diverse and dynamic dietary patterns in early colonial ... · diverse and dynamic dietary patterns...

Diverse and Dynamic Dietary Patterns in Early Colonial Cuba:New Insights from Multiple Isotope Analyses

Jason E. Laffoon , Roberto Valcárcel Rojas, Darlene A. Weston, Menno L. P. Hoogland,Gareth R. Davies, and Corinne L. Hofman

The European conquest and colonization of the Caribbean precipitated massive changes in indigenous cultures and societiesof the region. One of the earliest changes was the introduction of new plant and animal foods and culinary traditions. Thisstudy presents the first archaeological reconstruction of indigenous diets and foodways in the Caribbean spanning the histor-ical divide of 1492. We use multiple isotope datasets to reconstruct these diets and investigate the potential relationshipsbetween dietary and mobility patterns at multiple scales. Dietary patterns are assessed by isotope analyses of different skeletalelements from the archaeological skeletal population of El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba. This approach integrates carbon andnitrogen isotope analyses of bone and dentine collagen with carbon and oxygen isotope analyses of bone and enamel apatite.The isotope results document extreme intrapopulation dietary heterogeneity but few systematic differences in diet betweendemographic/social groups. Comparisons with published isotope data from other precolonial and colonial period populationsin the Caribbean indicate distinct dietary and subsistence practices at El Chorro deMaíta. The majority of the local populationconsumed more animal protein resources than other indigenous populations in the Caribbean, and their overall dietary pat-terns are more similar to colonial period enslaved populations than to indigenous ones.

Keywords: diet, isotope analysis, colonialism, indigenous, Cuba

La conquista y colonización europea del Caribe precipitó cambios masivos en las culturas y sociedades indígenas de la región.Uno de estos fue la introducción de nuevos alimentos vegetales y animales y de tradiciones culinarias. En este trabajo se pre-senta la primera reconstrucción arqueológica de dietas indígenas y prácticas alimenticias en el Caribe, en el contexto de laruptura histórica iniciada con el arribo europeo en 1492. Se utilizan múltiples conjuntos de datos isotópicos para reconstruirla dieta y analizar las posibles relaciones entre ésta y los patrones de movilidad a diversas escalas. Los patrones dietarios seevalúan mediante análisis de isótopos de diferentes elementos óseos humanos del sitio El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba. El enfoqueintegra el análisis de isótopos de carbono y nitrógeno de colágeno de hueso y dentina y el análisis de isótopos de carbono yoxígeno de apatita de hueso y esmalte. Los resultados documentan una heterogeneidad alimentaria intrapoblacional extrema,pero pocas diferencias sistemáticas en la dieta entre los grupos demográficos / sociales. Las comparaciones con los datosisotópicos de otras poblaciones precoloniales y coloniales del Caribe, indican prácticas alimentarias y de subsistenciadistintas en El Chorro. La mayor parte de la población local consumió más recursos de proteínas animales que otraspoblaciones indígenas en el Caribe y sus patrones dietarios generales son más similares a los de las poblaciones esclavizadasdel período colonial.

Palabras clave: dieta, análisis de isótopos, colonialismo, indígenas, Cuba

Jason E. Laffoon ( [email protected], corresponding author),Menno L. P. Hoogland and Corinne L. Hofman▪ Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333CC, Leiden, The NetherlandsRoberto Valcárcel Rojas ▪ Instituto Tecnológico de Santo Domingo (INTEC), Av. de Los Próceres 49, Santo Domingo10602, Dominican RepublicDarlene A. Weston ▪ Department of Anthropology, University of British Columbia, 6306 NW Marine Dr., Vancouver, BCV6T1Z1, CanadaGareth R. Davies ▪ Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Latin American Antiquity 31(1), 2020, pp. 103–121Copyright © 2020 by the Society for American Archaeology. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, dis-

tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.doi:10.1017/laq.2019.103

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Profound changes in indigenous Caribbeanfoodways have occurred in the last fivecenturies. The movement of various

plant- and animal-based foods between the Oldand New Worlds is one of the central themes ofthe “Columbian Exchange” (Crosby 1972). Thequantity and diversity of peoples, pathogens,things, ideas, and foods that comprise theColumbian Exchange and the impacts that theyhave had on the course of history are well docu-mented in broad strokes (Denevan 1992; Sauer1966), but our current understanding of this gen-eral story is lacking in many critical details. Keyresearch questions that remain unresolved are thedating of the introduction of various foods to dif-ferent areas, the timing and routes by which theywere dispersed, the speed by which new foodsand knowledge of food production were incorpo-rated into indigenous foodways, the various fac-tors that contributed to the adoption of certainfoods and not others, and how these changingand dynamic culinary traditions varied overspace and time both within and between variousAmerindian populations.

Patterns of continuity and change in foodwaysrelated to cross-cultural encounters in the Carib-bean have been previously explored using abroad array of archaeological and historicaldata (Deagan 2004; Keegan and Hofman 2017;Newsom and Wing 2004; Rouse 1992; Sauer1966). Although stable isotope methods havebeen widely applied to human paleodiet studiesin the Caribbean for both the precolonial (Chini-que de Armas et al. 2015, 2016, 2017; Keeganand DeNiro 1988; Krigbaum et al. 2013; Laffoonand de Vos 2011; Laffoon et al. 2013, 2016,2017; Mickleburgh and Laffoon 2018; Norr2002; Pestle 2010, 2013; Stokes 1998) and latecolonial periods (Schroeder et al. 2009; Sparkeset al. 2012; Varney 2003), they have yet to beused to investigate the critical period spanningthe historical divide or the early colonial period.This lacuna is unfortunate because isotopic anal-yses of human remains are particularly well sui-ted for paleodietary studies, being ideal fortracking rapid changes in dietary practices bothwithin and between individuals and for exploringvariation in diets within and between differentsocial groups at multiple scales using abottom-up approach. This type of information

concerning indigenous diets is almost entirelyneglected in the documentary record of theearly colonial period.

In this study we examine patterns in carbonand nitrogen isotopes in dentine and bone colla-gen, as well as in carbon and oxygen isotopes inenamel and bone apatite, to reconstruct child-hood and adult diets at the site of El Chorro deMaíta, Cuba (Figure 1). The analyzed skeletonsprimarily date to the crucial phase spanning thecontact and early colonial periods of the Carib-bean that witnessed the arrival of the Spanish,the invasion and colonization of Cuba, and theimposition of the encomienda system of forcedlabor on the indigenous populations of the island.We use the patterning in the stable isotope resultsat multiple scales—in conjunction with archaeo-logical, osteoarchaeological, zooarchaeological,and historical evidence—to explore the complexinterrelationships between diet and mobilityamong this indigenous community and howexisting patterns were affected after AD 1492.The main research aims of this study are to recon-struct patterns of indigenous foodways at the siteof El Chorro de Maíta, to investigate changes indietary practices in early colonial contexts of theCaribbean, to explore potential intrapopulationdifferences in responding to changing socialand ecological conditions, and to assess possiblelinkages between dietary and mobility patterns atmultiple scales.

Investigating Indigenous Diets

Site Background and Context

This study focuses on the burial population of thesite of El Chorro de Maíta, on the northern coastof eastern Cuba. The cemetery portion of the sitewas primarily excavated in the 1980s under thedirection of José Guarch Delmonte (1990,1996) and was originally interpreted as an essen-tially indigenous space of precolonial characterwith an ephemeral contact period componentand without an important link with Europeans.Subsequent archaeological research over thelast few decades conducted by Roberto ValcárcelRojas and colleagues has provided importantnew insights into many aspects regarding thesite. This research at the site identified nonfuner-ary contexts including domestic spaces and

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refuse deposits, indicating an indigenous occu-pation beginning around the thirteenth centuryAD. Pottery, European metallic artifacts, andpig remains appear in the final layers of occupa-tion mixed with indigenous materials. In the fif-teenth and sixteenth centuries AD, the settlementwas organized around a central area in which acemetery was located (Valcárcel Rojas 2016).

Several unique aspects of the site and burialpopulation make it ideally suited for the aimsof the current study, including the fact that theskeletal population is one of the largest (MNI= 133; Weston and Valcárcel Rojas 2016) andmost well-researched indigenous populations inthe insular Caribbean; it is also one of the onlyindigenous Caribbean populations whose datingcan be definitively linked to the early colonialperiod (ca. AD 1500–1550). A large suite of

radiocarbon dates including extensive direct dat-ing of many of the skeletons indicates that mostindividuals have 2-sigma date ranges spanningthe historical divide (Bayliss et al. 2012; Valcár-cel Rojas 2012, 2016). It is therefore impossibleto assignmost individuals to either the precontactor postcontact period based on radiocarbon datesalone. A detailed analysis of the calibrated radio-carbon dates, including the use of Bayesian mod-eling, suggests that the dates are concentrated inthe contact or early colonial period (Bayliss et al.2012; Valcarcel Rojas 2016:194). Additionalevidence that many of the burials date to thisperiod includes the widespread presence ofdomestic pig (Sus scrofa) bones, Europeanpottery, andmetal artifacts recovered from graves(Valcárcel Rojas 2016), in addition to theextended supine (Christian-style) placement of

Figure 1. Map of Cuba showing the location of the site El Chorro de Maíta.

Laffoon et al.] 105DIVERSE AND DYNAMIC DIETARY PATTERNS IN EARLY COLONIAL CUBA



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the body for many of the burials (Valcárcel Rojas2012; Valcárcel Rojas et al. 2011, 2013).

Recent osteoarchaeological investigations(Weston and Valcárcel Rojas 2016) revealedimportant new insights into health and demog-raphy at the site, including a mortality profileconsistent with a catastrophic episode such asan epidemic. Furthermore, large concentrationsof burials associated with indigenous (Meilla-can) pottery found at this site do not occur at indi-genous sites in Cuba, where burial areasgenerally comprise few individuals predom-inantly in cave sites, or elsewhere in precolonialAntilles. In addition, the lack of secure chrono-logical indicators of precontact burials, thediverse ethnic and geographical origins observedin the mortuary population (Valcárcel Rojas et al.2011), and taphonomic and demographic indica-tors that point to catastrophic mortality (Westonand Valcárcel Rojas 2016) suggest that the ceme-tery itself is predominantly a colonial phenom-enon resulting from Indigenous–Europeaninteractions; however, the possibility that itcould include a small nucleus of precolonialburials cannot be ruled out (Valcárcel Rojas2016; Weston and Valcárcel Rojas 2016). Theindigenous population of the site was rapidlyincorporated into the Spanish system (encomi-enda) of forced labor in the first decades of thesixteenth century AD (Valcárcel Rojas 2012,2016; Valcárcel Rojas et al. 2013).

Zooarchaeological research conducted to datehas focused on specific components of the site,and in terms of MNI the terrestrial mollusks arethe most abundant (Pérez Iglesias 2007, 2008,2010, 2011). Nevertheless, the principal contri-butions to the biomass came from fishing, fol-lowed by hunting hutia, a small native rodent,and collecting mollusks (Pérez Iglesias 2008).Thus, the quantitative faunal analyses indicatethat marine fish and various small mammalssuch as hutia (Capromys pilorides, Mysatelesmelanurus) and cave rats (Boromys offella, Bor-omys torrei) constituted the core of the animal-based nutrition (Rodríguez Arce 1987; ValcárcelRojas 2016). Importantly the faunal analysesalso revealed the presence of domestic pigremains at the site and provided clear evidencefor processing (butchery marks) of these animalsfor consumption (Pérez Iglesias and Valcárcel

Rojas 2014). Because of the biases of the faunalrecord, questions nevertheless remain concern-ing how rapidly introduced foods were incorpo-rated into indigenous diets, their importance tocaloric intake, and variation in the relative contri-butions of different foods to individual diets.Although caution is warranted in the use oftrace element data from archaeological bone(Burton and Price 2000), previous analysis oftrace element concentrations from El Chorro deMaíta (Taylor 1990) revealed variable patternsconsistent with the consumption of both marineand vegetable foods, thereby indicating variedomnivorous diets.

Stable Isotopes and Dietary Reconstruction

Carbon isotope values (δ13C) vary between dif-ferent types of plants based on the differentphotosynthetic pathways used to fix atmosphericcarbon (Smith and Epstein 1971). Most plantspecies use the C3 cycle (Calvin-Benson) andhave lower δ13C values, whereas a minority useeither the C4 (Hatch-Slack) or CAM (Crassula-cean acid metabolism) cycles and possess sig-nificantly higher δ13C values (Bender 1971;Smith and Epstein 1971). In the precolonialCaribbean, maize (Zea mays) was one of theonly widespread and economically importantC4 crops (Newsom and Wing 2004), althoughother regionally available C4 (amaranths, cheno-pods) and CAM (agave, pineapple) plants mayhave been occasionally consumed (Pestle2010). Recent microbotanical (starch grain)research has further highlighted the early appear-ance (ca. 7800 BP) and widespread consumptionof maize in the precolonial insular Caribbean(e.g., Mickleburgh and Pagán-Jiménez 2012;Pagán-Jiménez 2013; Pagán-Jiménez et al.2015). Carbon isotopes also vary between terres-trial and marine ecosystems based on differencesin their primary carbon sources (DeNiro andEpstein 1978; Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984),with the former possessing much lower δ13Cvalues than the latter.

Nitrogen isotope values (δ15N) in plants aregenerally low compared to animals becauseδ15N is enriched stepwise between each trophiclevel in a food chain such that herbivores, omni-vores, and carnivores possess increasingly higherδ15N (DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981). Marine




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ecosystems also generally have enriched δ15Nvalues relative to terrestrial ones, given that mar-ine plants possess higher δ15N and that there areusually more trophic levels in marine ecosystems(DeNiro and Epstein 1978; Schoeninger et al.1983). Although the combination of higherδ15N and higher δ13C values among marine eco-systems is such that coupled carbon and nitrogenisotopes can often be used to distinguish betweenmarine and terrestrial food sources (Hedges andReynard 2007), the coral reef ecosystems of theCaribbean region include many fish specieswith lower than expected δ15N values (similarto terrestrial animals). This limits the usefulnessof this isotopic proxy for distinguishing betweenterrestrial and marine protein consumption (Kee-gan and DeNiro 1988).

The main principle of dietary reconstructionvia stable isotope analysis is that the isotopiccomposition of consumed foods is reflected inthe tissues of consumers (DeNiro and Epstein1976). The earliest applications of stable isotopemethods for paleodietary studies focused oninferring long-term changes in diet based on car-bon isotopes in human bone collagen (Vogel andvan de Merwe 1977). Over the last four decades,stable isotope approaches have become widelyused and invaluable tools in archaeologicalresearch. Because of preferential routing (Fer-nandes et al. 2012; Krueger and Sullivan1984), carbon isotopes in collagen primarilyreflect dietary protein, whereas carbon isotopesin bone (or enamel) apatite reflect the average ofall three macronutrient components (carbohy-drates, fats, and proteins) within the diet (Ambroseand Norr 1993; Tieszen and Fagre 1993).

Previous Isotopic Research

All strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) data (n = 88)and a small subset of the enamel carbon (δ13C)and oxygen (δ18O) isotope data (n = 12) fromEl Chorro de Maíta discussed herein were previ-ously reported (Laffoon 2012; Laffoon et al.2013; Valcárcel Rojas et al. 2011). In combin-ation with other lines of evidence, these isotoperesults revealed a high proportion of nonlocalmigrants (25%) with diverse natal origins(Figure 2). Based on the combined evidence,most of these nonlocals probably originatedfrom elsewhere in the Caribbean, possibly even

from other locations on Cuba, although twoindividuals exhibited considerable evidenceindicating long-distance mainland origins. Forindividual CM72B, an adult female, theevidence for nonlocal origins includes deviantburial treatment; tall stature relative to the localpopulation; exotic cranial and dental modifica-tion styles; and nonlocal enamel strontium,oxygen, and carbon isotope values. Based onthis evidence, it was proposed that this indi-vidual probably originated from Mesoamerica(Valcárcel Rojas et al. 2011). A recent dualisotope provenance approach applied to this indi-vidual’s combined strontium and oxygen isotopesignatures confirms that lowland Mesoamerica isone of the few places in the tropical Americasfrom where this individual could have originated(Laffoon et al. 2017). For individual CM45, anadult male, the evidence for nonlocal originsincludes a burial position that is atypical for indi-genous Antilleans; grave inclusions of brassaglets (clothes fasteners) of European origin(Cooper et al. 2008; Martinón-Torres et al.2007; Valcárcel Rojas 2016); cranial metricsindicative of likely African ancestry; and highlyelevated enamel isotope values of strontium,oxygen, and carbon that excluded the possibilityof Antillean origins. Based on the overallevidence this individual was interpreted as afirst-generation migrant from Africa (Valcárcel Rojaset al. 2011).

In addition to the extensive suite of radiocar-bon dates, a preliminary dataset of associatedstable isotope results has also been reported forthis burial population (Bayliss et al. 2012).This preliminary bone collagen carbon and nitro-gen isotope data have confirmed both a highdegree of dietary variation and tentative linksbetween nonlocal origins and nonlocal dietarypractices.

Materials and Methods

Materials

The sampling strategy used for this study focusedon both bone and dentine collagen and bone andenamel bioapatite (structural carbonate). Thisstrategy permitted explorations of age-basedvariation in dietary practices, including changesoccurring within the life of a single individual




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from a life-history perspective (e.g., Laffoonet al. 2018; Sealy et al. 1995). Sampling of dentalelements targeted premolars for consistency andto avoid the complicating effects of breastfeedinginputs; however, in several cases other teeth werealso sampled when intact premolars were notavailable. Enamel and dentine samples weretaken from the same dental elements. Bone sam-ples were primarily derived from long bone frag-ments. All samples were processed at the StableIsotope Laboratory, Faculty of Science, at VrijeUniversiteit Amsterdam.

Methods

Bone and teeth samples were cleaned by mech-anically removing the outer surface, which isthe most susceptible to diagenetic alteration(Budd et al. 2000). The extraction of collagenfrom bone and dentine followed standard proto-cols for archaeological skeletal materials(Ambrose 1990; Brown et al. 1988). Sampleswere demineralized in 0.6 M HCl at 4°C for sev-eral days, rinsed to neutral with ultrapure water(Milli-Q), treated with 0.125 M NaOH for 20hours, rinsed to neutral again, gelatinized in

pH = 3 HCl at 80°C for 48–72 hours, separatedwith Ezee (Elkay) filters, frozen, and lyophilized.The processing of bone and enamel apatite sam-ples for isotope analyses included a chemicalpretreatment procedure (Bocherens et al. 2011),which involved washing in 2.5% bleach(NaOCl) rinsing, and then leaching in Ca-acetatebuffered acetic acid (CH3COOH, pH = 4.75).Carbon and nitrogen isotope measurementswere conducted on a ThermoQuest IRMS DeltaXP-plus interfaced to a Flash elemental analyzer.International standards (USGS40, USGS41,IAEA-310(A) and IAEA-NO3) were used forsample calibration, with long-term reproducibil-ity of standards of ± 0.1‰ (1SD) for both δ13Cand δ15N. Carbon and oxygen isotope measure-ments were conducted on a Finnigan DeltaPlusIRMS coupled with a Gasbench II; long-termreproducibility of the international referencematerial (NBS19) is ± 0.1‰ (1SD) for δ13Cand ± 0.2‰ (1SD) for δ18O. Stable isotoperesults are reported in the δ notation, in partsper thousand (‰) relative to the internationalVPDB (carbon and oxygen) and AIR (nitrogen)standards.

Figure 2. Plot of 87Sr/86Sr ratios fromEl Chorro deMaíta showing locals (white symbols) and nonlocals (black symbols).(Data sources: Laffoon 2012; Valcárcel Rojas et al. 2011.)




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Results

Quality Control Indicators

The sampling information and isotope results arepresented in Supplemental Table 1. Not all iso-tope proxies are available for every individualbecause some did not possess suitable intact den-tal elements, whereas others had poor bone pres-ervation (and are not considered further). For allsamples reported here, multiple quality controlindicators suggest overall good preservation ofcollagen material with C:N ratios within therange (2.9–3.6) reported for nonaltered boneand with wt.% carbon and wt.% nitrogen higherthan 13.0% and 4.8%, respectively (Ambrose1990; DeNiro 1985). Collagen yields were vari-able for bone collagen, ranging from 2.5% to26.2% (mean: 7.6%), and for dentine collagen,ranging from 1.8% to 16.5% (mean: 8.5%) butconsistent with those reported for precolonialCaribbean populations (Pestle and Colvard2012). Collagen stable isotope values tended toremain consistent for collagen yields higherthan 1% (Ambrose 1990). Unlike for bone colla-gen, there is no general consensus concerningquality-control indicators for bone apatite (Shinand Hedges 2012), but given its known suscepti-bility to multiple diagenetic processes (Kochet al. 1997), we used general and pairwise com-parisons of bone and enamel carbon (δ13Capat

and δ13Cenam) and oxygen (δ18Oapat andδ18Oenam) to test for potential postmortemalteration of biogenic isotope values. We alsoconsidered the bone apatite isotope data as sup-plementary to the other isotope proxies andfocused our interpretations on the more robustcollagen and enamel isotope datasets.

Enamel and Bone Apatite Results: Carbon andOxygen

Summary statistics of isotope results for all sam-ples and for specific subgroups based on sex,age, and origins are presented in SupplementalTable 2. Enamel and bone apatite carbon andoxygen isotope values are plotted in Figure 3.The mean δ13Cenam for all individuals is −11.4± 0.9‰ (−15.5‰ to −9.7‰, n = 69), and themean δ18Oenam is −3.7 ± 0.7‰ (−5.4‰ to−2.0‰). These statistics exclude the two nonlo-cal individuals (CM45, CM72B) with long-

distance (mainland) origins, who possessδ13Cenam (−5.1‰ and −3.7‰) and δ18Oenam

values (−5.4‰ and −3.7‰), respectively:these values are highly elevated both relative tothe local population and compared to all otherCaribbean archaeological populations (Laffoonet al. 2013).

The mean δ13Capat for all samples is −10.5 ±0.6‰ (−12.3‰ to−8.7‰, n = 41), and the meanδ18Oenam is −6.3 ± 0.5‰ (−7.2‰ to −5.4‰).The mean δ13Cenam and mean δ13Capat arebroadly similar, and the corresponding rangesdisplay a high degree of overlap. In contrast,the mean δ18Oenam and mean δ18Oapat differ by2.6‰ with the latter consistently lower than theformer and almost no overlap in the range ofvalues. There is a statistically significant differ-ence between both δ13Cenam and δ13Capat t(102)= −3.81, p < 0.001, and between δ18Oenam andδ18Oapat t(103) = 23.29, p < 0.001.

We identified intra-individual variation inapatite isotope values by comparing enameland bone apatite isotope values from the sameindividuals (Figure 4). For the vast majority ofindividuals, δ13Cenam is more negative thanδ13Capat, but the offset (Δ13Cenam-apat) betweenthem is highly variable, with a mean of −1.1 ±1.2‰ (−5.0‰ to + 1.8‰, range: 6.8‰).Intra-individual offsets in oxygen isotope values(Δ18Oenam-apat) are larger (mean: 2.4 ± 0.8‰)than those observed for Δ13Cenam-apat but withreduced variation (1.0‰ to 4.7‰). The variabil-ity in Δ13Cenam-apat, including both negative andpositive values, was previously documented forboth animals and humans, but its possible causesare not well understood (Laffoon et al. 2016;Loftus and Sealy 2012).

Dentine and Bone Collagen Results: Carbon andNitrogen

Dentine and bone collagen isotope values areplotted in Figure 5. The mean δ13Cdent for allindividuals is −17.7 ± 1.3‰ (−19.0‰ to−12.2‰, n = 35), and the mean δ15Ndent is13.8 ± 1.3‰ (10.2‰ to 15.7‰). The meanδ13Ccoll is −17.6 ± 2.1‰ (−22.8‰ to −9.8‰,n = 44), and the mean δ15Ncoll is 13.2 ± 1.4‰(8.5‰ to 14.9‰). The two individuals withdocumented long-distance origins (CM45 andCM72B) were excluded from these summary




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Figure 3. Plot of enamel and bone apatite δ13C and δ18O values from El Chorro de Maíta. (Data sources: Laffoon et al.2013 and this study.)

Figure 4. Paired enamel (δ13Cenam and δ18Oenam) and bone apatite (δ13Capat and δ18Oapat) isotope values of the sameindividuals from El Chorro de Maíta.




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statistics because their collagen isotope valuesare extreme outliers and are highly elevated forboth dentine, δ13Cdent (−9.1‰ and −8.6‰)and δ15Ndent (9.6‰ and 9.3‰), and bone colla-gen δ13Ccoll (−7.2‰ and −8.0‰) and δ15Ncoll

(10.6‰ and 8.4‰), respectively (Bayliss et al.2012). Overall, the dentine and bone collagendatasets possess similar mean δ13C and δ15Nvalues, differing by less than 1‰, and there isa high degree of overlap in the ranges of values,although the bone collagen dataset possesses agreater range of values for both δ13C (>15‰)and δ15N (>6‰). The collagen isotope datasetexhibits notably extreme variability, which isfar greater than that reported for other indigenouspopulations in the Caribbean.

Intra-individual differences in collagen iso-tope values based on paired dentine and bonesamples (Figure 6) are on average quite small,with mean offsets of 0.3‰ for Δ13Cdent-coll and0.7‰ for Δ15Ndent-coll. Nevertheless, there isconsiderable variation among these offsets,with Δ13Cdent-coll varying from −1.8‰ to +4.8‰ (range: 6.6‰) and Δ15Ndent-coll varyingfrom −2.8‰ to + 7.1‰ (range: 9.9‰). It is

noteworthy that the direction of the offset isalso quite variable, with roughly equal propor-tions possessing positive and negative offsets.

Discussion

Dietary Reconstructions

Owing to the high variance and extremely largeranges of the stable isotope data overall, and ofthe collagen isotope data in particular, it is diffi-cult to make broad generalizations about theentire sample population. Nevertheless severaltrends are apparent. For example, we derivedestimates of whole-diet carbon isotope values(δ13Cwhole diet) by subtracting 10.1‰ from theenamel and bone apatite δ13C values (Fernandeset al. 2012), reflecting the average (whole di-etary) intake of the childhood and adult periods,respectively. The δ13Cwhole diet values of themajority of the dataset fall within the range ofC3 plants, indicating a predominance of C3

resources in the plant component of the diet,but several samples have δ13Cwhole diet valuesfalling at the edge or just outside of the rangeof values reported for C3 plants in the Caribbean.

Figure 5. Plot of dentine collagen (δ13Cdent and δ15Ndent) and bone collagen (δ

13Ccoll and δ15Ncoll) isotope values fromEl

Chorro de Maíta.




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This likely indicates minor contributions of C4,

marine resources, or both (Mickleburgh and Laf-foon 2018). These patterns are consistent withthe ecology of Cuba and the broader Caribbeanregion, which is dominated by C3 plants andwhere only a limited number of C4 (such asmaize) or CAM plants (agave, pineapple) havebeen documented as human food sources(Newson and Wing 2004; Pestle 2010). Indi-viduals CM45 (African origin) and CM72B(Mesoamerican origin) have highly elevatedδ13Cwhole diet estimates calculated from theirδ13Cenam values, indicating a predominance ofC4 resources during childhood, likely fromtheir respective consumption of sorghum/milletand maize (Laffoon et al. 2013).

Turning to assessments of intra-individualvariation in isotope values, a few clear patternsemerge. First, there are at least two possibleexplanations for the systematic differencesbetween the enamel and bone oxygen isotopevalues: (1) the δ18Oenam are elevated relative tobone δ18Oapat owing to the influence of breast-feeding, because breastmilk is expected to be ele-vated in δ18O (Britton et al. 2015), and (2) the

δ18Oapat values are systematically offset by post-mortem alteration or issues of sample treatmentand data calibration (Pestle et al. 2014). Theenamel and bone apatite δ18O values have beenused to calculate drinking water oxygen isotope(δ18Odw) values by first converting to theVSMOW scale using the formula of Coplen(1988) and then applying the calculation ofChenery and colleagues (2012). Comparison ofthese δ18Odw values with the range of precipita-tion δ18O for the circum-Caribbean (Inter-national Atomic Energy Agency/WorldMeteorological Organization 2016; Laffoonet al. 2017; Terzer et al. 2013) indicates a highdegree of overlap with δ18Odw values derivedfrom the El Chorro de Maíta δ18Oenam datasetbut not the δ18Oapat dataset. As such, and becauseenamel is generally considered a more reliablesample substrate for oxygen isotopic analyses(Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp 1999), we concludethat the bone oxygen isotope data are unreliableand do not consider them further.

Estimates of the protein component of the diet(Figure 7) are derived by applying the conversionformula from Pestle and colleagues (2015) to

Figure 6. Paired dentine (δ13Cdent and δ15Ndent) and bone collagen (δ

13Ccoll and δ15Ncoll) isotope values of the same indi-

viduals from El Chorro de Maíta.




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obtain δ13Cprotein, and by subtracting 3.6‰ fromdentine and bone δ15N values to obtainδ15Nprotein, as suggested by various studies(Ambrose 2002; DeNiro and Epstein 1981).When compared to the mean (± SD) of plant(C3 and C4) and animal (land and marine) foodgroups available in the precolonial Caribbean(Pestle 2010), the estimated δ13Cprotein valuesof the local population overlap considerablywith the range of δ13C for both C3 plants andland animals but not with C4 plants or marineanimals. In contrast, the δ15Nprotein values ofthe majority of samples overlap primarily withthe range of δ15N in (pelagic) marine animals.Therefore, the estimated protein diet at the sitedoes not match well with any of these four spe-cific native Caribbean food groups. It should benoted that (combined) low carbon and high nitro-gen consumer collagen isotope values have beeninterpreted as reflecting the consumption offreshwater fish in certain archaeological contexts(e.g., Harrison and Katzenberg 2003), but noarchaeological, faunal, or textual evidence

indicates that this is a feasible primary foodsource at El Chorro de Maíta.

Abundant historical records document boththe early arrival and rapid expansion of domesticpig populations within the Spanish colonies ofthe Caribbean (del Río Moreno 1996). Domesticpigs are expected to have low δ13C owing to areliance on C3 plants, in addition to moderatelyenriched δ15N, due to omnivory. A small dataset(n = 9) of pig dentine collagen stable isotopevalues (mean δ13Cdent =−20.7 ± 1.4‰; meanδ15Ndent = 7.6 ± 1.1‰) from various sites in theCaribbean displays this pattern, with isotopevalues that are comparable to the main clusterof local El Chorro de Maíta individuals. Thereis nevertheless considerable variation in the esti-mated protein isotope values, which indicatessubstantial diversity in the relative contributionsof these different food groups to individual diets.In general terms, these comparative data are con-sistent with the combined human stable isotoperesults, indicating mixed diets incorporatingplants and marine and terrestrial animals but

Figure 7. Estimated protein carbon isotope values (δ13Cprotein) derived by applying the conversion formula from Pestleand colleagues (2015) to combined collagen and apatite carbon isotope values, plotted against estimated protein nitro-gen isotope values (δ15Nprotein) derived by subtracting 3.6‰ from collagen nitrogen isotope values. (Faunal isotope datasources: Pestle 2010; Stokes 1998.)




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with a major contribution from the meat ofdomestic livestock (pigs) to the protein compo-nent of the diet for the majority of the localpopulation.

Intrapopulation Variation

The observed diversity in dietary practices evi-denced by the stable isotope data is at least par-tially explained by the large numbers ofnonlocals within the population and their highlydiverse origins. This diversity is most evident inthe isotope values of individuals CM45 andCM72B who appear to have been highly relianton C4 plants but is also found in several indivi-duals with very low δ13Cprotein and δ15Nprotein

values approaching a pure C3 plant diet. Notably,three out of the four most depleted δ13Cprotein

values are from juveniles, whereas three out ofthe four most enriched δ13Cprotein values arefrom nonlocals. Given that the nonlocals CM45and CM72B also have deviant bone collagen iso-tope values, they probably died before their bonescould equilibrate to the local dietary pattern. Thisis consistent with the high rates of mortalityamong enslaved individuals in colonial timesand the potentially catastrophic mortuary profileof the El Chorro de Maíta cemetery population(Weston and Valcárcel Rojas 2016). Neverthe-less, statistical tests based on sex, age, geographicorigins, or cranial modifications only identifiedsignificant differences in δ15Ndent for twovariables. Specifically, there are statisticallysignificant differences in δ15Ndent based on age,with juveniles having significantly higher values(M = 14.6‰, SD = 0.7) than adults (M = 13.1‰,SD = 2.9); t(34) = 3.65, p < 0.001; and based onorigins, with locals having significantly higherδ15Ndent (M = 14.2‰, SD = 1.3) than nonlocals(M = 11.8‰, SD = 2.6); t(12) = 4.23, p = 0.001.

The differences in δ15Ndent between juvenilesand adults are notable because the values in bothgroups should in principle reflect roughly thesame ages of formation. Given that the samplingof teeth for dentine collagen targeted the later-forming distal tips of the roots to avoid possibleinfluences of breastmilk consumption on mea-sured isotope values, it is not likely that a breast-feeding effect could account for the enricheddentine δ15N values of either group. By contrast,the observed differences in δ15Ndent between

adults and juveniles may reflect differential sur-vivorship, with the former representing survivorsand the latter nonsurvivors (e.g., Beaumont et al.2013). If so, this specific data pattern might indi-cate a possible link between childhood malnutri-tion (indicated by elevated δ15Ndent) andmortality ( juvenile age at death; Gowland2015), but more research is required to explorethis in greater depth.

Large differences in δ15Ndent relative to differ-ent (natal) geographic origins could result if localindividuals, particularly local juveniles, born andraised during the imposition of the encomiendasystem, would have had access to higher trophiclevel food sources during childhood. Nonlocalindividuals, by contrast, could have had quitedifferent dietary habits in their youth, whichwould be preserved in their dentine stable iso-tope signals and reflect the food cultures oftheir various homelands. Yet it should be notedthat it is somewhat questionable to treat nonlo-cals of diverse origins as a coherent statisticalgroup for the sake of comparisons, given thediversity of origins suggested by the isotopic,archaeological, and bioarchaeological evidence(Laffoon 2016).

Several patterns are evident concerning theobserved differences between enamel and boneapatite δ13C values. For the vast majority of indi-viduals, δ13Cenam is lower than δ13Capat. The gen-erally lower δ13Cenam values could result from abreastfeeding effect or simply reflect minorage-related differences in dietary intake overtime. Interestingly, the slight offset betweenδ13Cenam and δ13Capat is also apparent for juven-ile individuals, potentially owing to differencesin the time spans represented by the two sampletypes. Importantly, the differences between thesetwo datasets are not statistically significant eitherat the scale of the entire sample or for pairedtooth-bone samples of the same individuals,and the degree of intra-individual offsets ishighly variable. Such patterning could also per-haps be explained by differential diagenesis ofbone samples if, for example, some bone apatitesamples were more isotopically altered thanothers. Nonetheless, the lack of systematic differ-ences between the enamel and bone apatite car-bon isotope values and the fact that all butthree of the latter fall within the range of the




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former would seem to suggest a lack of diage-netic alteration in the δ13Capat dataset, thus indi-cating a high degree of correspondence betweenchildhood and adult diets.

In fact, although large intra-individual differ-ences were observed for paired enamel-bone andpaired dentine-bone samples for several indi-viduals, this large variability was not limited tononlocals. This pattern could result from a limi-tation of the strontium isotope method itself,which cannot identify nonlocals originatingfrom isotopically similar regions (false nega-tives); alternatively it could indicate thatlarge-scale dietary changes also occurredamong some locals. This second possibilitywould not be too surprising, considering (1)that many other regions of Cuba (and the Carib-bean in general) possess similar ranges of bio-available 87Sr/86Sr (Laffoon et al. 2012) andgiven (2) the documented diversity of dietarypractices on such a large, and ecologically andculturally diverse, island as Cuba (Chinique deArmas et al. 2016). Lastly, the relatively limitedrange (ca. 4‰) of enamel/apatite δ13C valuescontrasts sharply with the enormous range (ca.13‰, excluding nonlocals) of dentine/bone col-lagen δ13C, possibly indicating a greater diver-sity of protein diets compared to whole diets.

Interpopulation Variation

Placing the isotopic datasets within a broaderregional context, we compared the collagen iso-tope data with several precolonial and colonialperiod populations from the Caribbean(Figure 8). Starting with intra-island compari-sons, the local El Chorro de Maíta populationhas higher values for both δ13C and δ15N thanmost other indigenous Cuban populations, withthe notable exception of Canímar Abajo.Although the locals at El Chorro de Maíta andthe Canímar Abajo population have overlappingδ13C ranges, the mean δ15N is more than 2‰higher for the former. At Canímar Abajo, dietsare purported to have been heavily reliant onplant and shellfish resources (Chinique deArmas et al. 2016), which may account fortheir relatively lower δ15N values. Turning tocomparisons with precolonial Caribbean popula-tions, the El Chorro de Maíta dataset also pos-sesses a broadly similar range of collagen δ13C

values but elevated δ15N values compared toother indigenous populations from across theAntilles. In fact, the combined collagen δ13Cand δ15N values for El Chorro de Maíta displaylittle overlap with any of the indigenous popula-tions from Cuba or the insular Caribbean morebroadly. The higher δ15N values at El Chorro deMaíta indicate a larger relative contribution ofanimal protein, the consumption of higher trophiclevel animal resources compared to other preco-lonial Caribbean populations, or both.

This conclusion is supported by comparingthe El Chorro de Maíta results with severalcolonial-era populations from the Caribbean(Figure 8). In terms of combined collagen carbonand nitrogen isotope values, the local El Chorrode Maíta population is comparable to some, butnot all, colonial period enslaved African popula-tions within the Antilles; for example, at EnglishHarbour, Antigua, and Harney, Monserrat(Sparkes et al. 2012; Varney 2003). In contrast,other enslaved African populations from thecolonial-era Caribbean such as Ste. Marguerite,Guadeloupe (Sparkes et al. 2012), and NewtonPlantation, Barbados (Schroeder et al. 2009),possess considerably higher collagen δ13C andδ15N values than El Chorro de Maíta. The com-bined collagen isotope values at these latter twosites are more consistent with higher rates ofmarine protein consumption. Interestingly, theenamel and bone apatite δ13C values at El Chorrode Maíta are broadly similar in both precolonialand colonial period Caribbean populations anddisplay much less spatial or temporal variationthan collagen δ13C values (Stokes 1998).One plausible explanation for these observationsis that there was a pronounced change in proteindiets across the historical divide but compara-tively less change to the plant component ofdiets (at least in terms of the relative proportionsof C3 and C4 plants).

In summary, the overall patterns in stable iso-tope results at El Chorro deMaíta and other colo-nial period sites in the Caribbean reflect greateraccess to terrestrial animal protein sources duringthe colonial period, likely as the result of theintroduction and dispersal of European domesticlivestock within extensive colonial economicsystems. The incorporation of OldWorld domes-tic livestock such as pigs into dietary regimes that




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were predominantly indigenous oriented is con-sistent with the observed patterning of the stableisotope and zooarchaeological data at El ChorrodeMaíta. This is evidenced by the general lack ofdifference in enamel/apatite δ13C values betweenEl Chorro de Maíta and other indigenous Carib-bean populations, the intermediate collagen δ13Cvalues indicating mixed diets of plant and animalproteins, and especially the elevated δ15N valuesat El Chorro de Maíta that correspond well withthose observed for domestic pigs in the Antilles.This pattern may also reflect a broader regionaltrend by which specific Old World animalswere fairly rapidly incorporated into NewWorld subsistence economies during the earlyyears of Spanish colonization of the Caribbean(del Río Moreno 1996).

Conclusions

In this article we presented a large corpus ofstable isotope data from the burial populationof El Chorro de Maita, Cuba, and provided

new insights into dynamic patterns of dietarydiversity and change during the first generationsof the colonization of the New World. The com-bined isotope results, particularly collagen iso-tope results, indicate extremely diverse diets atEl Chorro de Maíta among not only nonlocalindividuals but also within the local population.There are many possible reasons why the localindigenous population may have had highly vari-able diets in the early colonial period, includingbut not limited to differences in social status,socioeconomic relations, work activities or occu-pations, and access to food sources, as well as thepossibility that the cemetery includes individualswho did not reside at the site but originated fromother places in Cuba, or beyond, with distinctdietary habits and culinary traditions.

A few long-distance immigrants, includingone originating from Mesoamerica (CM72B)and one from Africa (CM45), had correspond-ingly distinct dietary habits. Therefore, the mul-tiple isotope proxies indicate that some nonlocalseither maintained the dietary patterns of their

Figure 8. Bone collagen stable isotope values (δ13C and δ15N) from El Chorro de Maíta compared to precolonial (indi-genous) populations from Cuba and to precolonial (indigenous) populations from elsewhere in the Antilles, and latecolonial period (enslaved) populations from the Antilles (black symbols). (Data sources: Chinique de Armas et al.2016; Laffoon and de Vos 2011; Laffoon et al. 2016; Pestle 2010; Schroeder et al. 2009; Sparkes et al. 2012; Stokes1998; Varney 2003.)




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homelands after migration or more likely diedbefore their tissues could equilibrate to local die-tary patterns. There are nevertheless very fewsystematic differences between different socialgroups based on demographic factors (sex andage) or geographic origins (locality). The signifi-cant differences in dentine nitrogen isotopevalues between juveniles and adults and betweenlocals and nonlocals reflect not only the cor-relation of these variables but also the possibilitythat locally born juveniles who died in the six-teenth century had distinctly different diets thandid other groups within this burial population.This conclusion is supported by the fact that anumber of individuals possess pronounced(intra-individual) differences in isotope valuesfrom different sample types (paired enamel-boneor dentine-bone samples), including severallocally born individuals. These patterns mayrecord individuals who experienced large-scaledietary changes over life courses spanning thehistorical divide between precolonial andcolonial times.

Large-scale chronological changes in dietarypatterns are also indicated by the greater similar-ity of the El Chorro de Maíta isotope results tocertain enslaved African populations, ratherthan to other precolonial populations fromCuba or the Caribbean in general. Thus,differences in dietary practices at multiple scalesfrom the individual to the population levelsuggest relatively rapid (within ca. 50 years)transitions in indigenous foodways. Althoughthe highly variable human isotope data and gen-eral lack of comparative baseline (foodweb) iso-topic data for the site make it difficult togeneralize about dietary reconstructions, themajority of locals at El Chorro de Maíta seemto have consumed mixed diets dominated by acombination of C3 plants and terrestrial animalproteins. Nevertheless, the moderately elevatedapatite and collagen isotope values are not con-sistent with pure C3 diets and suggest smallerbut substantial contributions of C4 plants,seafood, or both. Pork is a likely source of theconsumed terrestrial animal protein based onthe combined historical, zooarchaeological, andisotopic evidence, but the consumption of meatfrom other imported domestic livestock cannotbe ruled out. The totality of evidence thus

suggests that under the encomienda system theindigenous community at this site obtainedrapid access to newly introduced foods eithervia provisioning by Europeans, the hunting offeral pigs, or even the raising of domestic pigsthemselves.

Overall, the high diversity in diets docu-mented at El Chorro de Maíta cannot clearly beattributed to any single cause and probablyresults from the interplay of a multitude of factorsincluding temporal, social, cultural, demo-graphic, and idiosyncratic variables. Severalunresolved questions concerning various aspectsof dietary and subsistence patterning at El Chorrode Maíta will be addressed in future research.These include expanding the baseline foodwebstable isotope data for both the precolonial andcolonial period sites on Cuba, quantifyingdietary inputs using Bayesian multiple sourcemixing models, investigating temporal changesin weaning practices via serial sampling andstable isotope analyses of dentine collagen, andconducting compound-specific isotope analyses(CSIA) of individual amino acids to disentanglethe relative influences of terrestrial and marinefood sources. Lastly, it is our hope that theresearch framework developed for this studycan be applied to investigate the continuity andchange of indigenous lifeways in the face of cul-ture contact, conquest, and colonization at othersites within the Caribbean and the Americasmore broadly.

Acknowledgments. The research leading to these results ispart of the ERC-Synergy project NEXUS1492, under thedirection of Corinne L. Hofman, which has received fundingfrom the European Research Council under the EuropeanUnion’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 319209. We are extremely gratefulto the Departamento Centro-Oriental de Arqueología, Minis-terio de Ciencia, Tecnología y Medio Ambiente (Cuba) andComisión Nacional de Monumentos de Cuba for providingaccess and permission (PEA-1/15) to analyze the El Chorrode Maíta skeletal collection, and to the Museo El Chorro deMaíta for facilitating this research. We also wish toacknowledge the contributions of Suzan Verdegaal-Warmerdam and Robin van der Velde at the Free UniversityAmsterdam, who conducted the stable isotope measurementsand assisted with the sample preparation and processing,respectively.

Data Availability Statement. All data generated or analyzedduring this study are included in this published article.




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Supplemental Material. For supplementary material accom-panying this article, visit https://doi.org/10.1017/laq.2019.103.

Supplemental Table 1. Sample Information and IsotopeResults from El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba.

Supplemental Table 2. Statistical Summary of Stable Iso-tope Data from El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba.

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Submitted March 12, 2019; Revised August 30, 2019;Accepted December 5, 2019







https://doi.org/10.1017/laq.2019.103


diverse and dynamic dietary patterns in early colonial ... · diverse and dynamic dietary patterns...

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