptation for worldwide application.Although the workshop was conceived by theCDD Program, PAHO/WHO recognizesthat the course will provide a means ofassisting professionals working in other areasof primary health care to develop more ef-fective communications materials targeted tospecific community and/or professionalgroups. The use of marketing techniques,carefully aimed at the community level, couldhelp bring more effective primary Tlealth careinterventions to those most in need of them.

For more information on the workshop, con-tact: CDD Program, PAHO/ WHO, 52523rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037,USA. Copies of the selected readings used inthe workshop are available in Spanish orEnglish; the workshop report is available inEnglish only.

Ann Jimerson is a freelance consultant, baied inWashington, D.C.., producing audiovisual materi-als and training health workers in applied commu-nications.

Michael McQuestion is a Technical Officer for theCDD Program in PAHO's Washington office.

Computers in Developing Nations,edited by John M. Bennett and Rbb-ert E. Kalman (The Netherlands,North-Holland Publishing .Com-

pany, 1981), 27;pp.

This volume is a collection of papers pre-sented at a one-day seminar on computers indeveloping nations hiod in Melbourne, Aus-tralia, on October 13, 1980. The first fewpapers in the collection illustrate a broadtheoretical knowledge of what computersshould be able to do, but very little practicalknowledge of what they actually do. Al-though computers are presented as pro blem-solvers in themselves,. practical experienceusually dispels that notion quickly. Compu-,ters can't do anything humans can'tdonthey just work faster and don't get tiredor frustrated.

Just as I was beginning to lose heart with-the form and substance of this book, I cameupon several papers well worth reading andattention. For instance, S.V. Deodhar,Manager of Computer Services at BallapurIndustries in New Delhi, India, citesguidelines for the introduction of large com-puter systems in developing nations. The ad-vice he presents is of such value it should beapplied universally. His realistic approach issummed up in the following: "It is importantto recognize at this stage that application ofcomputers is not an end in itself, but only atool enabling us to perform better while at-tending to other jobs."

Another thoughtful piece contained in thisbook was written by C.F. Iau of the Malay-sian Computer Society. Iau relates the find-ings of two computer surveys he conducted.His findings can save developing countrieshours of frustration surrounding the selec-tion and installation of systems once the deci-sion to computerize has been made.

"The Prospective Impact of Computers inPapua Nw Guinea" gives readers a goodperspective on how developing nations cancope with the problems and pressures of toomuch "good advice" from computer sales-men eager to corner the market in a particu-lar country. N.G. Cook, the author of thispaper cautions: "I am convinced that in de-veloping countries with a shortage of resour-ces, the luxury of selecting different compu-ters for similar tasks, at least within govern-ment, is one we can ill afford."

Then, in "A New Keyboard for ChineseInformation Processing," S.C. Ldh gives afascinating account of the engineering prob-lems associateu with creating a Chinese ideo-

graph keyboard. This should be read by anyperson still fearful that computers willreplace humans. The solutions demandedhuman problem-solving and creativity and il-lustrate clearly that only humans can create,while computers merely simulate.

I would be remiss if I did not comment thatthe $39. i., price tag for this cheaply producedhardcbver book is difficult to comprehend. Itis ironic that the editors of a volume extollingthe virtues of great advances in "informa-tics" didn't apply even the most elementary"use of informatics---word-processing----in itsproduction. Papers are xeroxed "as is"(some are single-spaced, some are double-spaced and replete with typos, strikeovers,and illegible copy), reduced to a small typesize, and then bound between hard covers.Granted the cover is attractive and the titlepage is newly typeset, but why cbuldn't thepapers be typed in the same typeface? Thepoor production job does little to enhancethe book's message. There is, however, muchinformation and good advice contained be-tween the covers of Computers in DevelopingNations.

Available for US $39.75 from Elsevier North-Holland, Inc., 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, NewYork, N.Y. 10017, USA.

Reviewed by Arlene Horowitz, program assistantand in-house computer expert, Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication.

Against the Crain: The Dilemma ofProject Food Aid, by Tony Jacksonwith Deborah Eade (OXFAM/Eng-land, Oxford, England, 1982), 132 pp.

Project food aid is 30 percent of the totalfood ai-' ,3nt to developink countries, with anet dollar value of $785,700,000 in 1980. Itcomes mainly from the United States, theEuropean Economic Community, Australia,Canada, and Japan. Used as an "incentive"to promote food-for-work proje .. s or to en-courage participation in mattrnal/childhealth or school feeding projects, it is pre-sumed to be humanitarian development as-sistance.

food programs since they began 25 years ago.In a short, crisp narrative (written with co-worker Deborah Eade), Jackson presents apoint-by-point argument that food aid, whenused as a "development tool," is most likelya flop.

Jackson contends that food aid falls disap:pointingly short of the development goals forwhich it ,has been used. As stated: "Yearafter year, independent and commissionedevaluations have failed to tind evidence of animprovement proportional\ to the vastamounts of food, money, and human effortwhich have been expended."

Jackson believes that -food aid, not onlydoes little good, but that it actually worksagainst development since it does norstimu-late self-sufficiency. To the contfary, it actsto create adependency. In addition, food \aidcompetes with local crops and ties up hand-ling and storage facilities. Often those people'who most need food do not receive it. Andthose who have fo administer the bulky ship-ments spend their time managing hand-outsrather than designing meaningful projects.

However, the real story of Against theGrain is between the lines and in the foot-notes. That is where the reader will discoverwhy the programs exist and why it will be sohard to change them.

The prevailing attitude in the developedworld is that food aid is necessary. The richnations should share with the poor. But themotives for continuing food aid programs arenot quite so altruistic.

Private voluntary organizations who dis-tribute most of the food aid are largely fund-ed by the international development assis-tance agencies. They are not likely to say thattheir major work is ineffective. The interna-tional assistance agencies distribute theircountries' excess production for use over-seas. For one of the largest donors, the Uni-ted States, there is eyen a minimum tonnagemarked for project food aid, as mandated byCongress in the 1970s.

Food aid advocates justify the continua-,tion of project food aid as a "short-term ex-pedient." But this, according to Jackson, hasbeen the justification for over 25 years, "longenough to turn rhetoric into reality, yet thetendency has been to institutionalize food

As a general ruleprosram Administrators_aithdependent projects."----think food aid is usually good, while fieldworkersthose who actually handle itthink it is bad. Theory versus practice? Whythe.opposing views?

Tony Jackson, food aid consultant to OX-FAM/England, has collected information on

Food aid has thus become, according toJackson, the prime example of an availablecommodity determining aid policy. AsAgainst, the Grain states quite often, the"food aid tail wags the development dog,"with deveLpment workers or recipients de-

vising projects just to distribute or receivemi e food.

Jackson recommends that project food aidbe cut back drastically and the entire concept-reappraised. In essence, Jackson says that thereal problem in developing countries is pover-ty, not hunger, and that free hand-outs offood_only aggravate a reality that needs cre-ative analysis. Against the Grain raises diffi-cult questions for those who would lgok foranswers.

Available from OXFAM, 274 BanburyRoad, Oxford, 0X2 7DZ, United Kingdom,for £4.50. Trade inquiries to Third WorldPublications, 151 Stratford Road, Binning-ham, BI 1 IRD, United Kingdotn.

Reviewed by Judith Kelly, who writes on develop-ment apd environmental issues, must recently forthe U.S. Peace Corps.

Communications Technology in Edu-) cation and TrainingProceedings of

the Fourth National Conference onCommunications Technology in Edu-

cation and Training, published by Infor-mation Dynamics, Inc. (Silver Spring, MD,1982), 186 pp.

After spending several enjoyable hours go-ing through the pages of this collection of pa-pers presented at the Fourth National Con-ference on Communications Technology inEducation and Training, held in Boston,Massachusetts, in March 1982, I regret notbeing there in person. Reading the book isalmost as good as being there, though.There's something for everyone here. Almostevery page contains valuable insights and/orfascinating anecdotal accounts of just aboutevery conceivable communications applica-tion to skills training. The conference wassponsored by Emerson College, the Ameri-can Society -for Training and Development,and GTE Laboratories in cooperation witheight education organizations, institutions,private groups, and professional associa-tions.

The contributors were in almost every casepractitionerseither industry trainers or edu-catorsrather than academic theoreticians, arefreshing and welcome change for a primerin educational technology. The book's onlyserious drawback is that, although its subjectis skills training, there is only one presenta-tion representing labor's viewpoint, and it isthe very last one in the book, giving the read-er an impression that it was an afterthought.Labor unions have been very active in design-ing training programs that use the latest com-munication and educational technologies. Itis disappointing not to see mention of theircontributions to the field.

The selections in this book are well written,well researched, and offered in plain, easy-to-understand Englishquite an accomplish-

ment given the technical subject matter. Themajor headings include: USe of Teleconfer-encing for Training; Company Use of Com-munications Technology; Computer-Assis-ted/Computer-Based Training for Industry;Multi-Media Training Approaches; and Col-lege and University Use of ConimunicationsTechnology to Serve Industry TrainingNeeds. A quick rundown of the topics cov-ered includes the use of teleconferencing(audio and video), computer-assisted train-ing, multi-media approaches, satellite tele-conferencing, videodisc instruction, televi-sion, etc.

In the paper presented by John S. Jeness,Director for Human Resources, Planning,and Development for Consolidated Edison inNew York, the special pressures placed oneducational technologists to provide ade-quate skills education are thoughtfully de-scribed. "I can't emphasize enough the needfor all sides in this triangleindustrial train-ers, academicians, and equipment and soft-ware developersto continually talkwithnot at each other, so that we all have abetter understanding of each other's pointsof view, interests, and needs. We can call that'better communication about technology ineducation and training.' "

When any new educational technology isdeveloped, as educators in the developingworld are all too painfully aware, the claimsfor its miraculous curative powers over what-ever ails that particular country are legion. Inview of this, LDC readers will be particularlypleased with what Rod L. Boyes says in hispaper on video delivery to remote locations,although his point could apply to almost anytechnology. "Delivery of technologies some-times clouds the issue. Teleconferencing hasa great deal of sex appeal; however, some of-ganizations buy into this process in caseswhere a 'one-way' communication is suffi-cient. Even a well-designed and written pam-phlet can be extremely effective and effi-cientmore so than video or microcompu-ter-based systems, depending on the applica-tion."

I will end this review with the quote thatopens this wonderful volume. It was writtenin 1913, at the time Thomas Edison inventedthe motion picture. ", Books will soon be ob-solete in the schools. Scholara will soon be in-structed through the eye. It is possible toteach every branch of human knowledge withthe motion picture. Our school system will becompletely changed in ten yzars."

This kind of says it all, doesn't it?

Available for US$20.00 (hardbound) fromInformation Dynamics, Inc., 111 ClaybrookDrive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20.902, USA.

Reviewed by Arlene Horowitz, program assistantand in-house computer expert, Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication.

1

In Brief...Publications to Note' Readers of DCR will be pleased to note the

appearance of the 1982 Educationai MediaYearbook, edited by James W. Brown. Asusual, the Yearbook provides a variety ofvaluable information: articles, lists, andmore lists. There are seven "International__Reports" on educational technologSt activ-ities in Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Singa-pore, and the U.K.; and on the profession-al health of educational technology in theUnited States: spending trends, employ-ment trends, and media design for train-ing, for example. Then come the lists: oforganizations and associations in the U.S.and abroad; of doctoral and master's pro-grams in instructional technology, libraryand information science, and mass com-munication; of funding sources; of media-related periodicals, both alphabetically an 1by subject; of reference tools such asbooks, films, filmstrips, microfiche, com-puter programs, etc. (Included here arebooks listing other media resources.) Fol-lowing these entries is probably the mostimportant list of all, addresses for the peri-odicals and resources. The EducationalMedia Yearbook is available from Librar-ies Unlimited, Inc., Dept. EMY, P.O. Box263, Littleton, Colorado 80160, USA, forUS$37.50.To pursue educational "echnOlogy a bitfurther, our readers should be reminded oftwo Latin American journals on the sub-ject: The Revista de Tecnologia Educativa,(in Spanish), published in Chile by the Or-ganization of American States, (Casilla16162, Correo 9, Santiago, Chile), andTecnologia Educacional (in Portuguese),published in Brazil by the Brazilian Asso-ciatiOn of Educational Technology (Av.Erasmo Braga, 255, Grupo 401-402, 20020Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil).Also published in Brazil is a new series ofcommunication monographs, CadernosIntercom (in Portuguese), published by.theBrazilian Society of Interdisciplinary Stud-ies in Communication (who also publishBoletin Intercom). The first four have cov-ered popular journalism; television and theworking classes; reform and revolution inLatin American communication; uses andabuses of new educational and communi-cation technologies. The Society's addressis Caixa Postal 20793, São Paulo, SP, Cep.01000, Brazil.

0 A very useful new "broadsheet," The Costof Distance Eaucation, comes to us fromthe International Extension College. Au-thor Hilary Perraton has earlier given usstudies of a number of distance educationprograms. Here he looks at the costs ofprint, correspondence courses, radio and

(continued on page 15)

South Pacific Islanders Use Satellites inNutrition CommunicationBy Gloria A. Renda and Brian M. Riordan

iMany people are surprised tolearn that a Regional NutritionProgram to promote and protectbreast feeding and improve ma-

ternal and infant nutrition is using a satelliteto communicate with nine participatingcountries. This pilot nutrition-by-satelliteproject is under way, of all places, in theSouth Pacific.

The Foundation for the People of theSouth Pacific (FSP), a nonprofit organiza-tion which began in 1965, conducts programsthat assist human development in the PacificBasin. In 1981, FSP, with the assistance of agrant from the Office of Nutrition, UnitedStates Agency for International Development(USAID/ON), began a South Pacific Region-al Maternal and Infant Nutrition Program.The small program staff, which consisted of aregional nutritionist and a secretary in Suva,Fiji, faced a most challenging communicationsassignment. Their task was to provide ongoingpersonal contact and support to nurses, dieti-cians, medical officers, and health educatorsscattered throughout the nine participatingnations (Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, PapuaNew Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga,Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western Samoa).Telephone systems have improved over re-cent years, but to hold conference calls tonine countries over millions of miles of oceanwould not only be a communicationsnightmare, but prohibitively expensive.

In 1966 NASA launched ATS-1 (Applica-tions Technology Satellite No. 1) as an expe-rimental satellite. Since 1972, the Universityof the South Pacific Network (USPNET), in-cluding their nine Country ExtensionCenters, and the PEACESAT Network (Pan-Pacific Educational and Communication Ex-periments by So Aite), have joined to in-clude 18 participating stations which extendfrom Papua New Guinea to California, andfrom Saipan to as far south as New Zealand.,

FSP had long been aware of the great po-tential the 'satellite and its ground-terminalshad as a modern communication tool forteaching and for the transfer of information,particularly with its ability to provide instanttwo-way communication and involve largenumbers of people in on-the-spot dialogue.

Use of the satellite by count !es in theSouth Pacific is available free, a service pro-vided jointly by the PEACESAT Networkand the Uniyersity of the South Pacific Net-work (USPNET). (See DCR 35, "TechnicalAssistance Spans the Pacific.") Using a tele-phone hook-up (the cost of a long-distancephone call) to the Honolulu satellite station,resource persons in the United States.are ableto participate in round-table discussion ses-

sions by satellite with the South Pacific na-tions.

The participating sites use a common(open) circuit on the ATS-1, with simplex(one-way) transmission. All the participantscan listen to the conference since h is on anopen line. Seminar sites are connectedthrough inexpensive VHF earth stations at'each of the PEACESAT or USP sites.

A Senior Health Personnel Seminar washeld in Suva, Fiji (May 11-15, 1981), toinaugurate the FSP Regional Nutrition Pro;gram. This was the first seminar in the SouthPacific concerned with promoting and pro-tecting breast feeding and improving maternaland infant nutrition practices. The decline inbreast feeding and the problems associatedwith artificial feeding practices are theprimary factors contributing to malnutritionof infants in the South Pacific. The final ses-sion of the seminar featured a two-hourround-table satellite session in which theparticipating resource persons reported onthe seminar results to health professionals inthe nine countries. Those unable to attend inperson were given the opportunity to ques-tidn experts such as Derrick and PatriceJelliffe (of the University of California at LosAngeles and authors of Human Milk in theModern World), Richard Manoff (president,Manoff International), and Bluebell Standal(professor, University of Hawaii) as well asto hear and question their country represen-tative at the seminar. This marked the firstuse of the satellite by FSP, and clearlyshowed the powerful implications of this me:dium for communications.

A joint resolution passed by.the seminarparticipants strongly urged that the govern-ments of all Pacific nations give their fullestpossible support to the promotion and pro-tection of breastfeeding practices, and thatthey adopt,the WHO/UNICEF InternationalMarketing Code on Breastmilk Substitutes.

Plans were immediately developed for theSouth Pacific Regional Maternal and InfantNutrition Program to hold quarterly round-table sessions, with specific subjects fordiscussion, and to have technical expertsavailable to respond to questions from 1-

gram participants throughout the region.Some examples of the content of theseplanned sessions are:

follow-up on status of country action plansdeveloped at the seminar to promote andprotect breastfeeding;discussion of problems of supplementaryfeeding in the Pacificneed for develop-ment of appropriate multi-mix;report of activities undertaken by par-ticipants on return from the Public Health

(continued on page 11)

Breaking the Cycleby Jacques Dupont

In 1980, only 43 percent of the2.3 billion people living in devel-oping countries had reasonableaccess to safe drinking water.

Only 25 percent had any kind of sanitary fa-cility.

The 1Q76 Habitat Conference in Vancou-ver promoted the idea of clean water for allby 1990, an idea that ultimately gained the.official endorsement of the United Nationsas the International D.inking Water Supplyand Sanitation Decade .1981-1990.

Two of the greatest obstacles to achievingote goal are the lack of trained and experi-enced personnel, and the continued use of in-appropriate, expensive technologies wherepracucal, low-cost alternatives could be ap-plied

The water supply side of the decadethepumps, taps, and pipelineshas receivedmuch attention. Sanitation and waste dispo-sal have not. Yet experience.has taught that,without accompanying improvements in sani-tation and disposal practices, simply provid-ing clean water will not break the cycle of dis-ease that annually kills as many as six millionchildren under five years of age.

Few concrete attempts have been made toreach water supply planners, extensionworkers, and the people themselyes with themessage that contaminated water suppliesand poor sanitation practices transmit dis-ease.

To make this essential connection and topromote some simple methods and practicaltechnologies, the Communications Divisionof IDRC (Canada's International Develop-ment Research Centre) is producing a shortdocumentary film for health care decision-makers, technicians, and community workerscharged with implementing water and sanita-tion programs.

Using animated sequences to demonstratethe cycle of disease, and live-action scenes,the film will attempt to show the cause-and-effect relationship between poor sanitationpractices and gastroenteritic disease.

The documentary frankly but discreetlyaddressrs a problem that has usually beenavoided on film because ot barriers raised inpeople's minds against a "sensitive" or "dis .

tasteful" subject. But there is no elegant wayto die of diarrhea.

Written and produced by the Communica-tions Division and the Health Sciences Divi=sion of IDRC, in collaboration with theWorld Health Organization_(WHO) and Ox.fam (U.K.)international agencies active inwater supply and sanitation programsthefilm will be available through developmentagencies and Canadian missions in develop-ing countries in mid-1981,Reprinted with permission from the IRDCReporrs, Volume I I, Number 4, Jan. '83.

(Satellites continued from page 10)Nutrition Training Course (January12-February 12, 1982) conducted by theFSP Regional Nutritionist.These round-tables are usually organized

using the Suva, Fiji, station as a control witha chairperson acting as moderator. There canbe many participants from each country, butwith only two hours typically available, ef-forts are made to .have a spokesperson fromeach country. However, the number of ob-servers is only limited by the size of theground station studio and the interest gener-ated by the subject matter.

It is not unusual for a session to have up to20 participants and twice as many observers,with professional backgrounds ranging fromvillage health workers to directors of healthfor island nations.

The impact of the satellite for nutritiontraining and' education has yet to be fullymeasured; however, as a direct result of thisprogram, individuals in Tonga were moti-vated to form a Food and Nutrition ActionGroup which is now receiving official recog-nition for its work. FSP plans to continue theuse of this innovative approach to nutritionissues and, in addition to the quarterlyround-tables, may hold monthly follow-upsessions to the Nutrition Media MessageWorkshop (Nov. 2-12, 1982) coordinated bythe FSP Regional Nutritionist.

The first two years of the FSP RegionalNutrition Program have created an aware-ness of maternal and infant rutrition prob-lems. A recent evaluation of the FSPRegional Nutrition Program made it clearthat the program had met its original objec-tives and that additional activities couldcapitalize on the enthusiasm generated totackle nutrition problems in the SouthPacific. FSP is planning to continue fundingfor the program for an additional three years.

Gloria A. Rends has been the Regional Nutri-tionist for the FSP Regional Nutrition Programsince it began in 1981 and is based in Suva, Fiji.Brian M. Riordan was formerly the FSP NutritionProgram's Administrator in New York, and is cur-rently based in Hawaii.For more information, contact Gloria Ren-da, FSP Nutrition Program, P.O. Box 1493,Suva, Fiji; or, FSP, Suite 808, 200 West 57thStreet, New York, NY 10019, USA.

(In Brief continued from page 15)of planning and integrating non formalprograms into existing systems. A chapteris devoted to the "origins and meanings"of non formal education; another to "ap-proaches to planning nonformal educa-tion;" and while the bibliography is limi-ted, there is a helpful list of non formal ed-ucation-related institutions.

The IIEP held two workshops related toeducational media, and published a reportfrom each. One, by Tony Bates, carries theworkshop title: The Planning and Manage-

ment of Audio-Visual Media in DistanceLearning Institutions, and is based on asurvey of 12 distance learning systems. Itcovers the kinds of media used, the educa-tional uses cf these media, their produc-tion, distribution, cost, evaluation, etc. Sixappendices provide additional informationon workshop participants, institutions us-ing audiovisual media, media use data, andcriteria and issues relating to use.

HEP research report number 31, TheUse of Modern Media for Rural Educationin Developing Countries: The Organiza-tional Problems by M. Gutel, covers televi-sion and radio, film, slide projectors, au-diocassettes, videocasiettes, videotape,and the organizational support systemsthey need fc effective educational applica-tions. The author regrets the lack of cost-benefit analyses, but a look at the bibliog-raphy shows no sources more recent than1975. By now the literature is more exten-sive in this area. The address of the IIEP toorder any of these five publications is In-ternational Institute for Educational Plan-ning, 7-9 rue Eugene-Delacroix, 75016Paris, France.The Educational Research Institute of British Columbia has published a very nice re-view of new technologies applied tb dis-tance education. Although the orientationis toward Canada's British Columbia,many of the issues and opportunities canbe found in other contexts. A general dis-cussion of learning at a distance opens thereport, which then considers currently usedmedia such as print materials, radio,audiocassettes, television and its relatedapplications, slow scan, videotape, tele-conferencing. The four most promising ofthe new technologies from the Institute'sviewpoint have been given chapters tothemselves. These are satellites, videodiscs,videotex, ". and microcomputers. Each ofthese is examined through projects inwhich they are already in use. Any readerwith an interest in these developments willbe well served by Learning at a Distanceand the New Technology. Available for US$10.00 from the Educational Research In-stitute of British Columbia, 400-515 West10th Avenue, Vancouver, British Colum-bia, Canada V5Z 4A8.Unesco's series, Population Communica-tion: Technical Documentation, has a newissue. Number 8, Folk Media and MassMedia in Population Communication,treats the current use of the folk media andtheir potential to support population pro-grams. The report presents case studiesfrom the Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia,.and Papua.New Guinea, gives results of aUnesco-sponsored study in Haiti, and cov-ers a Unesco meeting on integrating folkand mass media. Planners are encouragedto use this report in conjunction with oneof the Unesco training films, "Family

1. 3

1 1

Planning Communication: Folk Media."For information regarding this publicationand the accompanying film, contaci thePopulation Division, Unesco, 7 place deFontenoy, 75007 Paris, France.

Those readers who ere concerned with thedevelopments in space will want to takenote of a recent Worldwatch Paper, Space:The High Frontier in Perspective (Number50). Some of the discussion centers aroundthe competitive U.S.-Soviet space pro-grams; scientific data gathering from spaceis reviewed, as is the "satellite communica-tions revolution." The paper takes note ofBela Mody's never-too-often repeatedwarning that "the biggest constraint onreaping the educational advantages of di-rect broadcast satellites is not the hard-warethe satellites, the transmitters andthe receiversbut the software, such asprogramming geared to villages, teacherscapable of integrating the images intomeaningful lessons . . ." This WorldwatchPaper No. 50 can be ordered for US $2.00(postage additional) from the WorldwatchInstitute, 1776 Massachusetts Avenue,N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036, USA.

Popular culture and development commu-nication are closely allied in many parts ofthe world. Mini-radio soap operas carryinga nutrition message in the Philippines,puppets speaking in support of familyplanning in India, fotonovelas presenting ahealth message in Ecuador, and folk thea-ter advancing development in Botswanahave been well documented in these pages.Nowhere does popular culture flourishmore vigorously than in Latin America, soit is not surprising to see that the academiccommunity is looking seriously at this so-cial indicator. This community has a newforum in Studies in Latin American PoPu-lar Culturea journal whose intent is torectify the "neglect of Third World popu-lar culture." The journal defines the fieldas "some aspect of culture which is accept-ed by or consumed by significant numbersof people." The premier issue features ar-ticles, among many others, on Mexicanfotonovelas, post-revolutionary participa-tion in sperts in Nicaragua and Cuba, Pan-amanian bus art, the Brazilian telenovelas,and Argentine postal stamps as myth-makers.

This almost 300-page publication willgive a new perspective on many kinds ofcultural communication heretofore over-looked or ignored. For informationregarding the availability of Studies in La-tin American Popular Culture, contactCharles M. Tatum, Department of ForeignLanguages, Box 3L, New Mexico StateUniversity, Las Cruces, New Mexico88003, USA.

Reviewed by Judy Brace, Resource Center Mana-ger and Acting Director of the Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication.

12

Recent entries in the ERIC (EducationalResources Information Center) files reviewedin this column are concerned with educa-tional radio, the evaluation of media-basededucation programs, and the role of informa-tion in national development. All are avail-able from the ERIC Document ReproductionService (EDkS), P.O. Box 190, Arlington;Virginia 22210, USA.

-) Hall, Budd L. Mtu ni Afya ("Man IsHealth"): Tanzania's Health Campaign.

1978; 79pp. (ED 216 682)This account of the Tanzanian health cam-

paign, which was conducted in 1973, openswith a brief explanation of how radio forumsfit into the mass media scheme. Campaigns inother countries are then reviewed, with em-phasis on aspects pertinent to the Tanzanianexperience. The Tanzanian campaign, enti-tled Mtu ni Afya (Man Is Health), had threeaims: (1) to increase people's awareness ofhow they can make their lives healthier andto encourage both groups and individuals totake appropriate action; (2) to provide clearand simple information about the symptomsof specific diseases and their prevention; and(3) to encourage those who had participatedin the national literacy.campaign to maintaintheir skills by reading campaign materials de-signed especially for the newly literate. Thisreport also describes more recent develop-ment projects in Tanzania, and 38 referencesare listed. Available from EDRS in micro-fiche for 970 or in paper copy for $7.40.

0 Imhoof, Maurice. Reading by Radio. APosition Paper on the Use of Radio in

Teaching Reading Skills for Educational-Development. 1981, 32pp. (ED 217 379)

To support the position that radio has sig-nificant instructional potential for the im-provement of language arts skillsespeciallyreadingin developing nations, this paperdiscusses the use of tadio in relation to otheraspects of educaional development in thosecountries. The discussion of the role oflanguage in educational development in thefirst section of the paper includes literacy,vernacular languages, international lan-guages, language policy, and language andeconomic expectations. The sectInd sectionreviews the use of radio in educational devel-opment, including the advantages of radio,radio in education, radio and language in-struction, and radio and unqualified lan-guage teachers. Current theoretical descrip-tions of the reading process and their congru-ence with the use of radio are summarized inthe third section, including psycholinguisticsand reading, reading in a second language,language and language arts instruction, andradio and reading. The concluding sectionsuggests ways in which radio's potential canbe realized in a language arts reading pro-

gram. Available from EDRS in microfichefor 970 or in paper copy for $3.90.

Kaungamno, E. E. Use of InternationalDocumentation: Some of the Major

Problems Facing Developing Countries. Oc-casional Paper No. 14. 1980, 13pp. (ED 220082)

This discussion of the role of informationin national development addresses such issuesas for whom and for what purposes informa-tion is needed in developing countries, the

impact of the information explosion on theThird World, and the problems inherent incurrent national and internationai informa-tion infrastructures. A series of statementsformulated at the COSTEDUnesco ExpertMeeting (held in Bangalore, India, in 1978)on the kind of information needed by de-veloping countries is presented. As an exam-ple of information that is useful for develop-ment but expensive to access, a list of online

(continued on page 13)

The "Dirty Power" Problemby Gary Garriott

A significant obstacle to the introduction of microelectronics technology in develop-ing countries is unreliable and/or unstable electrical power, known as "dirty power."Delicate electronic circuitry is easily damaged if operating voltages exceed design limits,even for extremely short periods of time (fractions of a second). If the power is suddenlyinterrupted, any data held in the computer's RAM (random access memory) is lost. Thetable below describes various electrical problems and typical corrective/protective de-vices available in the marketplace:

PROBLEM SOLUTIONVoltage spikes (very fast) and surges (at Line filters and transient suppressom.least a few cycles in length) are short in-creases in voltage caused by lightningstrikes, power equipment switching/cy-cling; transient voltages in general (tempo-rary increases or decreases in line voltage).

Noise caused by power line conditions,switching equipment, fluorescent lights,etc. (Noise frequencies may be similar tofrequencies used by digital circuits andcause data errors)

Varying lihe voltage not associated withtransient conditions, but with difficultiesin demand regulation at the utility end, in-cluding deliberate voltage 'reduction todecrease load ("brownouts").

Total power blackout; loss of data storedin RAM.

'Lightning or static build-up on antennaand transmission lines (as distinct fromelectrical power lines).

Determination of what electrical problemsexist (pOwer failures, high-low line volt-age, spikes, noise, etc.).

Most filters, suppressors, and line iso-lators.

Line isolators (usually includes voltageregulation circuitry as well as transientsuppression and filtering); "brownout"and overvoltage protection.

Back-up power supplies that switch in acharged battershort delay; some con-nect battery to circuitry at all --times toavoid power interruption altogether; mayinclude voltage regulation and tran-sient/noise suppression.

Impulse suPpressors.

Power line monitors that provide visualand/or audible alarms when an abnormalcondition exists; some models include ma-chine tape-sized printers noting the typeof problem and time/date it occurred.

Most devices cost from a few hundred to several thouSand dollars, although simple linefilters ate available for less than a hundred US dollars. Readers can obtain moreinfor-mation relating to a specific problem by writing: Inquiry Service, Volunteers in Techni-cal Assistance, 1815 N. Lynn Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA.

14

databases in the field of agriculture is pro-vided, along with their associated usage fees.Weaknesses in the information infrastruc-tures of developing countries described by a1975 FAO conference on agricultural re-search are reviewed, and the recommenda-tions made at that ..onference for thestrengthening of national and internationalinformation infrastructures are summarized.An 8-item reference list and a checklist on in-formation infrastructures accompany thetext. Available from EDRS in microfiche for970 or in paper copy for $2.15.

o Low-Cost Aids for Elementary ScienceTeaching in Asia and the Pacific. 1982,

169pp. (ED 219 279)This report, based on the outcomes of four

regional workshops which were held withinthe framework of the Asian Programme ofEducational Innovation for Development(APEID) to strengthen national efforts in thedevelopment of elementary science aids/ma-terials, provides (1) guidelines for the de-velopment of appropriate and low-cost aidsfor scienci: instruction; (2) an inventory ofthe aids developed by workshop participants;(3) a synthesis of experiences leading to thedevelopment of the aids, focusing on teachereducation/development, use and availabilityof aids, curriculum, school level organiza-tion, instructional strategies, and financialsupport; and (4) recommendations. The ma-jor emphasis is on the low-cost aids, whichare grouped under the headings Basic Tools,Living Things, Matter, Energy, and Earthand Sky. (The division of science into thesecontent areas is common in elementary sci-ence programs in Asian and Pacific coun-tries.) A brief description is given for eachitem. In addition, content, skills, and at-titude objectives are listed when appropriate,materials for consquction are listed, instruc-tions for making the device are given, andsuggestions for uses and modifications areprovided. Among the aids described are aspirit burner for supplying heat, a micro-balance, single-pan/spring balances, labora-tory stands, a water clock, a thermometer; abox of biological tools, a plant press, astethoscope, a breathing system, a potom-eter, electricity kits, weather apparatus, andelectric motors. Available from EDRS in mi-crofiche for 974 or in paper copy for $12.65.

o Mayo, John K. and Hornik, Robert C.Evaluation and Research in the Plan-

ning, Development and Support of Media-Based Education. Final Report of the IIEPWorkshop (Florida State University,Tallahassee, Florida, October 27-30, 1980.)1981, 7Opp. (ED 212 120)

This workshop focused on methods ofevaluating and monitoring media-based edu-cation programs as a means of improving theuse .of television or radio to communicate auseful message to students, the general pop-

ulace, or a particular group. Originally pre-pared as the basic discussion paper for theworkshop, this document reviews the role ofevaluation and research in the various stagesof the policy-making and implementationprocess, and stresses the need to relate evalu-ation to system planning as a whole, ratherthan confining it to summative research or toformative evaluations as instructional Ma-terials are being developed. This paper hasbeen revised to incorporate the major themes,of the workshop discussions and includes theparticipants' criticisms and recommenda-tions. Available from EDRS in microficheonly for 97e plus postage, or from IIEPPublications ;n paper copy. .

Barbara B. Minor, Publications Coordinator,ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources,School of Education, Syracuse University,Syracuse, New York 13210 USA.

(Cassirer continued from page 2)

lage, with the villagers as active bystandersmaking sure that theproducers will never for-get the quality of the listeners. This also of-fers the producer the possibility of discussingediting with the participants. The completedprograms are monitored and discussed in thevillage before the mobile production teamleaves." (Quotes are from a Sri Lanka,Broadcasting Corporation document to bepublished shortly.) An international meet.ngis planned at Mahaweli to familiarize ithercountries with the approach and the xperi-ence gained.

Another example comes from Ke1xiya wherea local radio station is planned fo Homa Bayon Lake Victoria. After a preli 'nary surveyand local construction of theitation, opera-tion is envisaged for 1984 vpth similar goalsof participatory communication with therural population.

DCR: What has been Onesco's position onregional news agencies?HC: Unesco has favored establishment ofnational or regional news agencies or featureservices. News agencies are usually seenprimarily in the Context of the internationalflow of communication. But it should not beforgotten that agencies have also an impor-tant function in reporting news from insidethe country so development may become atopic for national awareness and discussion.More specifically development-oriented is theLatin American agency on special informa-tion (ALASEI) which receives support fromthe International Program for the Devel-opment of Communication (IPDC) (SeeDCR 38). It will begin operation in 1983.Another project is the Asian News Network(ANN) whose task will be to exchange newson the development role of the media.

Reinforcement of the trend towardUnesco's involvement in develrent corn-

Nonformal Ed Study-Conference Set for June ;Michigan State University has announced Iits Fifth Annual Institute for Studies inL,

I Nonformal Education.I The Nonformal Education Study-Con-ference will be held in East Lansing, I

I Michigan, from June 6-24, 1983. ,/I For more information, contact br. TedWard, 518 Erickson Hall, MSU, East

I Lansing, MI 48824, USA. .'

munication may come from the IPDC. ItsCouncil has/adopted criteria governing ap-

iif anproval an fincing of projects .whichspecify t at projects be relevant to develop-ment, especially as reflected in regional, sub-regional, and national development policiesand/plans, and that theY increase the commu-niCations capacity to receive and transmit in-'formation of concern to individuals andgroups at both the rural and urban communi-ty levels.

While Unesco is actively involved in devel-opment communication, it is interesting tonote that resources for this purpose aredrawn to a considerable extent from funds-.in-trust provided by the Federal Republic ofGermany, Scandinavia, and countries pri-marily interested in concrete contributions todevelopment. Unesco's public image andmany of its operational activities are, howev-er, dominated by the wish to rectify the inter-national imbalance in communication and tointroduce modern communications tech-nology. The limited budget for developmentcommunication and the lack of public atten-tion to Unesco's efforts to improve the uses.of media within countries are probably due,in part, to the poor news value of construc-tive initiatives. As any journalist knows,good news is no news. Hence the major im-portance of lending prestige and encourage-ment to Unesco's development activities.

The most important task, as I see it, is tostrengthen allegiance to development com-munication at the governmental level. To thisend, delegations of Member States, especiallythat of the United States, should be sensitizedto the issue. Pressure should be brought onUnesco to devote itself increasingly (as ex-pressed in programs, staffing, arid budgets)to, as I called it more than thirty years ago,communication of the people, by the people,for the people.

DCR: Thank you very much, Dr. Cassirer.

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14

Using Audiocassettes in Distance Educationby Jo Bradley

Audiocassette recorders firstcame on the market in rich west-ern countries in the early 1960s.They were cheaper and more

portable than reel-to-reel machines, andmuch easier to use. They have since becomeeven cheaper and lighter and cassette tapesare now familiar to people all over the world.

Distance teachers are making increasinguse of audiocassettes, especially in countrieswhere cassette recorders can be found inmost households. Cassettes have the ad-vantage of being easy to record and copy,and simple to use. They are strong enough tosend by post without special. packing, andcheap to mail because they weigh so little.

Audiocassettes lend themselves to manydifferent uses with correspondence students.Here are just some of them:

I. They can provide material which needs tobe heard, rather than read or looked at,such as music, drama, historical speeches.They are especially useful in foreign lan-guage teaching.

2. They can be used to guide the studentthrough complex visual materials, such asmathematical diagrams. Instead of swit-ching from printed text to diagram andback again, the student can study the dia-gram at the same time he or she is listeningto the instructions.

3. Hearing the voices of tutors and coursewriters draws the student closer to theteaching institution and personalizes hisor her links with it. Listening to group dis-cussions is more involving than readingabout different viewpoints on a topic.

4. Students can record as well as listen,which encourages two-way communica-tion, especially with students who findwriting difficult.

Some of these functions have traditionallybeen performed by radio programs. In insti-tutions where audiocassettes are taking overto some extent from radio, the reasons areusually to be found among the following:1. Using cassettes frees the institution from

dependence on a broadcasting organiza-tion or radio station. This is particularlyhelpful when there is only a limitedamount of transmission time available, orwhere the institution is under pressure toreduce the number of hours it broadcasts.The alternative is often for students tohave to listen at inconvenient times ofday.

2. It can be cheaper to use cassettes thanradio for courses with small enrollments ifstudents have audiocassette machines intheir homes.

3. Students can use cassettes more flexiblythan radio programs, listening to themwhen they reach the right point in the

0 0course rather than when they happen to bebroadcast. Cassettes can easily bestopped, started, and replayed as often asnecessary> and can be used for revision atthe end of the course.

4. Audiocassettes are an informal medium; itis easy to learn how to record as well ashow to play back, and people are becom-ing accustomed to the technology. Usingthem can help to break down the isolationof the correspondence student.

Reprinted with permission from About Dis-tance Education, Issue No. 15, August 1982.For more information write to the Interna-tional Extension College, 18 BrooklandsAvenue, Cambridge CB2 2HN, United King-dom.

New Communications andDevelopment Unit Announced

"The Institute for International Develop-ment and Co-operation at the University ofOttawa has established a 'Communicationsand Development' unit. Its'aim is to organizea unified and comprehensive research efforton communications in the development ofnations. The research will be interdisciplinaryin nature, involving practitioners and re-searchers from Canada and other developedand developing countries and will result in afull-fledged capability at the Institute in Ot-tawa and associated institutions abroad, intraining communications experts for work indeveloping nations.

"Recent advances in communication tech-nology have placed the world on the thresh-old of a 'Communications Revolution' thatcould have far-reaching consequences for so-ciety. If the world is to make optimum use ofthe developmental capabilities of communi-cations, then more and better knowledge ofthe role of communications 'in specific do-mains of development is required. The unitbeing set up will fulfill just sUch a require-ment. Topics to be explored include: policy-making and analysis in communications; or-ganization of the communications sector; thecollection and organization of data on com-munications; financing of communicationsprojects; technology and communications;telecommunication; communicatiOns andproductivity; energy-saving role of communi-cations; and the role of communicationsmanagers and consultants.

"For further information write to: Dr.Jacob R. Joseph, Chief, Communicationsand Development, Institute for InternationalDevelopment and Co-operation, 50 CollegeLane, Ottawa (Ontario), KIN 6N5, Canada.Telephone 613-231-2340."

6

Guide to TeachingHealth Care WorkersTeachers of health workers may have athorough knowledge of their subject and ex-tensive field experience, but few of them havehad exposure to modern teaching methods.They find it difficult to pass on their knowl-edge to their students, according to a WorldHealth Organization '(WHO) manual.

Teaching for Better Learning is a 137-pageguide for primary health care teachers andtrainers that explains how to:

decide exactly what the students shouldlearn;choose and use suitable teaching methods;test what the students have learned; andprepare teaching materials.Choosing course content. Selecting task-

oriented topics and concentrating on the rele-vant facts, skills, and attitudes that studentswill need in their work is emphasizrd.

In order to decide how much detail shouldbe included and what standards of perform-ance are required in designing course curricu-lum, teachers and trainers should assess com-munity health needs. The manual discussessome practical short cuts for carrying out acommunity analysis to discover the prevalentcommon diseases and the educational, social,economic, cultural, and agricultural factorsthat affect health.

Another important tool is task analy-sisan exact breakdown of the knowledge,skills, and attitudes needed to carry out eachstep of a task. Examples of task analysis aregiven for weighing babies in a clinic and a17-step task for persuading an unwillingmother, in a remote area, to take her childfor immunizations.

Teaching methods. The author emphasizesthat learning by doing rather than just listen-ing is the best approach. There are detaileddiscussions on the use of feedback and role-playing, the importance of motivation, clari-ty, and active learning.

A 17-page chapter details differentmethods of student learning assessment.They include oral exams, essays, shortanswer questions, multiple choice questions,project reports, record books, and checklists.

Preparing teaching materials. The finalpart of the manual is aimed at helpingteachers to plan, write, produce, adapt, andevaluate materials, ranging from single-pagehandouts for use in lessons to completemanuals for health workers.

Tips are given for writing simply; for giv-ing the information in the right order; andfor deciding on objectives. The book is nolonger available from AID Resources Report,but may be ordered from the African Med-ical and Research Foundation (AMREF),Book Distribution Unit, Wilson Airport,P.O. Box 30125, Nairobi, Kenya, for US$6.50.Reprinted with permission from AID Re-sources Report, July/August 1982, No. 22.

(In Brief continued from page 9)-----Corneli-Offers Cornmunicationtelevision. This information should be ofgreat help to education planners and minis-try economists who need to know suchthings as the relative costs of the variousmethods of distance teaching in order tobuild a budget,' whether they will have tospend more than for traditional teachingmethods, or whether new courses can beafforded if they use distance teachingmethods. At the same time an early chap-ter warns that there are no simple answers,that costs, as other things in this world, arerelative (and subject to inflation!). There isa nice bibliographic reference section thatwill guide the researcher who looks forlengthier treatments of the subject of edu-cational costs. IEC Broadsheet on Dis-tance Learning No. 17 , The Cost of Dis-tance Education, is available from theIEC, 18 Brooklands Avenue, Cambridge,'CB2 2HN, United Kingdom, for £4.00surface mail, £4.90 air mail.

The Latin American Association of Radio-phonic Education (ALER) is publishingseveral series which will be of interest toour Spanish-reading audience. For thoseprimarily interested in case studies, theirSerie Experiencias is valuable. The serieshas, to date, three monographs on radioprogramming for education (health educa-tion, rural development, and teaching). Asecond series, Serie Investigaciones, in-cludes two research monographs. A thirdseries treats the institutional aspects ofALER. The Association also publishes abimonthly journal, Informa, and hasbrought out a special issue, a ten-yearoverview of ALER. For prices and a publi-cation list, write to the Secretaria Ejecuti-va, ALER, Casilla 4639-A, Quito,Ecuador.

Une'sco's International Institute for Edu-cational Planning (IIEP) has been regnlar-ly publishing material of particular valueto DCR's audience. In their series, Funda-mentals of Education Planning, twomonographs should be noted. Number 29,Communication Media in Education forLow-income Countries: Implications forPlanning is by Emile McAnany and JohnMayo, and covers aspects of media appli-cations that should be considered by plan-ners. The four case studies will all beknown to our readers as will the critical is-sues facing the educational planner. None-theless, to have it all synthesized in com-pact and readable fashion, with a goodbibliography, makes it useful indeed.

Number 30 in this series is The Planningof Nonformal Education by David Evans.Now that non formal education is begin-ning to take its rightful place in education-al systems, it is important to have such amonograph as this to support the process

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Planning Courses

a wo courses related to communication andrural development will be offered in 1983 byCornell University to observe. World Com-munication Year. "Communication Plan-ning and Strategy" and "Reaching RuralWomen" are designed especially for programplanning and management-level officials indeveloping countries.

"Communication Planning and Strategy"will be held July 11-29, 1983, on the CornellUniversity campus in Ithaca, New York(USA). Using case studies, participants' ownexperiences, and other materials, the coursewill cover such topics as: how to develop ap-propriate strategies for communicating withvarious publics; how to mobilize communica-tion resources, from manpower to technolo-gy; how to coordinate mass communicationwith interpersonal communication methods;and how to provide communication supportfor field workers.

Applications are invited from public andprivate sector officials who have planning,administrative, or training responsibility forprograms in agriculture, health, nutrition,family planning, .rural development, andnon-formal education. Priority will be givento persons in developing nations whose posi-tions allow them to make practical use of thecourse experience or who can extend the ben-efits of the course to others.

Tuition and fees for the three-week courseare US$900. Housing, meals, and personalexpenses are not included. For informationcontact Dr. R.D. Colle or Christine Hollis,Department of Communication Arts, 640Stewart Avenue, Ithaca, N.Y. 14850, USA.Telephone: 607-256-6500.

(Satellites continued from page 16)

or her, own motivation and desire to under-stand another language.

c) The combination of visuals, motion,and audio is a strong factor in attracting andkeeping the attention of the students.

d) Every television program is a livingteaching tool, not only for the students, butalso for the faculty.

Many foreign language instructors in theUnited States are U.S. born and educated.During their training as foreign languageteachers, their exposure to.a foreign culture islimited, in the majority of cases, to the coun-try where the target language originated. Forinstance, most teachers of Spanish are ex-posed during their training to the languageand cultures of either Spain or Mexico, andthe instructor's teaching reflects his or herprevious experience and background. It is

rare to find a teacher whose experience hasbeen acquired in any of the South Americancountries.

7

15The_exposure of_faculty_to current foreign

language television programs produced in1

countries other than the dominant one is aneye-opener. The instructor-soon leains thatthere are subtle and sometimes strong differ-ences in language and culture among coun-tries with the same mother tongue. The con-tinued viewing of these foreign language pro-grams via satellite updates the knowledge ofthe instructor which hopefully leads to betterinstruction.

Plans for Receiving Television Programsin Other Languages

With the current equipment owned byUMBC it is only possible to receive program-ming from those satellites located between 83degrees West and 143 degrees West. Satelliteslocated beyond 83 degrees West, such as theFrench and German language Symphonieand the Russian language Statsioner andGhorizont, are not currently within our reachdue to the differences in video standards, fre-quencies, the configuration of the feed, thelimitations of the receiver, and the size of theparabolic dish.

To overcome these limitations, a new satel-lite receiver system, with future capabilitiesfor transmitting as well as receiving, is beingdesigned by the technical staff of the Depart-ment of Instructional Media Resources atUMBC and will soon be installed.

Afterthought

In preparing this material, I have ad-dressed our use of satellite technology andsome of our technical problems. We are do-ing this work in the spirit of experimentation.I have not addressed the political and ethicalimplications of operating a private satellitereceiver. As a word of caution to other pros-pective experimenters, it is wise to be awareof the licensing position of the country con-cerned. Some countries have a virtual "open-skies" policythe signals that come fromany satellite are the property of the receiverunless the originator prevents the receptionby special law or by signal scrambling.

In other countries the reception of privatecommunications without permission is il-legal. Special permission may be granted forexperimental, developmental, or demonstra-tion work, as it was in our case.

For further information contact Victor H.Aulestia, Director, Department of Instruc-tional Media Resources, University ofMaryland-Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD21228, USA.

Victor H. Aulestia is the Director of the Depart-ment of Instructional Media Resources at UMBCand a consultant in media utilization. Prior to thisposition he was an Instructor of Spanish and theDirector of the Language Center at UMBC. He isthe current Pre'sident of the International Associa-tion for Learning Laboratories.

1 6

Foreign-Television by-Satelfll-e EnhancesLanguage Studies in U.S.A.by Victor H. Aulestia

A satellite receiving station was arecent addition to the languagetr...ining program at the Univer-sity of Maryland-Baltimore

County Campus in the United States.

Project Background

Prior to 1977, the Modern Language Pro-gram at the University of Maryland-Balti-more County (UMBC) was a traditional pro-gram-The curriculum in the individual lan-guages was oriented, as are most U.S. foreignlanguage programs, toward the study of liter-ature. Aided by two major grants from theNational Endowment for the Humanities,the department has entirely-reshaped its cur-riculum to establish a better balance betweenlanguage, literature, and culture. Above all,the language department created a coherentnew communication-oriented curriculum.

This new program was designed to providestudents with the practical language skills andcultural awareness needed for other fields ofstudy; for jobs in business, government, so-cial and health services, and other positionsthat involve international contacts. The pro-gram's goal was to enable the students to ac-tually use their knowledge of the target lan-guage and culture not just in the classroom,but in "real life" situations, and to arrive at abetter understanding of those societies wherethe language they are learning is spoken.

In order to make the language experienceas dynamic as possible, extensive use ofmedia by both students and faculty is a fea-ture of the new program. Hundreds of audio,film, and video materials are readily available

in the Language Media Center for independ-ent use by facuity and students alike. A state-of-the-art language laboratory and high qual-ity courseware provide the students with theopportunity to practice what they learn in theclassroom.

Perhaps the most mteresting and poten-tially valuable piece of equipment on thecampus for learning foreign languages andcultures is the satellite receiver. In 1979,UMBC's instructional technologist was im-pressed by encouraging reports from both theAID Rural Satellite Program and the Appli-cation Technology Satellite Program on theirsuccessful use of satellite technology to sup-port the delivery of basic social services andclassroom instruction to isolated areas in anumber of developing.countries. He studiedthe feasibility of applying the same tech-nology used in Indian villages in 1975 to re-ceive satellite transmissions from the ATS-6,to capture for American classrooms foreigntelevision programs transmitted by interna-tional and domestic satellites.

The technical recommendations of thestudy were -for the purchase of a 3.5 meterparabolic dish, a 110 K Low Noise Amplifier,and a professional agile video receiver. Be-cause of the lack of experience at the timewith such equipment and international videostandards, the equipment purchased was lim-ited to redeiving television programs from do-mestic (U.S.) satellites.

The new equipment is able to receive for-eign language television programming whichis limited to four Spanish channels and threeFrench channels from domestic and Cana-

DevelopmentCommunication Report

Clearinghouse onDevelopment Communication

1414 22nd Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20037 USATel. (202) 862-1900Cable: ACADEDTelex: 197601 ACADED WASH

Judy Brace, Acting Directorand Resource Center Manager

Heddy F. Reid, EditorArlene Horowitz, Program Assistant

ISSN 0192-1312

International Division

Academy for Educational Development

dian satellites. In addition to these televisionchannels, the Language Media Center re-ceives audio-only programming in such lan-guages as Polish, Russian, Chinese, etc.

An Effective Tool

UMBC's. new language studies now in-clude, on a scheduled basis, French andSpanish commercial and non-commercialtelevision programs relayed from the above-mentioned satellites. These are transmitted tothe Language Center and to television re-ceivers in all classrooms from the head-end(TV distribution center) of the UMBC Televi-sion Complex.

These foreign language television pro-grams may be viewed at any time during theday by faculty and students on any of theclassroom TV monitors. They may be usedduring classes to enhance the lesson or as awarm-up device, or as entertainment afterclasses. The variety of content, languageusage, cultural -characteristics, non verballanguage, idiomatic expressions,. socio-cultural codeF, etc., contained in these pro-grams constitutes an excellent means of de-veloping listening comprehension proficiencyand awareness of cultural similarities and dif-ferences.

From the infotrnal observations and reac-tions of the students to this new educationalresource, some tentative assumptions havebeen reached. Notice that these observationsare only hypotheses and are not hard scien-tific facts.

a) The level,of comprehension of the targetlanguage increases proportionately to theamount of viewing of television programs inthat foreign language.

b) The acquisition of a higher level of com-prehension is partly due to the fact that thestudent is not under any obligation to watchthe programs. The operating factor here is his

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Cassirer interview; TV for Language;Radio for Teachers; Comic Books forHealth; Food for Thoughl