dna molecular biology of the gene. genes biological blueprints give attributes & traits every...
TRANSCRIPT
DNA
Molecular Biology of the Gene
Genes• biological blueprints• give attributes & traits• every nucleus, in every
cell carries genetic blueprint
• every cell has all information needed to make a complete you
• located on chromosomes• humans have 46 • each contain thousands of
genes
Genes• share genes with all living organisms
• 98% match chimpanzees
• 99.9% match all other humans
• differences exist at particular sites
• causes each of us to be unique
Genes & DNA• genes are made of DNA
– deoxyribonucleic acid• macromolecule • made of 4 different
nucleotides• paired in precise manner• order of nucleotides-
genetic code• DNA gives instructions to
make proteins• each 3 combinations of
nucleotides = one amino acid
DNA• nucleic acid• macromolecule composed of smaller
subunits –nucleotides• contains• carbon sugar-deoxyribose• nitrogenous base• 1-3 PO4 groups• contains 4 different nucleotides• each with different nitrogenous base• bases are found in 2 major groups• Purines
– double ring structures– adenine (A)– guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines– single ring structures– thymine (T)– cytosine (C)– uracil (U)
DNA NUCLEOTIDES
Sugar-Phosphate Backbone• bases are linked via
dehydration synthesis into phosphodiester bonds
• phosphate of one nucleotide covalently bonds to sugar of next
• forms sugar-PO4 backbone
• nitrogenous bases are arranged as appendages along backbone
Sugar-Phosphate Backbone
DNA• structure determined by
Watson & Crick-1953• discovered DNA is double
stranded helix• composed of two strands• wrapped around each other in
helical formation• core -bases of one DNA
strand bonded to bases in other strand
• if think of DNA molecule as ladder– sugar-phosphate backbone
would be sides of ladder– paired bases would be
rungs
DNA• base pairing is
specific• A-T • G-C• amount of A =
amount of T• one strand is
complementary to the other
Replication • cells divide & reproduce
daily• giving rise to 2 daughter
cells• with same genetic
makeup• before cell can divide,
DNA must duplicate• called-replication• uses template
mechanism
Replication• to begin• strands of DNA must
separate• double helix unwound
by helicase– breaks H bonds
between base pairs
REPLICATION• unwinding takes place in a replication
bubble
• new strand of DNA is formed in both directions on both strands of DNA in bubble
Replication• proceeds in both directions• DNA strand has 3’ end & 5’ end• at one end carbon 3 of sugar is
attached to –OH group• at other end carbon 5 is attached
to a phosphate group• DNA polymerase
– enzyme – binds single nucleotides into
new strand of DNA– works only in 3' to 5' direction
• consequently DNA synthesis only occurs in 5' to 3' direction
• means one daughter strand can be made as continuous strand– leading strand
• other is made in short pieces• linked together with DNA ligase
– lagging strand
REPLICATION• each strand of
DNA is used as template to make new, complementary strand
• semi-conservative replication
REPLICATION• at completion of
process 2 DNA molecules have been formed each identical to original
• one strand of each of new DNA molecules is strand of original DNA
• other strand is complementary strand made during replication
• semi conservative replication
PHENOTYPIC EXPRESSION • small sections of
chromosomes are genes
• genetic makeup is genotype
• expression of genes into specific traits is phenotype
– result of proteins
• one geneone protein
Expression of Genotype• protein production is
dictated by DNA
• information about specific proteins is transferred to another nucleic acid-RNA
• RNA is translated into a protein
Genetic Code• DNAmRNAproteins• Proteins are long strands of
amino acids held by peptide bonds
• each has unique amino acid sequence
• language of DNA is chemical• must be translated into
different chemical language-that of polypeptides
• DNA language is written in linear sequence of nucleotide bases that comprise it-AACCGTTGGACAC
• specific sequence of bases makes up a gene glu lys ser ala met phe leu glu
Expression of Genotype• transfer of
information from DNA to RNA and then to proteins takes place in two processes
• Transcription• Translation
Transcription• DNA directs
ribonucleic acid synthesis
• transfers genetic information from DNA to RNA
RNA• nucleotides – ribonucleotides
• same basic components as DNA
• single strand• 5 C sugar-ribose• phosphate groups• nitrogenous bases
– same as DNA– one exception
• RNA has Uracil (U) instead of T
• base pairing rules are same• Uracil is substituted for
thymine• U-A not T-A
Types of RNA• Messenger
– mRNA
• Ribosomal – rRNA
• Transfer– tRNA
• all involved in translation
Transcription• DNAmRNA
• nucleic acid language of DNA is rewritten as sequence of RNA bases
Transcription• process of
transferring genetic information from DNA to RNA
• similar to DNA replication
• DNA is used as template to make RNA
Transcription• stands of DNA must separate• only one serves as template• nucleotides take their places
one at a time along template using same base pairing rules as replication except A-U
• 3 stages• Initiation• Elongation• Termination
Initiation• RNA polymerase
attaches to promoter– specific nucleotide
sequence• RNA synthesis begins• RNA polymerase decides
which strand to use as template
• strand used- antisense strand
• other stand-sense strand
Elongation• RNA strand grows longer• RNA strand peels away
from template allowing separated DNA strands to come back together
• RNA strand formed is directly complementary to its DNA template
• each time C is found in antisense strand of DNA template a G is paired with it
Termination• RNA polymerase
reaches special sequence of bases in template-terminator
• ends transcription• RNA polymerase
detaches
Post-transcriptional Modifications
• in prokaryotic cells RNA can function immediately
• in eukaryotic cells RNA is processed before moving to cytoplasm for translation
• post-transcriptional modifications
• capping-tailing• splicing-ligating• ligation
Capping-Tailing• nucleotides are added to either end of
RNA
• “G” nucleotide(s) might be added to one end; “A” nucleotides might be added to other
• additions make RNA more stable
• protects molecule from attack by enzymes
• helps ribosomes recognize mRNAA
Splicing & Ligation• precursor mRNA contains exons &
introns• exons
– segments containing information for formation of proteins
• Introns– internal non-coding regions
• before mRNA can leave nucleus-introns must be removed from strand
• Introns are spliced out• exons are ligated (or attached)
together• RNA can now move to cytoplasm
through nuclear membrane pores
Translation• conversion of nucleic acid
language into protein language
• proteins are macromolecules-polymers of amino acids
• 20-common to all organisms
• sequence of nucleotides in mRNA dictates sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
• sequence of bases in molecule of DNA is genetic code
GENETIC CODE• DNA & RNA are made of 4 different
nucleotides• there are 20 amino acids• if each nucleotide coded for one
amino acidcould only be 4 amino acids
• if each 2 coded for onecould be 16 amino acids
• smallest number of bases that can code for 20 amino acids is 3
• particular triplet of nucleotides in mRNA is a codon– specific for a particular amino
acid• 64 possible triplet codes• code is redundant
– more than one codon for each amino acid
Codons• 61 code for amino
acids• some have regulatory
purposes– start & stop
translation• AUG-start codon
– codes for MET-methionine
• UAA, UAG, UGA- stop codons– tell ribosomes to end
polypeptide synthesis
Genetic Code• highly conserved
• same in all organisms
• genes can be transcribed & translated even if transferred from one species into another
• opened door for genetic recombinant technology & genetic engineering
Translation• amino acids are not able to
recognize codons of mRNA• requires an interpreter
– intermediate that can understand language of one form & translate message into another
• tRNA (transfer RNA) is interpreter
• picks appropriate amino acid & recognizes appropriate codon in mRNA
• converts 3 letter code of nucleic acids into amino acidsproteins
tRNA• composed of one strand of RNA• chain twists & folds making some
double stranded areas• one end-special triplet of bases-
anticodon• contains complementary sequence of
bases to sequence of bases in mRNA • recognizes bases in mRNA by
applying standard base pairing rules• other end-site where amino acid can
attach• enzyme recognizes both tRNA & its
amino acid partner• there are at least 32 different tRNA in
eukaryotic cells• anticodons are redundant• there is at least one anticodon for
each amino acid
Translation• ribosomes coordinate
process of translation• ribosomes are formed
from 2 subunits each made of proteins & rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
• completely assembled ribosome has binding site for mRNA on its small subunit & two binding sites for tRNA on its large subunit
Translation Stages
• Initiation• Elongation• Termination
Initiation• mRNA molecule binds to small
ribosomal subunit• special initiator tRNA binds to specific
codon-AUG– start codon
• Anticodon-UAC• start codon also carries amino acid
methionine• Next
– large ribosomal subunit binds to small one creating functional ribosome
• initiator tRNA fits into one of two tRNA binding sites on ribosome-P site
• other tRNA binding site-A site is vacant
• P site holds tRNA containing growing peptide chain
• A site holds tRNA carrying amino acidsext amino acid to be added to chain
Elongation• amino acids are added
one by one to first amino acid
• ribosome moves along mRNA in the 5'-to-3'direction
• tRNA (anticodon) corresponding to second codon binds to A site, carries amino acid
Elongation• peptide bond forms
between carboxyl group of one amino acid & amino group of next
• after peptide bond forms-ribosome shifts, or translocates, causing tRNA to occupy the P site
Elongation• movement brings next mRNA codon to
be translated into A site • process begins again• elongation continues until stop codon
is reached
Termination• UAA, UAG & UGA
are stop codons• when one of these
sequences is detetectedpeptide released from last tRNA
• ribosome splits back into its separate subunits
Mutations• any change in
nucleotide sequence of DNA
• production of mutations-mutagenesis
• some-spontaneous• some due to mutagens• radiation, chemicals &
viruses• two categories
– base substitutions– insertions & deletions
Base Substitutions• Point mutation
– replacement of one nucleotide for another
• may go unnoticed• may cause significant
issues• hemophilia• sickle cell anemia• Huntingtons Chorea• Tay Sachs disease
Insertion & Deletion• mRNA is read as a series of triplet codons during translation
• adding or deleting one base changes reading frame for tRNA
• Frame-shift mutations– dramatic effects– all nucleotides downstream
from insertion or deletion will be regrouped into different codons
– result is usually nonfunctional protein