Faculty of Arts & Society

Dissertation Handbook

Bu i l t Env i ronment

BSc(Hons) Architectural Technology BSc(Hons) Building Surveying BSc(Hons) Quantity Surveying

BSc(Hons) Building Services Engineering

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4032297 BSc(Hons) Architectural Technology BSc(Hons) Building Surveying BSc(Hons) Quantity Surveying BSc(Hons) Building Services Engineering Dissertation Handbook ©2012 Leeds Metropolitan University 8th Edition 9.12 This workbook is protected under copyright and provided under the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the author’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. Leeds Metropolitan University Faculty of Arts, Environment & Technology Leeds LS1 3HE

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Contents Introduction Aim and Objectives 1 Choosing a Dissertation Topic 2 Dissertation Topics 2 Mapping a Research Field 10 Developing a Topic and Completing a Proposal 11 Examples of Research Questions and Hypotheses 12 The Dissertation Proposal 14 Structuring the Dissertation 15 Producing the Abstract 17 Student Example 1 17 Student Example 2 18 Student Example 3 18 Problem Specification 20 Student Example 1 21 Student Example 2 22 Student Example 3 23 The Literature Review 25 Introduction 25 Writing the Literature Review 25 Student Example 1 25 Student Example 2 30 Student Example 3 32 Analysing/Reviewing an Article 34 Quotations and Plagiarism 35 How Your Work Relates to the Field 36 Methodology 37 Introduction 37 Operationalising the Research Problem or Issue 37 Hypothesis Testing 37 Conjecture/Prediction 38 Research Questions 38 Disciplinary and Theoretical Frameworks 39 Argument and Research Methods 40 Writing the Methodology Section 44 Student Example 1 44 Student Example 2 45 Student Example 3 46 Using the Appropriate Language in Your Dissertation 48 Guidance Notes On Conducting Surveys and Interviews 53 Ethical Issues 59 Writing the Dissertation 60

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Writing the Dissertation: Common Problems 63 Layout and Presentation 69 Assessment 72 Bibliography 75 Dissertation Checklists 76 The Harvard Style of Referencing Published Material 78 Introduction 78 Citing in the Text 80 Citing in the Bibliography 82 Citing Official Publications 86 Citing Audio-Visual Sources 90 Citing Electronic Sources 91 Sample Bibliography 93 Useful Hints and Common Conventions 94 Bibliography 95

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Introduction

This booklet provides guidance on research methods, the research process, and the production of an undergraduate dissertation. The first part is concerned with topic selection and the working-up of a research proposal. Since the demands of the latter are quite rigorous it is given a considerable amount of attention. In the second part, guidance is provided on the dissertation process, ethical issues, the structuring of the dissertation; how to lay it out and what to expect in terms of assessment. The third contains detailed information on how to properly cite information and create a bibliography. It also includes an annotated bibliography of material that will help you to become more efficient researchers. The Dissertation forms an important part of your degree and contributes 25% to your degree award. It is one of the most demanding intellectual exercises that you will have to undertake, so you need to be aware of why you are doing it, and what is expected of you. Aim and Objectives

The overall aim of the module is the production of a well-argued and sustained piece of research that examines current professional issues or problems. A number of objectives flow from this aim, so that by the end of the module you should be able to: • Identify and analyse a significant research

problem. • Demonstrate your understanding of all the

relevant arguments and present a coherent critique of the available research material.

• Select research methodologies

appropriate to qualitative or quantitative problems.

• Show competencies in data collection and

data manipulation. • Demonstrate independence of thought

and judgment. These are all highly regarded skills and form the main rationale for the dissertation.

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Choosing a Dissertation Topic Getting your chosen topic under control is both time-consuming and difficult. This is because you simply have to digest a lot of information: in the form of books, journal articles and other research. You also have to contain your research within manageable limits. This means that you must have a pretty clear idea of exactly what it is you are doing. It is very easy to pursue one idea after another because you find them all interesting. Equally you may be afraid of leaving something out and never stop reading. Life is too short; have a clearly focused plan and try to stick to it - you cannot cover everything and you are not expected to. What is required above all is that you are able to put together an interesting, well-written, informed, and cogent argument. There is a considerable amount of freedom in topic selection providing that this is within the scope of the degree, and that appropriate supervision is available. You may have already selected a topic that has developed out of previous coursework, or out of discussions with fellow students or colleagues. If not, then you may get some inspiration from the indicative list we have provided below. This reflects the main areas of academic interest and expertise found among the staff supporting the course. What is important to remember, however, is that you really must select a topic you find interesting. If you do not then you will find it difficult to apply yourself and to maintain motivation. Dissertation Topics The following is an extensive but not exhaustive list of possible research topics.

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Law EU Legislation CDM regulations EU competition law and the UK construction industry EU competition law and public procurement EU law and the construction industry An evaluation of the advantages / disadvantages of adopting a single European standard form of construction contract UK Legislation The Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 - ten years on. Contracts An investigation into partnering arrangements in modern construction procurement An evaluation of modern contract drafting versus the traditional approach, for example, ECC v JCT05 A critical analysis of key provisions, e.g. time in the EU or SEACC standard form contracts. An investigation of the benefits/disadvantages of the UK construction industry adopting a single standard form of construction contract Latham An evaluation of trust funds as a feasible option for the construction industry Performance A critical review of the extension of time provisions in JCT05 Is it practically possible to challenge liquidated & ascertained damages as a penalty following recent court decisions? Practical completion and the difficulties surrounding certification and concurrent delays Payment The impact of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 on payment

Retention monies versus trust funds Ownership of unfixed materials and vesting provisions Loss & expense as a means of ascertaining a contractor’s entitlement to additional monies An analysis of the difficulties associated with finance charges as a head of claim under loss/expense Design The contractor’s duty to warn of design defects Design liability in the modern construction industry Contractor’s design liability: fitness for purpose or reasonable skill & care Sub-Contracting Sub-contracting procedures and their effectiveness under JCT05 Risk Allocation Collateral warranties and recent case law in the area of negligence Dispute resolution An examination of key provisions in the Arbitration Act 1996 Adjudication under the Housing Grants Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Scheme The impact of pre-action protocols on dispute resolution procedures in the construction industry

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Economics Value Management Value management: adding values or increasing fees? Meeting Latham’s 30% cost reduction target - the role of value management An evaluation of the use and usefulness of functional analysis (and/or evaluation) techniques in value engineering Clients’ perception of and mechanisms for assessing value in construction management Risk Management Keeping your fingers crossed - still the most common method for coping with construction risk? Risk transference - the best solution for clients? The value and use of risk response plans in construction Risk management - essential to obtaining value in a construction project? Economic Policy and the Construction Industry The impact of government policy on sectors of the industry e.g. housing, infrastructure Government policy and housing provision The effect of policy on the structure of the industry Government economic policy and the labour market The economics of PFI/PPP Business Cycles The effect of the business cycle on productivity The impact of business cycles on construction activity and profitability Skilled labour supply and the business cycle The (potential) role of construction in counter-cyclical policy Labour Markets

Changing Structure of the labour market The growth of LOSC The decline of LOSC Payment systems Skill and training The impact of new technologies on employment and skill levels The changing role of the professional Productivity / Profitability The measurement and growth of productivity The impact of new technologies on productivity Skill/training and productivity Comparison of construction with manufacturing The profitability of contractors/house-builders Macro economic Forecasting The evaluation of forecasting models The methodology of forecasting models The role of forecasting in house-builders plans Future Construction Output (UK and Overseas) The significance of overseas work for UK construction firms The role of trans-national corporations in the UK construction industry The changing sectoral composition of output The future role of the state and construction output New technologies and their impact on skill, employment and productivity The penetration of the UK construction industry by EU firms

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Professional Work Based Learning Support for learners in the work place Mentoring: essential for effective work-based learning? The professional doctorate fails to address development needs of surveying practitioners Developing learning organisations in construction The new RICS APC requirements: a more effective method of assessing professional competence and work-based learning? Work-based learning is a poor substitute for traditional surveying education The concept of learning organisations is unrealistic for small medium enterprises Change and the Development of the Profession RICS university threshold requirements should be abolished The professional institution has no relevance in a modern society Coping with change: the role of education How and why professions change The management of change within the professional context Gender and ethnic composition of the surveying profession The future of construction professions Surveying academics should be research-active Construction will always be a male-dominated industry

Professionalism The role and effectiveness of CPD Is surveying a profession? The impact of new technology on the status of construction professions Professionalism and market forces - are they compatible? Professionalism and social responsibility The ethical basis of professionalism Codes of conduct and their implications

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Urban Policy Urban Regeneration The role of the market in urban regeneration The effects of brown-field issues on urban regeneration Cost benefit analysis of brown-field issues Cost benefit analysis of contaminated land The economic impact of the urban regeneration programme (e.g. case study approach) The social impact of the urban regeneration programme Mixed use developments versus single use developments Conflicts between developers’ requirements and government policy Effects of EU legislation/policy on urban policy Decision making in the urban renewal process Planning Policy The effects of international legislation/policy on sustainable development Conflicts between developers’ requirements and government policy on sustainable development Economic effects of sustainable development The need for sustainable development Conservation/green issues The use of integrated systems to satisfy transport policy requirements The end of out-of-town retail parks? The effects of out of town retail developments Planning incentives for rural business Ethical considerations of planning policy Housing Policy and Renewal The interaction between housing policy and energy efficiency The affects of housing investment trusts on housing provision

The affects of housing investment trusts on housing investment An investigation into the use of HITS Brownfield land: the answer to the housing problem? (e.g., case study Birmingham) Ethical considerations of housing policy

Design & Human Factors Design Processes The building user in the briefing process The analysis of user journeys in design appraisal The building user in the briefing process Building layout/design and its impact on the management of organisations Comparisons of design processes in different building design professions Design and maintenance Human Factors Human factors considerations in the design of: means of escape pedestrian flow traffic management maintenance access waiting areas User centred design: is it a reality in contemporary building design?

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Energy, Building Conservation & Building Technology Energy Improving energy efficiency in historic buildings Barriers to energy efficiency improvements in listed buildings Management of energy use in non-domestic buildings Detailing for energy efficiency The influence of professional bodies in improving the energy efficiency of buildings Motivation, attitudes and barriers to investment in energy efficiency The impact of the home information pack on energy efficiency measures The impact on older properties of home information pack energy ratings Sustainable heating of buildings Non-direct beneficial effects of energy efficient buildings Avoidance of thermal bridges introduced on site in domestic new-build Air-tightness of occupied domestic buildings Upgrading the insulation of existing houses Conservation Conservation of post-war listed buildings Issues in fire protection of listed buildings Building redundancy and re-use Conservation of modern materials Non-destructive control of timber decay Conservation area character assessments Conservation in context - design criteria for new buildings in historic environments Conservation philosophy - is there a right answer? Funding for historic buildings “Technical”

Flooding protection and remediation of individual domestic properties Flooding protection for new houses Emergency relief resources and skills requirements Rebuilding communities following emergencies (e.g. flooding, earthquake) The implementation of the decent homes and decent communities programme The effectiveness of public authorities under the DDA Avoidance of architectural disability Means of escape for less able people The effectiveness of personal emergency escape plans The viability of lifetime homes High density straw bale building Controlled ventilation to airtight properties The importance on site of detailed design Accredited Constructional Details - help or hindrance? The Design Quality Indicator in use (http://www.dqi.org.uk)

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Procurement Design and Build Impact on design quality Value for money Novation of design teams & its impact on projects Management Contracting Is it inevitable for large scale projects? Assessment of the effectiveness of management contracting Cost certainty (and the lack of it) in management contracting Construction Management An untested hybrid system? A passing fad or an industry need? Another expensive import Time, cost and quality certainty under construction management Partnering Assessment of the effectiveness of: Project partnering Long term partnering Partnering between contractors sub-contractors Miscellaneous The private finance initiative and its impact on the procurement of large public sector projects Design, build, finance & operate schemes and the impact on large public sector projects The impact of PFI and DBFO on the operation/interaction of professionals and contractors within the industry The impact of EU directives on procurement and competition Procurement of professional services: criteria, fee competition, etc. Lowest tender: the most important criteria for selecting consultant or contractor? Guaranteed maximum price contracts - a real possibility?

Management Management qualifications should be a mandatory requirement for RICS members Has Egan effected real change in the construction industry? Is value management valued by private sector clients? Entrepreneurship, enterprise and innovation characterise surveying degree programmes How are risk management services evaluated? Business success: it’s not what you know, it’s who you know All surveying practices need an information manager Practice management, e.g. marketing, the professional practice, organisational structure Design brief management Conflict avoidance and management The management of interdisciplinary project teams Latham ‘x’ years on The use of statistical analysis as a management tool The effectiveness of value management Operational research in construction management Change management

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Information Management The value of information in surveying practices The effect of online sales on retail property Tele-working and the demand for offices Designing office space for new ways of working The use of excel in the analysis of published data in the surveying field How effective has the contribution of DSS been in development appraisal? The strategic integration of IM and FM The effect of IM developments on the office market; retail property market; industrial property market.

Design Design Management The interface between conceptual design and detail design (or detail design and production) in diverse design teams Design decision making - comparing theory to practice Integrating individual decisions within design teams Design changes: causes of post-tendering design changes methods of monitoring and control impact on construction programming Comparison of design processes in different building design professions Detail Design Detailing strategies - integrating specialist designers in multidisciplinary design teams Who selects building materials and products Design considerations in the adoption of new technologies/ innovative methods in construction Programming and costing detail design information 3d modelling in the appraisal of design solutions Auditing detail design decisions Appraising detail design methodologies Accommodating product variation in system building Design & maintenance - assessing the significance of cost-in-use on design decisions

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Mapping a Research Field

Figure 1

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Developing a Topic and Completing a Proposal Selecting and developing a topic can cause problems so go through the following steps: 1. Select one or at most two topics and

develop some basic ideas that indicate what aspect of the topic you want to research.

2. Conduct a preliminary literature search to

see what sort of material is available. To begin with examine general works to get a ‘feel’ for the subject and then go for more specialised sources.

3. On the basis of interest and availability of

materials select one topic for research, and then begin to specify the problem or issue you wish to investigate. This is not that easy. So, the first thing to do is to map out the research field as far as you can, and you can do this by using ‘bubble’ diagrams or ‘mind maps’. Such an approach allows you to see, at a glance, all the relevant and important aspects of the field.

4. So, taking ‘PFI’ as our example (see

Figure 1) we can see that it contains research areas such as contract forms, procurement routes, risk, public/private sector, and so on. While you might want to treat some of these areas in isolation it is generally useful to look for relationships and connections between these different areas - which is more in keeping with the complexity and inter-relatedness of the real world.

5. The next step involves putting some

constraint on the rather vague term ‘PFI’. From the diagram we can see that there is a connection between ‘PFI’ and ‘procurement routes’: this might well be worth exploring. In a formal sense what have done here is to identify two variables: ‘PFI’ the independent variable; and ‘procurement routes’ the dependent variable.

6. ‘PFI’ and ‘procurement routes’, however,

is still rather broad and imprecise and lacks context. So, further constraint (i.e. another variable) is needed. If we are interested in what was claimed for PFI, in terms of its benefits, and what has been achieved, then ‘claims’ might be a contextualising or moderating variable we

might choose for this purpose. 7. The specification of the issue can now be

made more exact. A possible research question might be: ‘Have the claims made for the PFI procurement route been justified?’

To reiterate there are three elements to the question. PFI is at the heart of it and we can say that this is the independent element or variable; the procurement route is discussed in relation to PFI so we call it the dependent variable; the claims being made for PFI provide the context in which to analyse PFI, and is called the moderator variable. Most research questions or hypotheses should possess variables of this type.

Look again at Figure 1 and try to create three or four research questions and/or hypotheses. There are plenty of possibilities so play around with the diagram and see what you come up with. If you need more guidance on what a ‘hypothesis’ or a ‘research question’ means, go to pp.36-37. 8. Write your DISSERTATION PROPOSAL:

when you have decided which problem/issue to examine, and after you have undertaken a significant amount of research produce a Dissertation Proposal. Guidance on this is provided below (p.13) but there are a number of good reasons why you should produce a Research Proposal:

• Firstly, it makes you think very

clearly about the problem or issue you intend researching, how you intend to structure your dissertation and to identify and comment on the key resources which are available. In short, its purpose is to identify whether or not the dissertation topic is ‘do-able’.

• Secondly, a dissertation is a very

exacting piece of work and demands a lot of time. The sooner you start the better.

• Thirdly, a well-crafted Proposal

will make a considerable contribution to your introductory chapter. In other words, you will have already started writing your dissertation by the time you complete the Proposal.

Examples of Research Questions and Hypotheses

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In the examples below you will find a mixture of research questions and hypotheses. Some are acceptable and some are not. Your task is to identify which is which. Explain your thinking in the spaces provided. 1. Is any contribution being made to sustainable development by local government? 2. How can off-site manufacture contribute to the construction industry in the light of the current housing

and labour shortage and the increasing demand for greater efficiency? 3. Is prefabrication the future for sustainable construction? 4. What is the requirement for training within the construction industry? 5. PFI does not offer value for money. 6. In the education sector traditional procurement routes are more cost effective than PFI.

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7. What do ‘demonstration projects’ actually demonstrate? 8. The Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 has had a negative impact on

payments to sub-contractors. 9. The Egan Report has had a greater impact on the construction industry than all previous studies? 10. Since the Expansion of the European Union, there has been a significant rise in the rate of reportable

injuries, due to diversity issues, or is it just a misconception

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The Dissertation Proposal The proposal is an assessed piece of work and constitutes 16% of the module mark. If you do not submit a proposal and gain approval you may not submit a dissertation. The Proposal should be about 2500 words and have the following format: Title State the working title of your proposed dissertation in no more than 7 words. The title needs to capture the essence of the whole work. It is not the same as your aim, research question or hypothesis. Problem Specification The purpose of this section is to provide an account of the problem(s) which has given rise to the research. For example, if you chose to investigate sustainability and house building then you would have to discuss why sustainability is an issue and show how house building contributes to the problem. Next you need to identify the solutions to the problem and explain which one you will be studying. Outline the issues associated with your solution and then state your aim. This might take the following form: ‘The aim of the dissertation, therefore, is to measure the extent to which house building can be made more sustainable’. Literature Review Provide a brief critical review and discussion of the relevant literature (see The Literature Review). This should demonstrate that you have a clear idea of the arguments and the range of opinion

found in your research field. It needs to be stressed that you should be presenting the arguments of the key authors not your opinions on the overall topic. In addition, you need to discuss the validity of the arguments. This involves you thinking about the credibility of the authors and about how they generated their data. You should, in conclusion to this section, also indicate where your study will stand in relation to this field (see p.35) and then specify your research question or hypothesis. You are not being asked to provide a list of relevant books, rather you should identify the most important half dozen or so texts (books, journal articles, and other research), and briefly describe what they have to say, how they are related to one another, how the data was generated and why the material is useful (see Analysing/Reviewing an Article). You can then indicate where other, less important material is to be found. Acts of Parliament and Regulations do not form part of the literature. However, commentary on Acts and regulations do. Methodology You must justify both the disciplinary/ theoretical framework (legal, economic, construction, surveying, etc.) you will be employing (see Methodology) and the methods that you have chosen as the means of delivering the dissertation. Next, explain the logic, which will underpin the development of your dissertation. In other words, explain (not merely describe) the structure of the dissertation - what follows what, in what order, and why?

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Structuring the Dissertation The precise structure of your dissertation will depend upon content and approach. You should discuss this with your tutor. But broadly, it should be laid out in the following order and possess the characteristics identified. Title Page The title (which is usually not the same as your research question or hypothesis) needs to be expressive of the whole work. It can be difficult to formulate so give it some careful thought. The title should contain no more than 7 words. Abstract State what you set out to do; identify the type of information that the dissertation is based on; outline your argument and findings; and briefly indicate your conclusions and recommendations. This should be single-spaced and about 450 words in length and must fit on one side of A4. (See Abstract) Acknowledgements If people have given you assistance directly related to the production of the dissertation it is usual to thank them for it. Contents The Contents Page(s) needs to be a good guide to what you have done so, select chapter and section headings with care. A glance at the Contents page should give the reader a very clear idea of what the dissertation is about and what approach has been taken. Do not number sub-sections within chapters. Chapter 1 This introductory chapter should normally contain the Problem Specification, the Literature Review and your Methodology. Problem Specification The purpose of this introductory section is to inform the reader about the problems/issues which have given rise to your research; the solution of the problem and the issues associated with this; the aim of the dissertation. There must be no quotations in this section. The Literature Review All dissertations must contain a review of the

relevant literature. This requires you to examine, discuss and comment critically on the most important literature in your area of research. In addition, very brief, comments on other material will usually need to be made. You should, at the same time, clearly indicate what diversity of view exists among the writers in your field. The purpose of this section is to provide the background to your own work and show how and where your research fits in. In particular, it allows you to demonstrate to your readers that you are in command of all the centrally important concepts and arguments. Your research question/hypothesis should naturally emerge from and complete the review. There must be no quotations in this section. Methodology This should provide an explanation and justification for the approach taken. It should also provide an account of the explanatory logic that underpins your dissertation - in other words explain why you developed the dissertation in the way you did and why it possesses the structure it now has. Any problems or limitations in relation to data collection or analysis should be discussed here. There must be no quotations in this section. It is usual to incorporate the Problem Specification, Literature Review and Methodology sections in your first chapter but there are alternatives - discuss this with your tutor. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 In these chapters you should present the evidential part of your argument. The content will be determined by the approach and methods you have used. In addition to the presentation of your supporting evidence you also need to offer an interpretation of your findings since the material cannot speak for itself. The chapters need to be analytical and not merely descriptive. Essentially, this is the meat between the Introduction and the Conclusion. The presentation of your evidence would typically require three chapters but you may need more - again discuss this with your tutor.

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Conclusions The conclusion completes your argument. It is a statement that tells us what the evidence means. So, make sure that any conclusions you draw here are justified in the body of your work. Do not add spurious conclusions for which there is no evidence in your dissertation. And there must be no new information in the conclusion and NO QUOTATIONS. Recommendations Where do we go from here? Having drawn your conclusions you are now in position to recommend a course(s) of action. At the very least you should be able to recommend further lines of research which you think are necessary if we are to understand the problem better. You may, in addition, be in a position to recommend practical proposals that if implemented would make a positive contribution to the functioning of your profession or the industry. Whether you make recommendations or not will depend, ultimately, on the design of your dissertation. If recommendations are made, again, make sure that they are clearly related to the content of your work. The Conclusion and Recommendations can form one or two chapters - again discuss it with your tutor. Notes Any notes, which develop a point which is not central to your argument, should be placed either at the end of the relevant chapter and given the heading ‘Notes’ or at the foot of the relevant page. The existence of endnotes and footnotes should be indicated, within the text, by a superscripted number attached to the end of the relevant

sentence or paragraph. The choice of footnote or endnote largely depends upon how extensive these notes actually are - use your judgement. Appendices Use these for including copies of your original questionnaires, structured interview questions and so on. Do not overburden the appendices with unnecessary or irrelevant material. Bibliography Bibliographies are fundamentally important; without them it would be virtually impossible to undertake research and build on the knowledge of others. In addition, it demonstrates that you are capable of analysing a wide range of material and reducing it to a useful set of references that are particularly relevant to your field of research. The Bibliography must be alphabetically arranged. You may want to arrange your sources in terms of primary and secondary material - discuss this with your tutor. Do not number the bibliographical references. Do not reference everything you look at. Only cite material you have used and those texts you think will be useful to future researchers in your area. You must use the Harvard System Length of the Dissertation In general your dissertation should be about 12,000 words. This should allow you ample space within which to develop your argument. If for some special reason you wish to go well beyond this limit then you must negotiate this with your dissertation tutor.

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Producing the Abstract Abstracts are often handled very badly and the reason for this is that their purpose is not clearly understood. Essentially they exist to provide an overview for other researchers. So think about this for a moment. When you are at the stage of gathering information what do you want to know about the material you are examining (whether it is a journal article or dissertation)? What should be important to you is the following: • The topic area. The issue/ problem/

event/ phenomenon giving rise to the research

• The type of information that the

dissertation is based on. • The type of argument being made. • The main findings. • The main conclusions and

recommendations. You look at the Abstract in this light and ask yourself whether the answers to these points are relevant and useful to your own research. If they are then you may read the whole work, if not then you can discard it and continue exploring other texts. Commonly Abstracts contain too little information or too much unnecessary information. Make sure, therefore, that you stick to the above five points, write a paragraph for each, and present it all on one page of A4 with single spacing. What is not required is: • An account of the structure or

methodology of the dissertation. • A review of the literature. As a researcher you do not have time to read everything that is why you want an Abstract to be restricted to the essentials. Your task now is, in the light of the above, to analyse and comment on the Abstracts found below.

Student Example 1 England's housing stock is ageing. Over four million extant homes were built before 1919 and a significant proportion of these are Victorian terraced dwellings. Research shows that areas of low-demand housing are typically dominated by Victorian terraces; that homes built before 1919 are most likely to fail to achieve the government's Decent Homes standard, and that traditionally-constructed dwellings have, on average, the lowest Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) ratings. One solution put forward to address these issues is the widespread demolition of these 'obsolete' dwellings. However, this approach has provoked much opposition, especially from the heritage sector, which believes that these dwellings make a significant contribution to the nation's heritage and should, therefore, be conserved.

It is against this background that this dissertation explores the heritage credentials of the Victorian terrace, the threats to this dwelling type and the role of conservation-led regeneration in its future. It is based on both primary and secondary research. The primary research is concerned with uncovering and comparing the attitudes and perceptions of built-environment professionals and owner-occupiers, tenants and landlords towards pre-1910 terraced housing. It explores their attitudes towards the heritage and use values of these dwellings, their perception of threats to the future of these homes, and their attitudes towards conservation and regeneration interventions. The dissertation also draws on a number of case studies to support and illustrate its findings.

Within this context, this dissertation employs both qualitative and quantitative analysis to show that far from being obsolete, these dwellings continue to be useful and valued. The findings show that their perceived value lies not only in their contribution to the heritage, but also in their ability to adapt to accommodate changing needs and lifestyles. However, the research reveals that while these dwellings are perceived as being useful, they are not generally perceived as being aspirational, and the low-status label attached to older terraced houses is identified as a significant threat to their survival; more significant even than issues associated with construction and performance. It is therefore critical that any intervention to safeguard the future of these dwellings seeks not only to improve their physical performance, but also to raise their social status.

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This dissertation finds that conservation-led approaches to refurbishment are generally approved of by stakeholders and have been shown to enhance the desirability of these dwellings and raise their status in the market. It therefore concludes that there is evidence to support a positive role for conservation-led regeneration in the future of Victorian terraced housing. However, it also recognises that there are a number of conflicting and competing priorities that any conservation-led approach must seek to reconcile if conservation is not to become a limiting factor in regeneration. Case studies included in this dissertation illustrate how different schemes have chosen to reconcile these priorities. A number of recommendations are made at the end of this dissertation which relate to the potential for increasing the use of conservation-led approaches in the regeneration of Victorian terraced dwellings. Student Example 2 In 2002, the UK government set a house building target such that a better balance between supply and demand would be met. Following this has been varied research into the housing shortage. In 2003 it was reported that the number of homes built each year since 1998 had remained the same. Since then demand has been increasing rapidly, with the production of homes rising minimally. Researchers have analysed the scale of the housing shortage with limited attempts at reducing it being made. The research has pinpointed a shortfall in supply as a major contributing factor in the housing shortage. This dissertation, therefore, explores the reasons for the lack of supply where there is clearly a high level of demand, and whether increasing the production rate of housing developments by using Accelerated Project Initiatives (APIs) would significantly reduce the housing shortage. A desktop study was undertaken to ascertain the scale of the housing shortage and the factors influencing it. The predictions for the shortage over the next twenty years were also analysed. Interviews with senior employees of large house builders were undertaken to ascertain whether they are currently building at their optimum rate, or whether they are purposely controlling the number of houses they build per year to increase house prices and therefore their profits. Finally, interviews with senior employees involved in the implementation of Accelerated Project Initiatives were conducted to establish whether their utilisation in all UK housing projects would be feasible in reducing the housing shortage and which other factors would need to be considered.

The evidence suggests that the increase in demand is being fuelled by a number of demographic factors increasing the number of households requiring homes. At the same time supply is not increasing as it should be, due to house builder anxiety to commit too much land to build, to prevent an over burdening of work caused by a lack of resources and a future decline in land availability. The major problem with the housing shortage is the rapidly increasing house prices which mean that many buyers are being priced out of the market. In order to alleviate the housing shortage, production of housing must be increased in the near future. This can be done partly by implementing Accelerated Project Initiatives, but only if other factors influencing the shortage are also addressed. There must be a reform to speed up the planning process. More land must be made available to companies' who increase their output. The catalyst for them to increase their output, would therefore be the implementation of APIs. Further research is required into the types of homes currently being built by house builders to ensure that new homes are being aimed at those affected by the housing shortage. Student Example 3 The relationship between main contractors and subcontractors in the UK construction industry has been the source of much dispute, litigation and difficulty. Partnering the supply chain has been advocated in recent years as a method to harmonise a relationship previously based on adversarial and confrontational roles. Partnering, as a concept, has been used at all levels of the construction process. It is widely agreed to be a method by which parties cooperate with mutually agreed benefits based on trust in order to produce satisfactory project outcomes. However, there is some evidence to suggest that partnering has a negative effect at the level of the subcontract firm. This dissertation aims to interrogate the effectiveness of partnering the supply chain from the perspective of subcontractor management to help add to a growing debate in the partnering literature. The research is based on the literature and research findings into the subject area which is currently available. This is built upon by a survey of subcontractor management conducted to elicit the perceptions of this important section of the construction industry. The survey, by questionnaire, has gathered the opinions of 42 respondents from the subcontractor community.

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The dissertation has discovered that there is a healthy debate in the literature over the role, use and effectiveness of partnering. Partnering is found to be an often confused concept backed by an imbalance of prescriptive guidelines for its application. A body of evidence exists to suggest that partnering presents massive opportunities to reduce costs, save time and increase quality in the construction industry. There is also good evidence to suggest that, to-date, partnering is not producing the outcomes that some of its advocates have suggested, coupled with an underlying suspicion common among suppliers. The survey of subcontractors found a positive perception of partnering from this section of the supply chain. The results show that a subcontractor can expect positive outcomes from partnering including improved commercial and business relationships, safer health and safety environments, more effective project organisation and improved tendering procedures. However, it is also shown that the standard of information and communication can actually be disrupted by partnering. Reluctance on behalf of consultants to engage in the process of partnering is possibly the underlying reason.

It can be concluded that by engaging in partnering subcontractors stand to receive real business benefits. However, the application of partnering is a confused concept and different contractors are clearly producing different outcomes. There remains a suspicion over the concept from the view of suppliers. The recommendations drawn from the conclusions are that an improved body of research needs to produce quality evidence and guidance on how partnering can be successfully applied in the industry. It is suggested that consultants need to engage in the process and remove their traditional barriers to communication, while main contractors need to improve staff training in the concept if they are to correctly patron its success. The use of financial rewards to motivate the supply chain is recommended. Finally, the subcontract industry must contribute more actively to future industry developments. Notes

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Problem Specification In this section or your proposal/dissertation you should provide an overview of the issue or problem that has given rise to your research and how it may be resolved. How it is structured will depend on what you are trying to do. For example, if you are investigating aspects of sustainability in the context of house building then clearly you need to: • Discuss the general context of resource

depletion and then how house building in particular contributes to this problem. You also need to explain the reason for your research.

• Next, you need to identify how it might be

possible to solve or mitigate the effects of this problem. Usually there is more than one solution. But you don’t have time or space enough to deal with them all. You can point this out and then state which of the solutions you are going to study. In this case it might be that you choose to examine the use of sustainable building processes and/or materials.

• Having identified the solution you can

then outline the issues that are involved. Again there may be too many issues to handle so you focus on what you consider to be the most important: perhaps those associated with economic and technical aspects. Briefly, describe what these issues involve and indicate that they will be taken up in later chapters.

• Finally, explain what is you are trying to

achieve. In the light of sustainability it might be that your aim is to assess the overall economic and technical feasibility of certain materials and/or processes.

Different topics will require different treatments but there are similarities. For example, if you were trying to come to a view about the success or otherwise of PFI since 1992 then the way you present the issue might be as follows: • Discuss the problem that gave rise to PFI

- which is essentially the on-going fiscal crisis of the state that emerged in the 1970s and was exacerbated by successive governments in the 1980s and 1990s; point to the deterioration of the socio/economic infrastructure as governments cut capital spending. You

also need to explain the reason for your research - in this case there is a lot of controversy.

• Next, indicate what could be done to deal

with the decline in public sector infrastructure. For example, taxes could be raised or the role of the state in these areas could be handed over to private enterprise or some mixture of the state and the private sector. The first was considered politically risky so PFI type solutions came into existence.

• Among the issues involved was the claim

that the private sector would be more efficient and cost effective in procuring the needed infrastructure projects than would the state.

• The aim of your dissertation might then be

to test this claim in the context of the National Health Service or the Prison Service or education.

As a final example let’s examine how you might introduce a topic such as detailing in architectural technology. Here the key problem might be identified as the costs associated with poor communications and poorly detailed drawings. • Discuss the costs associated with

construction problems • Identify the solutions to this and explain

why you are going to investigate communications and detailing

• Identify the key issues such as the

creation and reading of production information, codes and standards and the opinions of the professionals

• State your aim which in this case might be

‘to examine the status and value of detailing within the UK construction industry’.

So, in brief, the purpose of the PS section is to:

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• provide an account of the problem(s) which has given rise to the research

• identify the solution(s) offered by yourself or other people • identify the issues associated with the

solution • make a statement of your overall aim Below you will find two student examples of a problem specification. How well do they meet the criteria outlined above? Student Example 1 Britain’s housing stock is ageing. According to the English House Condition Survey 2005 Annual Report (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2007) 4.7 million of the country’s homes, some 21%, were built before 1919. Of these, approximately 2.5 million are terraced properties, the vast majority of which date from the Victorian era of mass speculative house building. The Victorian terrace is the legacy of Britain’s Industrial Revolution which gave rise to an unprecedented demand for working-class housing in newly industrialised towns and cities. Unlike the industries whose workers these tightly packed terraces were built to house, however, significant numbers of Victorian homes have survived into the 21st century and are now over one hundred years of age. History reveals that Britain has always had something of a love-hate relationship with the terrace but after a period of relative quiet in the 1990s there is, once again, an apparently serious threat to the long-term future of these traditional British homes. In recent years the Victorian terrace has suffered something of an image crisis. It has come to be associated with areas of low demand and housing abandonment; it struggles to meet the government’s increasingly stringent Decent Homes standard and its traditional methods of construction leave it open to accusations of energy inefficiency. One solution put forward to address these issues is the widespread demolition of these ‘obsolete’ dwellings that are no longer considered to be fit for purpose. The most imminent threat to the Victorian terrace is the government’s Housing Market Renewal Pathfinder Programme. Operating in nine areas across the North of England and the Midlands this has seen large numbers of ‘low demand’ housing earmarked for clearance and in some areas demolition has already begun. Statistically, areas

of low demand housing are dominated by terraced housing; typically 47% of dwellings in Pathfinder areas are terraced compared with a national average of 26% (Leather et al, 2007). Worryingly, Leather and his colleagues believe that the problem of low demand is not confined to the current Pathfinder areas; estimating that in total some 2.8 million houses may be at risk of market failure. Extrapolating the statistics suggests that many of these ‘at risk’ houses will be Victorian terraces. Adding to the problem are the government’s recent changes to its Decent Homes standard. A ‘Decent Home’ is defined by the Department for Communities and Local Government (2006) as one which meets the current statutory minimum fitness standard, is in a reasonable state of repair, has reasonably modern facilities and services and provides a reasonable degree of thermal comfort. The English House Condition Survey 2005 Annual Report (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2007) estimated that in 2005 approximately 6 million homes failed to meet the standard. Of the 4.8 million homes in the private sector that failed to meet the minimum standard some 38% were built before 1919. The number of homes defined as non-decent has, however, significantly increased with the introduction, in April 2006, of the Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS) as the statutory minimum standard. This covers 29 categories of hazard, some of which were not previously covered by the former Fitness Standard. Under this system hazards are rated as either Category 1 or Category 2 in relation to the risk to the most vulnerable potential occupant (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004). The English House Condition Survey 2006 Headline Report (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2008) estimates that under the new system 8.1 million homes fail to meet the new decency standard. Of these, 4.8 million homes present Category 1 hazards; the most common of which are excess cold and falls relating to stairs. Both of these are linked explicitly to the design and construction of older dwellings. Where Category 1 hazards are present, enforcing authorities have the power to make a demolition order or to declare a clearance area. The case for the demolition of older, energy inefficient housing stock is also advanced by those seeking to reduce carbon emissions from domestic properties. 40% House (Boardman et al, 2005) advocates the demolition of some 3.2 million dwellings between 2005 and 2050 in order to achieve a 60% reduction in carbon emissions. A significant proportion of these would be buildings of solid wall construction which are more difficult to insulate retrospectively than buildings with

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cavity walls. The figures are stark. Two million eight hundred thousand dwellings at risk of low demand, 8.1 million homes categorised as non decent, 3.2 million demolitions required to cut domestic carbon emissions by the target of 60%, and the problem is that Victorian terraced homes appear to be prevalent in each of these categories. But is demolition the best solution? Some of the most vocal opposition to the demolition of Britain’s Victorian terraces has come from the heritage sector, which is outraged by what it sees as the wholesale destruction of swathes of the nation’s cultural and architectural heritage. In response to the issues outlined above a number of notable heritage organisations, including SAVE Britain’s Heritage, the Civic Trust, the Victorian Society and the Council for British Archaeology have advocated sympathetic refurbishment as an alternative to demolition where buildings are of heritage significance, are structurally sound and are deemed to be capable of rehabilitation. Refurbishment, however, raises questions as to whether the effort and resources required to raise the standard and performance of older dwellings are justified by the results achieved or whether, in fact, intervention is simply delaying the inevitable and prolonging the life of buildings that have outlived their usefulness, the view taken by the influential Northern Way Steering Group (2004, p.53). In addition, adopting a conservation-led approach to the refurbishment of Victorian terraced housing, as advocated by heritage sector bodies, raises further questions about the extent to which this type of approach is actually congruous with the needs of working-class housing and its occupants. The aim of this dissertation, therefore, is to determine whether the Victorian terrace merits heritage status and, if this is the case, whether a conservation-led approach to the future management of this type of dwelling will help or hinder its long-term sustainability. This will involve both an investigation of the technical feasibility of refurbishing Victorian terraced homes and a consideration of the social, cultural, economic and environmental implications of extending the life of this type of dwelling using conservation principles. Student Example 2 There is a major housing shortage in the UK at present, with particularly high demand in the South-East. Record numbers of first time buyers are providing a demand, which the housing

industry simply is not meeting. The increasing UK population, including the influx of migrant workers from the EU, will increase this demand further during the course of the next twenty years and onwards. According to The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2002a), Britain is heading for a property shortage of more than a million homes by the year 2022 unless the current rate of house production is dramatically increased. The report also suggests evidence that the shortage will be most prominent in London and the South, where 70% of the demand lies, but where only 50% of new homes are being built. The Sunday Times (2003), stated that "House-building is at its lowest level since 1924; the gap between supply and demand widens by 60,000 homes annually - an average of 219,000 new households are created each year through longer lifespan, more solo-living from choice and an increasing divorce rate - and will exceed 1.1m in England by 2020; and the number of low-cost homes being built for housing association tenants is lower than at any time since 1995." Because of this, house prices have been soaring and continue to do so. Yet according to the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2002a), the number of houses built each year between 1998 and 2003 remained static at 154,000. The report goes on to say that the number of low cost social houses being built fell from 16,999 in 2000-2001 to 13,601 in 2002-2003. Clearly, the number of houses built per year needs to increase but it would appear that house builders are building as fast as they can with the resources they have available. The UK construction industry has come under criticism over its programme lengths and costs with many projects taking longer than necessary and costs over-running. Overall, clients are becoming more and more dissatisfied with contractors and house builders taking too long to deliver units, and therefore they have tenants and buyers waiting to move into half built homes. This is a widespread problem which needs to be addressed if the housing demand is to be met. It could be stated that with better management and the implementation of new technologies in new housing developments, programme lengths and costs could be significantly reduced. One method by which to do this has proven to be by using an Accelerated Project Initiative. This is a radical approach to reducing programme length by rigorously studying the initial programme and cutting the length wherever available by using a number of different techniques.

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Willmott Dixon Housing have tried this approach and it has proved to be successful. However, they do not approach every project in this way and every case is judged on its merits, as it would depend on the size of the site, the client's requirements, and the finance to be used in the preliminary budget of the project. APIs have, however, been proven to significantly reduce programme length and cost, and could be seen as a potential solution to the housing shortage in Britain, as more homes would be able to be built in a shorter period of time. API projects have potential to make a major impact on the housing industry but they are currently only used on a small scale comparative to the size of the industry. The aim of this dissertation, therefore, is to explore whether the implementation of APIs on a widespread scale could have a significant positive impact on the housing shortage in the UK. It will outline the positive and negative impacts on using this initiative against the traditional programming approach and the implications it would have on individual projects, and on a widespread scale. Student Example 3 The construction industry in the UK has been on a process of 'self-help' following a period of criticism in the 1990s that the industry was beset by poor standards, unpredictable costs, disputes and poor practice. The now infamous reports on the Industry produced by Latham (1994) and Egan

(1998) established the frameworks for improvements. Partnering was highlighted as one of the cures for the ills of the degenerative disease that was diagnosed. Furthermore, partnering the supply chain would harmonize what was seen as the discord between the world of contracting and its perceived less glamorous underlings, the subcontractors. The modern construction industry in the UK has developed a reliance on trade subcontractors to carry out the contracted works. Main contractors frequently employ little or no craft operatives, and instead rely on their 'subbies' to deliver the actual requirements of the project, while they maintain a management role on site. While at one time a 'respectable' builder was one that did not need to sub-contract, it is accepted that most construction work will often be carried out by the supply chain subcontractors. A 'respectable' builder is today the builder with the well-drilled supply chain awaiting its deployment. The benefits of a subcontracting system are well documented and also apply to most industries. Essentially, the transient nature of construction work, tax laws, union presence, risk management and an increased level of technological expertise required has precipitated the current number of subcontractor firms (Murdoch & Hughes, 1999). It is quite evident that the UK construction industry is massively dependent on a network of subcontracting SMEs alongside a smaller number of large subcontract firms. The problems with the system are equally well documented: a fragmented industry of SME subcontractors, each with their own agenda, history and perceptions. Contractual wrangles, litigation, cash flow problems, poor safety standards and bankruptcy were all associated with a poorly managed relationship with the subcontractor (Morton, 2002). These situations could rarely be hidden from the client: a negative perception of the industry was fermented. However, somehow, the benefits were outweighing the drawbacks and the prevalence of trade subcontracting increased. The solution to the problem was set out: bring the subcontractor on-board - make them our partners. In theory this involved the trickle down of the new spirit of continuous search for improvement, trust and good value that was to be created between client and main contractor. The skills of the subcontract army could be harnessed and redirected away from litigious cash chasing towards adding value, project organisation and reducing risks. The solution could be win-win (Bennett and Jayes, 1998). Sadly, the story does not end there. Recent studies, of which there are few, have shown that

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the maybe a perceived imbalance being created (Dainty et al, 2001 & Packham et al, 2003). Subcontractors appear to be feeling no benefits from partnering. Main contractors are also admitting that in the end the cost is what counts (Wood & Ellis, 2005). The high profile fall-out between Cleveland Bridge and Mulitplex on the nation's flagship football stadium has done nothing to change the preconception that the big boys will ride roof shod over the little man if the need is present. This dissertation will attempt to highlight the positives of supply chain partnering, seeking out best practice where it exists. Then in turn it will look to gleam an insight into the perception and experiences of partnering from the subcontractor's views. In deciphering these views the dissertation aims to outline how to improve supply chain partnering from the perspective of the subcontractor. Subsequently, it will endeavour to alleviate the paradox between the understanding that subcontractors have all the construction skill and yet none of the knowledge. Notes

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The Literature Review Introduction This section of your proposal/dissertation should demonstrate that you are familiar with the literature relevant to your field of research. The type of material you should be reviewing typically would include reports, dissertations/theses, books, journal articles, professional pamphlets, surveys and questionnaires – but not Acts of Parliament or regulations. If there is very little information in your chosen area you have a couple of options: either extend or redirect your field of enquiry so that is incorporates significant research literature, or chose another topic. In any event, what you are doing essentially is building on and extending the work of others. This is an incremental and cumulative approach to research in which you are clearing away some of the undergrowth, showing that you understand the topic, demonstrating the use of analytical skills, and clarifying significant and interesting issues. Indeed, most research can be considered as a problem solving activity located within fairly clearly defined disciplinary fields. Within these fields (at the undergraduate level) the ontology (what exists in the field) and epistemology (what we know about the events, relationships, concepts, theories etc) are generally well understood, and are not considered to be problematic. What counts as a ‘problem’ or ‘research question’ and what is considered acceptable in terms of ‘methods’ and ‘protocols’ is determined within the community itself (i.e. in this instance by discussion with your tutors). However, this is not the case in a number of fields and is at the very edge of research in most disciplines (if they are making any progress, that is). Here uncertainty is far more prevalent. The status of what exists and what we know about entities, events and so on is indeed problematic. This will be reflected in prolonged controversy and the existence of competing ‘schools of thought’. Nevertheless, it is here at the limits of research that reality is actually being created. Writing the Literature Review What you should do: What you should aim to do with your literature review is to build up an argument that seeks to define your research area and show how it relates

to what has already been done (see How Your Work Relates to the Field). Building an argument requires that you discuss the ideas of other authors. In this way you attempt to convince the reader of the legitimacy of the research. At the end of your review you should state your hypothesis or research question (see pp.37-39). And this question or hypothesis should emerge naturally out of the discussion of the literature. What you should not do: The literature review is not a list of books/articles that you may have read. Such a list belongs only in the bibliography. You are not preparing a report. This means that you do not create islands of information that only tells us what separate authors have ‘concluded’ or ‘found’ or ‘stated’. If that is all you do the reader will be asking ‘so what?’ or ‘why tell us that?’ or ‘what is the connection between these writers and your theme?’ or ‘how are you going to use their work?’ Do not quote from authors unless it is fundamentally important. This rule should be observed throughout your dissertation. In some instances, for example, in the examination of legal judgements, this rule needs to be a little more relaxed - but not abandoned. So, your review should contain no lists, no islands of information and no quotations – unless absolutely necessary. With that in mind read and critically evaluate the following student examples of a literature review. Student Example 1 The literature reviewed in the development of this proposal falls essentially into three categories. Firstly, literature that explores the concepts of heritage and conservation-led regeneration and which sets out a philosophy or a framework for conservation. Secondly, literature dealing specifically with the problems and issues facing the Victorian terrace. And thirdly technical literature, pertaining to the refurbishment of Victorian terraced dwellings. Questions of what constitutes an historic building and what constitutes conservation are addressed in Feilden’s (1994) seminal text Conservation of Historic Buildings. Aimed at practitioners this takes both a philosophical and practical approach

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to the subject and considers in some depth the attributes of historic buildings, the ethics and values attached to their conservation and the degrees of intervention that are appropriate to their care and repair. Although this text tends to focus on iconic buildings, and is international in its scope, it does include a useful chapter on the rehabilitation of historic buildings in urban settings which considers the social, cultural and economic benefits of rehabilitation and the practical implications of this in terms of upgrading performance standards and introducing modern building services. Formerly the Director of the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property in Rome, Feilden’s credentials as an expert on this subject are impressive, however, it is worth noting that this text is now 14 years old and much has happened in the intervening years. The most significant international development to take place during this time is probably the impact of global warming on national and international policy and the increasing recognition within the heritage sector of the need to address issues of energy efficiency and sustainability alongside issues of conservation. Of national significance is what could be termed the democratization of Britain’s heritage, linked in no small part to the setting up of the Heritage Lottery Fund in 1994. This funding stream has effectively opened up the heritage to individuals and communities that in the past may have had little opportunity to engage with, let alone shape decisions about, the nation’s heritage. The effect of this has been to expand our understanding of what constitutes heritage and what is worthy of conservation, with increasing significance being accorded to local heritage and to those streetscapes, landscapes and buildings that contribute towards a sense of local identity. This popular interest in heritage and in the conservation and rehabilitation of old buildings has been further stimulated by the media and as a result conservation professionals and other built environment practitioners are now working in a very different climate to that of the early 1990s; one in which many more people have an opinion on, and more importantly an involvement in, shaping their local environment. In light of this, while many of the ideas and principles pertaining to conservation philosophy put forward by Feilden are useful as a starting point for discussion, it will be necessary to reappraise their relevance to the contemporary situation and to ask the question, ‘has our approach to conservation evolved to accommodate contemporary issues and opinions?’

Narrowing the focus from a consideration of global conservation principles to a national perspective, former head of Listing Branch Department at the Department of the Environment, Michael Ross (1996), authoritatively addresses issues such as how to define the UK’s built heritage, why aspects of the built environment should be conserved and whether conservation is always a force for good in Planning and the Heritage. Like Feilden’s text, this is now over ten years old and was written before the Heritage Lottery Fund had had any significant impact on the heritage sector and so in some respects certain aspects of its content are now somewhat out of date. It is, however, important to understand the philosophical, professional and legislative framework that was in place when many of the decisions now affecting the country’s terraced houses were taken at the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s and this is an important text in this respect. Ross looks in detail at the legal and administrative framework that has evolved to conserve and protect Britain’s built heritage and while the protection regimes dealt with in this text remain current it is worth noting that they are likely to be significantly overhauled in the near future in light of the government’s draft Heritage Protection Bill (Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, 2008). This will obviously have implications for future conservation-led schemes. Published in April 2008 English Heritage’s Conservation Principles: Policies and guidance for the sustainable management of the historic environment brings this topic up to date and provides a contemporary philosophical framework for the conservation of the built environment that takes account of both cultural and legislative change. This document offers a definition of conservation that embraces beneficial change and considers the long-term sustainability of the historic environment. In doing so it acknowledges the importance of understanding heritage values, assessing heritage significance and managing change in the historic environment. Significantly it notes that much of what is considered by communities to have heritage value falls outside the scope of what is traditionally valued and protected and in doing so it acknowledges the increasing democratization of the heritage. It is worth noting that English Heritage is a non-departmental public body, sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport and as such will be influenced by wider government policy. Having previously mentioned the far-reaching impact of the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) it is worth referring specifically to three HLF

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publications that offer contemporary insights into the role of heritage in regeneration. New Life: Heritage and Regeneration (Heritage Lottery Fund, 2004) and reports on the HLF’s Townscape Heritage Initiative (Grover & Reeve, 2005) and Conservation Area Partnership Schemes (Urban Practitioners, 2007) provide information on the outcomes of HLF-funded projects and programmes designed specifically to contribute to urban and rural regeneration. New Life: Heritage and Regeneration is essentially a glossy marketing tool, however, it serves to give an indication of the breadth of what is now considered to form part of the nation’s heritage. The other two reports, however, provide relevant detailed information on the successes and, in the case of Townscape Heritage Initiatives, failures, of recent area-based heritage-led regeneration initiatives funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. Research for these reports was undertaken by independent researchers on behalf of the Heritage Lottery Fund and both reports incorporate a research brief and methodology. One criticism of the reports is that they refer directly to only a relatively small sample of case studies and so may not be truly representative of the programmes in question. Of the two reports, the review of Conservation Area Partnerships offers the most robust findings. This programme closed in 2004 and so something of the sustainability of the projects can be inferred from the data presented. The report on Townscape Heritage Initiatives, however, is an interim report and its authors counsel that its findings should only be treated as “preliminary hypotheses” (Grover & Reeve, 2005, p.3). Like English Heritage, it is worth noting that the Heritage Lottery Fund is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. While these texts offer insights into definitions of heritage, an understanding of the changing philosophical approaches to conservation and a commentary on the legislative and economic framework in which conservation activity takes place they do not deal specifically with the problems and issues facing the Victorian terrace. Pamela Cunnington (1984) also considers the legal framework of conservation, the reasons and philosophy underpinning conservation and the practical application of conservation principles to historic buildings, but her focus is primarily on vernacular buildings of a domestic scale. An architect and SPAB Lethaby Scholar, Cunnington has strong conservation credentials but states at the outset that this book is aimed at owners of historic buildings and local pressure groups concerned with influencing decisions connected with local heritage rather than at the professional

audience of Feilden and Ross. Written in the 1980s, when popular interest in conservation was growing in response to the clearances of the 1960s and 70s, the author’s stated aim is to harness and encourage this interest. The real relevance of Cunnington’s text, however, is not so much the philosophy it presents but the case studies it incorporates. These deal with a range of building types, including Victorian terraced dwellings, and Cunnington describes in some detail the conservation-led approaches to regeneration that were being adopted in the 1980s. Now over 20 years old these schemes will provide an insight into the success, or failure, of a conservation-led approach to the refurbishment of terraced dwellings. It is intended during the course of this dissertation to revisit some of these case studies to see how they have evolved and to determine whether a conservation-led approach to their rehabilitation has contributed positively to their survival. Also writing in the 1980s, Stefan Muthesius (1983) produced his seminal text The English Terraced House. A professor of art at the University of East Anglia and an expert on Victorian architecture, having written two earlier books on the subject, Muthesius writes in detail on the history and development of the terrace. Aimed primarily at historians, architects and planners, this book, the first of its kind, charts the development of this dwelling type and although it includes commentary on earlier forms of the terrace, it focuses primarily on the Victorian interpretation of the terrace. Although the age of this book may now appear to render it somewhat out of date it remains an important text as it marks the point at which the cultural and architectural value of the terrace began to be appreciated. The commentary and observations it offers on the significance of this dwelling type are crucial to understanding the response of heritage bodies, some 20 years later, to the proposals for widespread clearance as a result of the government’s Housing Market Renewal Pathfinder Programme. Much has been written recently on the future of the Victorian terrace as a direct result of the Pathfinder Programme. As mentioned in the problem specification, the heritage sector has been at the forefront of championing refurbishment as an alternative to demolition and several notable organisations have produced reports and statements emphasizing the heritage value of the Victorian terrace. In 2003 CABE, in association with four other organisations, including English Heritage, published Building Sustainable Communities: Actions for Housing Market Renewal. This

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recognised that although there will be situations where demolition will be necessary, a sensitive approach to the historic built environment, viewing it as an asset and placing it at the heart of regeneration initiatives, will often be the most economical and sustainable course of action in regenerating an area. This report was followed up two years later in 2005 by English Heritage’s position statement, Low Demand Housing and the Historic Environment and CABE’s, Creating Successful Neighbourhoods: Lessons and actions for Housing Market Renewal. Both of these continue to acknowledge the need for some demolition but advocate the recognition and retention of heritage assets, including terraced dwellings. As one might expect, CABE advocates an innovative, design-led approach to rehabilitating ageing housing stock rather than a traditional conservation-led approach, while English Heritage makes a strong case for the sustainability of conservation-led regeneration in areas where “the historic housing is distinctive, retains its coherence and is valued by the local community” (English Heritage, 2005, p.2). Significantly, however, English Heritage also acknowledges the need for an imaginative and flexible approach to refurbishment to meet a wider variety of housing needs. In contextualizing the responses of these organisations it must be recognised that both receive government funding for their work and have input into national policy and so are unlikely to adopt a position that conflicts with government policy. In contrast, Pathfinder, published by SAVE Britain’s Heritage (Wilkinson, 2006), is a rather more polemical report aimed at raising public and professional awareness of the damage SAVE perceived as being caused by the Pathfinder programme. Ross (1996, p.70) notes that SAVE was originally founded by a group of journalists, architects and planners following an exhibition in 1974 entitled The Destruction of the English Country House and that this group has “consistently produced the most polished and professional campaigns in the heritage world, using its supporters’ skills to the full”. Pathfinder certainly achieved its aim, having grabbed headlines and stimulated debate when it was dismissed by the government as “scaremongering” and “nonsense” (SAVE Britain’s Heritage, 2006). Despite its campaigning, and some might say sensationalist, overtones it presents a well-structured and convincing argument against demolition, drawing on a current range of case studies to support its view and highlighting tangible examples of the damage caused to

settled communities by this approach to regeneration. It offers a number of alternatives to demolition, based on degrees of intervention, and rejects the government’s reasons for demolishing these dwellings - obsolescence, low demand etc., offering instead an alternative perspective based on development economics. Significantly, it points out that the negative assumptions made by those responsible for implementing Pathfinder often appear to conflict with the realities experienced by tenants and owner-occupiers living in Victorian terraces. This notion of disparity is supported by a number of publications, including several independent reports that have been commissioned in support of the Pathfinder programme. This idea is touched on by Muthesius (2006, p.4) who notes that terraced dwellings, particularly the small and medium sized house types, associated almost exclusively with the working classes, have long been perceived by those in authority as being part of the “housing problem”. This antipathy towards the terrace stems, he suggests, from the fact that its uniformity, working-class associations and perceived lack of architectural merit conflict with the design ideals of those in positions of power. This, he believes, has contributed significantly towards the waves of demolitions that have beset the Victorian terrace since its inception. In his article for The Victorian Muthesius (2006, p.6) observes that although the widespread ‘slum’ clearances of the 1960s and 70s were usually couched in terms of ridding towns and cities of obsolete housing stock that lacked modern amenities, “there was also a strongly-felt look of the low class which the often socialist-minded town planners and municipal architects desired to eliminate”. The fact that many of those dwellings that escaped demolition in the 1960s have subsequently been successfully modernised and have remained in use for a further 40 years supports this idea that other agendas were in play. Muthesius goes on to suggest that current social policy and deep seated establishment prejudices may once again be influencing the new wave of demolitions sweeping the north of the country and this suggestion merits further investigation. Certainly this perception of terraced housing being low status and therefore undesirable to certain socio-economic groups is propounded by the economically driven Northern Way Steering Group (2004, p.54) which views the North of England’s ageing housing stock as a significant barrier to economic growth and inward investment stating a belief that “much of the existing housing stock [in the North East and parts of the North West] is of too poor a quality to attract more aspirational and mobile occupiers”. What

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emerges from this report is not that this type of housing is unfit for habitation but that it is inhabited by the ‘wrong type of people’. The Steering Group’s solution to this appears to be to force changes to the socio-economic profile of Pathfinder areas through the clearance of ‘low status’ dwellings and the construction of new ‘aspirational’ homes. Significantly this notion that housing type is hindering the North’s economic competitiveness is not supported by the Llewelyn Davies Yeang report (2006a, p.37) commissioned by the Northern Way Sustainable Communities Team, which finds little proof that residential offer is a primary driver of regional economic competitiveness or, indeed, of individual migration decisions. This report, structured in two parts, reviews a wide range of existing research and also undertakes primary research relating to the importance of residential offer in attracting sought after groups to three of the North of England’s city regions. The fact that the findings of the report do not support the stated position of the commissioning organisation would seem to give them credibility. The findings of the Llewelyn Davies Yeang report also echo those of the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) in its report, Useless Old Houses? (Sear & Bashford, 2004). This research, commissioned by the CPRE’s North West Regional Group, investigates the extent to which the causes of low demand are specifically linked to the North West’s legacy of high density housing. The report concludes that housing type and density are not central to low demand and that instead factors linked to deprivation and anti-social behaviour are the primary causes of localised decline. This research is particularly interesting as it includes the results of semi-structured interviews with local estate agents covering areas of low demand in Lancashire and Merseyside. Although only 21 estate agents were surveyed they were chosen to cover a representative area of the North West and so, while the results must be treated with caution, they provide an interesting perspective on the problem of low demand and the potential for these areas to be regenerated. It is worth noting, however, that the CPRE has an organisational agenda for supporting the retention and refurbishment of high density terraced dwellings. As an organisation concerned with the protection of the countryside it states explicitly at the beginning of the report that its interest in campaigning for urban regeneration is primarily driven by the desire to alleviate development pressure on the countryside. In light of this we must question whether the recommendations

made in the report offer the best solution for the urban areas they purport to be concerned with or the surrounding countryside that the CPRE is primarily concerned to protect. We see then that there exists a body of research and opinion to counter the calls for demolition that suggests not only that the Victorian terrace merits heritage status but that this heritage status could be harnessed positively to act as a catalyst for regeneration. At the very least, there is evidence to suggest that dwelling type is not, in itself, responsible for many of the problems hitherto attributed to the terrace and therefore that demolition is not necessarily the only, or indeed the best, solution. However, if demolition is opposed because the Victorian terrace has heritage value then this must necessarily have implications for refurbishment. Tim Yates’ report, Sustainable refurbishment of Victorian housing (2006), provides detailed guidance on determining the viability of refurbishing pre-1919 dwellings and sets out a methodology for assessing the suitability of different levels of intervention based on a tried-and-tested environmental assessment tool developed by the Building Research Establishment. Published by the BRE Trust, and explicitly aimed at practitioners involved in regeneration initiatives, this report addresses some of the complex technical issues surrounding the current debate on the prudence of refurbishing existing housing stock, compared with its demolition and replacement, and considers how factors such as the economic, social, conservation and environmental context in which refurbishment is to take place can have a limiting effect on the degree of intervention that is possible and/or desirable. This report is particularly interesting as it touches on the point at which conservation and refurbishment become incompatible and this will be explored more fully within the dissertation. Linked to this is the BRE’s current demonstration project, Rethinking Housing Refurbishment, which is due to be completed in September 2009 and involves refurbishing a Victorian building to achieve high standards of performance whilst retaining the heritage character of the building. The ongoing results of the project are published on the Internet (BRE, 2008) and will be used to inform the discussion on the technical feasibility of refurbishment. A further BRE publication, Knock it down or do it up? Sustainable house building: New build and refurbishment in the Sustainable Communities Plan is due for publication in June 2008 and will consider the relative merits of the two approaches

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to housing renewal from the perspective of the developer, having surveyed some 343 practitioners. The information paper linked to this publication (Plimmer et al, 2008) highlights key areas of research including a consideration of why demolition has become so controversial, the key drivers for refurbishment projects, the economic barriers to refurbishment and the links between heritage, conservation and sustainability. The publication also promises to offer insights into the attitudes of developers to conservation-led regeneration. Although, as yet unpublished, the information currently available on this report suggests that its findings will be comprehensive and robust (having been undertaken by the College of Estate Management with sponsorship by the BRE Trust). While these are the most relevant and recent BRE publications, numerous reports and research papers are available from the Building Research Establishment on the subject of refurbishing traditional buildings and these will be referred to in the course of the dissertation. We see then, that a body of high quality research exists into the technical feasibility and desirability of refurbishing Victorian terraced dwellings, and begins to explore the role that conservation can play both as a driver for refurbishment and as a limiting factor. This dissertation will explore these issues in greater depth with a view to determining whether the catalytic potential of a conservation led approach to refurbishment outweighs its potential to limit the scope and extent of refurbishment possibilities. In effect, this dissertation will aim to answer the question, ‘is there a role for conservation-led regeneration in Victorian terraced housing?’ Student Example 2 The UK latest housing shortage is a topic which has been written about over the last ten years, as the problem has been increasing. There are a series of reports and articles which talk about the

scale of the problem and the numbers of homes which need to be built to reduce it. However, with soaring house prices and house builders not meeting targets, the problem is increasing. Despite this, the literature does not seem to suggest any long term solutions. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2002a), predicted that Britain was heading for a housing shortage of more than a million homes by the year 2022. It's research showed that the biggest problem area is in London and the South-East, where 70% of the new homes are required, but only 50% of new homes are being built. It highlights the problems of homelessness and a crisis in public services in these areas, whilst in the North where demand is low, there will be continued decline and abandonment of property. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation obviously feel that something needs to be done to increase the volume of houses being built, and it outlines that the majority of these are needed in the South-East, but there are still questions as to how these extra homes can be achieved. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2002), set a house building target such that a better balance between housing supply and demand would be met. The Government Spending Review provided a change in the housing objectives including more resources for affordable housing and new fund to turn around areas of low housing demand and abandonment. To achieve these, among other housing objectives, the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister would require £1.5billion more in 2005/2006 than in 2002/2003. Following the 2002 Government Spending Review, Barker (2003) discussed the impact of the lack of new homes being built on house prices in the UK. The report goes into further depth and outlines a number of key factors which are to blame for the housing shortage, including the lack of houses being built, as in 2001 house building fell to its lowest level since 1924 (excluding the post-war regeneration). Barker (2003) also outlines other reasons such as the increasing population size due to demographic factors like increasing life expectancy, and more divorces. Barker (2004), attempted to create suggestions as to how this could be done. In her follow-up to the 2003 report, she outlines her recommendations for changes necessary to meet new housing targets. She pinpoints reforms to the planning system, incentives for local authorities to support development, and a better quality of service from the construction industry including building out sites as quickly as possible. However there are no recommendations as to how programme lengths and costs can be reduced.

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The dominant message from the two Barker reports is the clear need for a greater number of homes to be built in the UK, as in 2002, 165,000 were built when estimates showed that between 220,000 and 230,000 new households were being formed per year. Barker (2004), encouraged the government to change it's planning policies to allow more houses to be built on greenfield sites, as it claims that at present there isn't enough land available for the housing demand to be met. This is a claim which is widely reputed by the Campaign to Protect Rural England (2005), who say that Britain's top 15 house builders own enough land with planning permission to build 278,866 new houses, 17.6% more than in 1998. Mathiason (2003), had already claimed that because of this, as long as inflation continues to rise, house builders will be under no obligation to build as they will be profiting from the land which they already own. Even if this is the case, perhaps if construction methods could be made faster and cheaper there would be motivation to develop this land. Mathiasons' claims follow on from the work of White and Allmendinger (2002), who produced a Comparitive Review of the UK and the USA with regards to land-use planning and the housing market, which appears to support Mathiasons' theories. White and Allmendinger outline the demographic factors which are bringing rise to the increased demand for housing in both countries. They argue that the planning system in the UK is to blame for the housing shortage, as it is too lengthy. For this reason, if house builders have several pieces of land with planning permission, and they know they will not have other pieces of land coming available in the near future, they will draw out their programs to ensure a steady work load, rather than speeding up their programmes and finding themselves with no work. White and Allmendinger go on to say that it is this which causes the housing shortage because house builders are not building at their optimum rate, and in a time when predictions of a million homes by 2022 are being made, this clearly must be addressed. If this is the case, then APIs may be a way of cutting programme length, but they will never be fully implemented unless planning policies are also reviewed. This will need to be investigated to underpin the validity of the dissertation hypothesis. Accelerated Project Initiatives use a range of programme reducing techniques, including using new methods of construction, and timber or steel frame housing. The UK Timber Frame Association (2006), claims that timber frame housing has achieved nearly 20% of the market

share. API projects use timber frame because of its speed and ease of use, so there are questions as to why a greater share of the housing market does not use timber frame construction. The report also outlines the benefits of this form of construction compared with the traditional approach, and whilst these benefits are apparent, the fact that timber frame only accounts for 20% of the market share requires investigation. What the literature demonstrates is that there is clearly a growing problem with regards to the shortage of houses in the UK, but also that there are not enough solutions being identified and implemented and this needs to be addressed. The claim by certain authors that house builders are not building at their optimum rate by choice is one which will need to be investigated for its validity. This dissertation, therefore, pursues the following research question: Would the implementation of the methods used in Accelerated Project Initiatives in all new build housing developments, significantly reduce the housing shortage problem in the UK? Student Example 3 A review of the literature on supply chain partnering must begin with the key drivers for change in the construction industry, namely the government reports Constructing the Team (Latham, 1994) and Rethinking Construction (Egan, 1998). Latham's report includes the recommendations of a study performed by a major

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contractor of its perception by its own subcontractors. Latham went on to recommend the studies findings that partnering would improve the relationship between parties and encourage team-working, ultimately producing a win-win situation. Egan's report, Rethinking Construction (1998), describes itself as radical. It purports quantifiable improvements as a result of partnering and in particular encourages the proposal of partnering the supply chain. Targets set by the report included annual 10% reductions in construction cost and time with turnover and profit increasing by a similar amount. The task force called for a new perception of the construction supply chain as vital for driving innovation and continual improvement. The task force highlighted that sharing in the rewards of partnering is a fundamental aspect to its continuing success. In short Egan was, amongst other propositions, seeking to improve the industry by harnessing the skills and knowledge the fragmented subcontractor network. Much of the credence given to the role of partnering by Egan and others is based on research work that suggests great benefits for partnering. Bennett and Jayes (1995 & 1998) have described the role of partnering as a potential win-win producing cost and time savings of 40-50%. Larson (1995) reviewed 280 construction projects and managed to display the trend towards improved cost control, technical performance and customer satisfaction in partnered projects. Larson suggests that partnering can break the adversarial grid lock where parties to construction work saw each other as opponents to be overcome. The Seven Pillars of Partnering (Bennett & Jayes, 1998) is widely referred to as a seminal work on the definition and methods to produce partnering. Strategy, benchmarks, feedback, equity and integration were among the pillars. Like the Latham and Egan reports, the seven pillars appear to be standard introductory information to any study or discussion of partnering. Naoum (2003) in reviewing the literature argues that a consensus exists that partnering is mutually agreed objectives and goals based on inter-organisational trust. The literature on the subject, which is becoming vast, has gone beyond the pillars to look at a range of issues that influence effective outcomes. Amongst other works Bresnen and Marshall (2002) have suggested that there is no one strategy for successful partnering and that partnering is a dynamic process requiring short term learning. The theme of trust is also recurrent among the studies; with Bayliss et al. (2003)

recommending that partnering both requires and helps to create trust in construction projects. Commentators on the growing amount of literature have expressed disappointment over its current direction. Wood and Ellis (2005) agree with Bresnen and Marshall (2002) that literature is replete with case study examples of successful partnerships and alliances. They bemoan the scarcity of quality experimental work being done on the issues in place of prescriptive guides which spread the use of partnering in a simplistic manner. It is proposed that this does nothing to test whether the claims made by early studies are being translated into successful outcomes in the 21st Century. Furthermore, it is clear that the research and literature are highly focused on the relationship between the main contractor and the client. Although often mentioned in the works as a critical component to partnering success, little appears to be ventured on the process or success of partnering the supply chain. Matthews et al. (2000) are unequivocal as to the importance and problems of the subcontractor in modern construction. They venture that it is not uncommon for as much as 90% of a project to be undertaken by subcontractors. The paper also establishes the positive feedback of the manufacturing industry on closer working relationships with suppliers. The paper also suggests that the adversarial nature of contractor - subcontractor lies with the realisation by the contractor that cost savings are generally via the subcontract account. Hence, lowest price tendering, Dutch auctions, unfair contract conditions were borne out of a search to reduce the bottom line. A partnering approach based on Total Quality Management (TQM) and Lean production is advocated by the research. Humphreys et al (2003) developed a pilot partnering system for the pre-construction stage based on a single main contractor. Its methodology sought to seek the views of the subcontractor as to how the main contractor would preferably act. In doing this the paper suggests a collaborative approach can be reached. In theory, this is an admirable move towards engaging subcontractor opinions to partnering. In practice the paper is flawed: following the discussions with the subcontractors, the partnering arrangements are dictated by the main contractor and as such price competition was maintained. The results were positive for the main contractor: tendering subcontractors suggested a 10% reduction in price was offered on the basis of the future harmonious relationship on site. Essentially, the subcontractors had taken on a 10% penalty just to work in a 'potentially' non adversarial manner. The subcontract industry view on supply chain

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partnering is a cause for concern for the future success of partnering and its continuous improvement. Dainty et al. (2001) refers to the absence of the recognition of the importance of subcontractors to both the debate and the management of industry change. Views expressed by subcontractors reflect an underlying mistrust of the motives of main contractors to supply chain partnering (Dainty et al, 2001). Packham et al. (2003) have corroborated this view of subcontractor suspicion and a feeling that partnering meant the transfer of more risks onto the subcontractor. Greenwood (2001) and Wood and Ellis (2005) have confirmed that despite partnering the subcontract procurement process is still dominated by cost. The dissertation aims to add to the level of understanding of what subcontractors perceive in relation to partnering. While much has been ventured in the literature about the benefits of partnering, there appears to be far less consultation with the companies producing over 90% of the construction work. In consulting this very group, it is hoped that recommendations for improvement can be sought. In search of those recommendations, the dissertation will ask the question: is partnering having a positive effect on subcontractor business outcomes? Notes

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Analysing / Reviewing an Article There is no right way of doing this. It will depend, among other things, upon on the nature, complexity and length of the material being reviewed. Nevertheless, there are a number of questions you should ask. The questions can be grouped as follows: 1. Problem/Issue Specification What is the key problem(s)? How clearly has this been defined? What do you already know about this topic? 2. Previous Literature Is previous literature identified? Is its importance made clear? Are any weaknesses identified? Where does this article stand in relation to previous work? 3. Methodological Approach What is the disciplinary/theoretical framework or theme and is it clearly explained? Does the article provide a clearly defined research question or hypothesis? What types of research does the article employ? 4. Argument and Evidence What is the author trying to show? Who is the intended audience(s)? What is the structure of the argument? How does the author indicate ‘control’ or ‘authority’ over the material? If there was a hypothesis was it rigorously tested? If there was a speculative or research question what evidence was offered and did it support the conclusions?

How was the evidence selected? Were the criteria made explicit? Were questionnaires employed? Was the sample adequate? Could valid generalisations be drawn from the sample?

What metaphorical or rhetorical devices are found in the text? What is their role? Did the headings clearly reflect the content? 5. Summary Is there a one sentence summary of the article/book? Are the aims of the author achieved? Has your understanding of the problem/issue been improved? Was the article/book, etc. convincing? Could the study or be improved in any way? Does the work make a useful contribution to the field? Now look again at the student literature reviews. To what extent did they apply the above criteria to the articles they were examining?

Quotations and Plagiarism Copying the work of others and passing it off as your own is dishonest - so don’t do it. One of the reasons why it does happen is because students often don’t know how to paraphrase or summarise the work of others. However, if you recognise that a paragraph is essentially concerned with one idea then the task becomes easier. The following takes you through the important issues. The Original Source The following is the introductory paragraph of a section on design and build in Design and the Economics of Building by Morton and Jaggar (1995: 329). Design and Build

It is the design and build method of procurement however which has generated the most acrimonious debate in recent years and which has become the favoured route for very many types of project. It is controversial quite simply because experience has been so varied and because it affects so critically the interests of the many parties involved. To its advocates it solves what is seen as the fundamental weakness of the traditional system - the separation of design and construction; it offers a guaranteed price to the client; it offers speed and efficient construction. To sceptics and outright opponents, however, design and build, by devaluing the role of the architect also

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devalues the importance of design; this is a view expressed by some significant clients and contractors as well as by architects themselves.

How do you avoid plagiarism if you want to use this material? 1. You can quote it all (although it isn’t really

sufficiently interesting). You set it off from its parent paragraph so it might look like this:

There is a lot of disagreement about which is the better procurement route. Morton and Jaggar (1995: 329) argue that this is especially true of one in particular:

It is the design and build method of procurement however which has generated the most acrimonious debate in recent years and which has become the favoured route for very many types of project. It is controversial quite simply because experience has been so varied and because it affects so critically the interests of the many parties involved. To its advocates it solves what is seen as the fundamental weakness of the traditional system - the separation of design and construction; it offers a guaranteed price to the client; it offers speed and efficient construction. To sceptics and outright opponents, however, design and build, by devaluing the role of the architect also devalues the importance of design; this is a view expressed by some significant clients and contractors as well as by architects themselves.

2. Identify the key idea and then quote part

of it and summarise the rest:

Morton and Jaggar (1995: 329) argue that: ‘It is the design and build method of procurement however which has generated the most acrimonious debate in recent years’. According to them, supporters believe that this route overcomes the main problem associated with the traditional system - the separation of design from construction; critics, however, believe that the design element is undervalued.

3. Identify the key idea and the main

characteristics of its elaboration and simply paraphrase:

Morton and Jaggar (1995: 329) have identified design and build as the most controversial of the procurement routes. On the one side it is argued that this route overcomes the main problem associated with the traditional system - the separation of design from construction, while on the other it is claimed that the design element is undervalued.

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How Your Work Relates to the Field When you engage with the literature you are essentially undertaking a work of criticism: a term which, unfortunately, has a rather negative image. Nevertheless, criticism involves much more than is commonly supposed. It means, according to Blaxter et al. (1997: 217-218), that one might be engaged in: • Agreeing with, acceding to, defending or

confirming a particular point of view. • Proposing a new point of view. • Conceding that an existing point of view

has certain merits but that is needs to be qualified in certain important respects.

• Reformulating an existing point of view or

statement of it, such that the new version makes a better explanation.

• Dismissing a point of view or another

person’s work on account of it inadequacy, irrelevance, incoherence or by recourse to some other appropriate criteria.

• Rejecting, rebutting, or refuting another’s

argument on various reasoned grounds. • Reconciling two positions which may

seem at variance.

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Methodology Introduction There is no correct way of writing research proposals or dissertations. The approach you take will depend on what you want to investigate and what you are trying to achieve. Generally, however, you need to get a feel for the subject. This you do by undertaking an initial literature review. On the basis of this you can specify the problem or issue you wish to investigate, and then decide on the approach you intend taking. There are three levels to this. The first involves the operationalisation of the research problem or issue. This can take a variety of forms such as a research question or hypothesis. Now although this is methodological issue the question or hypothesis should flow out of the literature review. Thus it is quite common to find it at the end of the review rather than in the Methodology section. The second stipulates that your work needs to be located within a disciplinary or theoretical framework. The third involves the methods by which you will generate the evidence for you dissertation. For example, surveys, modelling, and comparative analyses are all capable of generating data. Which you choose is something to which you must give considerable thought.

Operationalising the Research Problem or Issue This requires that you specify how you are going to deal with the problem/issue you have identified. A traditional way of doing this is to formulate a hypothesis. Others include the framing of a conjecture or prediction or the posing of a research question. What is meant by these terms is explained below. Hypothesis Testing A hypothesis is a testable statement that claims to explain an existing state of affairs - it is not a question. For example, let us suppose that it is known that the quality of service provided by quantity surveyors has been deteriorating, and that this appears to be associated with the introduction of fee competition. From this we can formulate the hypothesis/claim that ‘fee competition has lowered the quality of service’ (see for example, Hoxley, M. (2000), Are competitive fee tendering and construction

professional service quality, mutually exclusive? Construction Management and Economics 18, pp.599-605). The aim of your research would now be to verify or falsify this hypothesis by investigating the effect of fee competition on professional practice. There are, however, a few limitations to this methodological approach: • Firstly, any number of hypotheses may

account for the phenomena - how do we know that we have the right one? Plausibility is the key, and that is what we would look for in this case.

• Secondly, the verification of a hypothesis

through the piling up of confirming instances is not proof. It does give us more confidence in the hypothesis but disconfirming instances do radically undermine its credibility. One solution here would be to conduct a survey among clients and conduct a statistical analysis of the data. This would then allow you to express some degree of confidence (or otherwise) in your hypothesis. One of the problems is in deciding what counts as a reliable sample.

• Thirdly, if the hypothesis appears to be

falsified through a number of disconfirming instances we have to take care not to reject the theory prematurely. A series of disconfirmations may well be the result of too small a sample or too localised a sample. A more carefully constructed sample may well confirm the hypothesis.

• Finally, you need to appreciate that your

hypothesis has to be embedded, and only makes sense, within a larger theoretical structure. A discussion about the quality of QS service, for example, requires an examination of what professionalism (analysed within a sociological framework) and quality (analysed within the sociological context of client perceptions) means. In other words, there needs to be a theoretical ‘model’ of professional activity against which your findings can be tested.

Conjecture/Prediction

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Alternatively, you may have chosen a topic, which is not amenable to hypothesis testing: in which case take a different methodological tack. For example, again using the above illustration but assuming there has been no deterioration in service, let us assume that fee competition is going to be introduced in a few years time. We clearly cannot formulate a hypothesis (because there is no phenomenon yet to explain) but we can conjecture about or predict the likely outcome. This might take the form - ‘fee competition will lower the quality of professional services’. You can neither confirm nor falsify this statement within your dissertation but you can present a convincing argument either for or against or even be inconclusive if that is how it appears to you. Now this may sound like a softer option, but it is not. You have to apply the same rigour here as in hypothesis testing. There are number of things you need to bear in mind: • Ensure that your conjecture is testable, at

least in principle, and show how this can be done. Do not forget that in a few years time, what you have written may well be tested against the evidence as another student examines the validity of your initial conjecture.

• Show that is possible for your conjecture

to be refuted. In other words, you need to indicate what sort of evidence would count against your prediction. For example, a measurable rise in quality might refute the conjecture that competition lowers standards.

• Again set up a theoretical ‘model’ within

which to embed your conjecture. You then have to show how various factors you have identified can affect it.

Now, what you are demonstrating in all this is the ability to evaluate situations, processes, and groups and an ability to predict how a variety of factors may affect them. This is an important and highly regarded skill. Research Questions Research questions need to be informative and significant. There are many questions we can ask about events, processes and phenomena that may be neither. A research question, therefore, has to specify an issue or problem that has meaning and importance to a particular research group, profession or industry. Whereas the above methods are concerned with making claims about the past present or future

state of things a research question is not constrained in the same way, it can be more open ended and exploratory. It may, for example, be asking why events or processes happen (or happened) in the way they do. As in hypothesis testing it is the search for explanation. But there is a difference. A research question seeks an explanation. A hypothesis is an explanation that seeks confirmation or refutation. A research question may also be asking what the outcome of certain conflicts, tendencies or policies is likely to be. As in a speculative approach there is concern with the future but again there is a difference. The speculative methods is prescriptive, it specifies what is going to happen and then tries to justify its claim. By contrast a research question concerned with the future will want to come to some view only after the evidence has been examined. Clearly, there is a fine line to be drawn here; nevertheless, it is sufficiently well defined for us to distinguish the perspectives involved. Notes

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Disciplinary and Theoretical Frameworks Building Surveying Building Surveyor is concerned primarily with the performance of buildings over their whole life cycle. In terms of professional practice, this involves the operational and maintenance aspects of design, the management of building operation and maintenance, the design and management of adaptation, rehabilitation and conservation schemes, the provision of advice on property condition and of advice on demolition and redevelopment. Theoretically it draws on the study of facilities management, refurbishment and conservation, and more general economic, legal and managerial concepts related to the construction industry. It also requires an understanding and knowledge of the technology of past and present construction, and methods of detailed design, costing and maintenance associated with the application of that technology. A dissertation example might be: ‘What impact has the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 had on designers?’ Quantity Surveying Quantity surveying is a well established discipline. Essentially it is about financial control and contractual management. In terms of professional practice it is concerned with advising clients, reconciling cost and value, managing contracts and resolving financial disputes.

Not surprisingly it draws on the theoretical insights of a number of other disciplines. These include construction technology, contract law and procedures, commercial and financial management and human resource management. A dissertation example might be: ‘The Value of Value Management’. Legal You would take this approach if you wanted to explore how the law structures and polices the regulatory framework in which the construction industry and professions operates. The emphasis of your dissertation would be on various Acts of Parliament, legal reports and cases and how they relate to your chosen topic. A dissertation example might be: ‘Building Contracts and Conflict: Latham and the Real Issues’. Another example might be concerned with procurement. Procurement connects design with construction through the management of the

building process. The form it can take varies. Traditional methods separate the responsibility for design and construction and this has been a source of inter-professional conflict and client dissatisfaction. Newer approaches such as Design and Build have been designed to overcome this and invest the contractor with responsibility for both. An important dimension to this is contract law and the nature of the relationships which flow from the type of the procurement route chosen. Philosophical Philosophical research is concerned with understanding and explaining the meaning of ideas, terms and concepts and the way in which they are used: for example, the analysis and evaluation of building design. It can also involve the analysis of the methodological basis of previous research. In other words, the focus of the study would be the way in which previous research was conducted rather the results of such work. For example, the methodology of the Latham Report could be examined to discover whether or not it was capable of adequately identifying ‘the real issues’. Historical Again, there are many approaches available. You may want to examine particular events in the past. You may want to compare events in the past and the way in which they were handled with similar events in the present. You may want to study trends or the way in which attitudes, values and beliefs have altered over some specified period of time. You would need to examine primary and secondary literature. Primary sources come in the form of reports, Acts of Parliament, diaries, correspondence, contemporary newspaper articles and journal material. Secondary material would provide commentaries and criticisms of these primary sources and other secondary sources. For example, ‘how have housing style guides changed since 1918 and to what extent have they been influenced by socio-economic factors?’ This would require the use of many of primary and secondary sources mentioned above. Sociological Sociology is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values, and with the functioning and structuring of society. Society itself is made up of people whose relationships with one another are determined by a variety of institutions. These include the family, the education, health and legal systems, and work. To take work as an example, within the construction industry inter-professional

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relationships are considered problematic. A sociological analysis of inter-professional conflict would examine the roles and goals of the different professionals, the ways in which they do or do not communicate, the sources of conflict between them, and the ways in which this conflict could be reduced., Economic Economics is concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. This is a dynamic process that is subject to more or less continuous change. Much change is generated by competitive pressures and by the pursuit of profit. However, we need to recognise that the regulatory framework, within which economic activity takes place, can also be an important engine of change: the stipulation of minimum health and safety conditions, minimum pay, consumer rights and so on. A dissertation example might be: ‘The impact of government legislation on the labour market in the construction industry: the rise and fall of labour only subcontracting’. This is not an exhaustive list. There are many, many more theoretical approaches so do not try to force your work into one or more of these categories if it is not appropriate. If in doubt ask the module leader.

Argument and Research Methods There are a many ways in which you may undertake your research and a selection of methods can be found below. However, it is important to appreciate that you are undertaking research and generating data in order to produce a persuasive argument. Indeed, you should think of your dissertation as one long argument organised around your research question or hypothesis. Thus your dissertation should be about presenting the grounds for accepting or rejecting an argument. An argument, then, is about convincing your readers that the evidence you provide is plausible and that your conclusions clearly follow from it. Schematically, the structure of your argument should look as follows: • Firstly, the problem or phenomena has to

be identified. • Secondly, a research question,

conjecture, or hypothesis needs to be framed.

• Thirdly, evidence appropriate the problem

has to be presented.

• Fourthly, the validity of the evidence and its significance for the research problem needs to be discussed.

• Finally, conclusions, which must be based

exclusively on the discussion, should be drawn.

All forms of dissertation require a reasoned argument of this type. How do you go about generating the data? Clearly you will need to read a lot of material in the form of books, journal articles, reports, previous dissertations and so on. But that is only part of what research involves. You also need to consider what form this research will take because this will help guide what you do. In other words, you are not just collecting data, you are collecting data appropriate to your argument. So, the very act of making, for example, a comparative analysis of procurement methods will itself direct the nature of your research. What follows is an outline of some of the most important research methods which include surveying the existing literature, analogy, models, problem solving, experimentation, case studies, comparative analyses, trends and surveys of opinion. Survey Existing Literature You may, for example, wish to survey existing research in a particular field and come to view about its adequacy. Such a survey would involve: • Identifying the problem or phenomena to

be surveyed. It may be that there is a lack of agreement or clarity in the literature. Your aim might then be to discover why this is the case.

• Framing a research question or

hypothesis concerning the literature. • Defining the scope of the field. • Discussing the different perspectives and

emphases that authors bring to the issue. • Examining the methodological strengths

and weaknesses of the literature. • Coming to a view about current research

in your chosen field Analogy You may want to take ideas developed in a different context and see if they can be applied in your chosen area. Thus, it is not unusual in particular legal cases for clear cut rules to be lacking. Therefore, arguments and rules

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originating elsewhere will have to be applied. Trust is an important aspect of partnering but how is it to be dealt with? Perhaps some notion of good faith could be applied. But since there is no general principle of good faith its application to partnering agreements will have to rely on the extension of existing rules and principles. The force of the argument will, in part, depend on the strength of the analogy. So again you would have to: • Identify and analyse the problem. • Indicate how the problem might be

solved. • Frame a research question or hypothesis • Show how the concept works in other

contexts and explain its relevance for the problem you are examining.

• Point to the differences in applicability and

make a case for applying some form of the concept to your problem.

• Come to a view about the strength of the

analogy and thus your argument. Problem Solving Problem solving in this context is about finding a specific solution to a problem not merely making a contribution to its resolution. For example, the Arbitration Act 1996 was designed to reduce litigation within the construction industry. In recent years, however, litigation has been increasing as parts of the Act have been by-passed. Your aim would be to fix the Act so that its original purpose could be realised. What this approach would involve, therefore, is: • Identification and analysis of the problem. • Framing a research question or

conjecture - not a hypothesis in this case because the domain of applicability is in the future.

• Analysis of the problem. • Framing of proposed solution. • Demonstration of how the solution would

work and why it would solve the perceived problem.

• Come to a view about how adequate this

solution would be. Trends A trend tracks the movement of a variable over

time: for example, the number of labour-only-subcontactors in the industry. Now while this is interesting in itself researchers are more usually interested in where a trend is going. This involves extrapolation - on the basis of current trends what can we say about future possibilities? This is a difficult and uncertain art. Forecasts of future trends, therefore, have to be treated with a considerable degree of caution. Using this method of research would involve you in: • Identifying and analysing the problem. • Framing a research question, conjecture,

or hypothesis. • Presenting, analysing and discussing the

data related to the problem. • Discussing how the trend may progress.

Typically this would involve a number of ‘what if’ scenarios.

• Coming to view about the mostly likely

outcomes. Experimentation An experiment is a controlled attempt to determine the nature of causal relationships. It can take a number of forms: a real time experiment; a prospective design which looks at the future effects of specified current behaviour or activity; a retrospective design which looks at current effects and tries to determine their past causes. Usually experiments require both ‘control’ and ‘experimental groups’ in order to test the strength of causal relationships. In other words, control groups, structures or spaces serve as the base line against which the experimental intervention of the researcher can be measured. An experiment has to be replicable and produce more or less the same results if it is to have any significance. Some of the factors that need to be taken into account include: • A definition of the problem or issue. • The operationalisation of the problem (i.e.

the formulation of a hypothesis or research question - this could include ‘what if’ type questions).

• Identification of the variables involved. • The design of the experiment. • The performing of the experiment(s). • Analysis and interpretation of the data.

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Experiments can be expensive and difficult to peform. Think carefully about what you want to achieve and whether it is appropriate, do-able, affordable and safe. Modelling In one sense any theory is a ‘model’ of some aspect or other of the real world. ‘Modelling’, however, refers more to the replication of some aspects of real world situations and processes. For example, life-cycle-costing models attempt to selectively capture the key factors that determine expenditure patterns over relatively long periods of time. The importance of such models is only matched by the difficulty of creating ones that work. Again this is not an easy option, but there a number of relatively straightforward steps you can follow: • Firstly, carefully specify those aspects of

the real world you want to investigate. • Secondly, outline the strengths and

weaknesses of existing models (if they exist).

• Thirdly, specify all the relevant factors,

which need to be taken into account. The problem here is that you have to be selective. If you try to capture everything your model becomes unwieldy; if you simplify too much the model becomes useless.

• Fourthly, create the model and give due

weight to the influencing factors. • Finally, run the model and produce

testable results. In the light of the results modify the model as necessary. Run the model again and so on until you think that it is satisfactory.

Modelling is a relatively easy and cheap method of experimentation but it does require a considerable amount of application and hard thinking. Case Studies Case studies take as their subject particular events, processes, techniques, or phenomena that are considered to possess particular significance for the industry or the profession. A few examples: Why was the BPF procurement system developed, how has it worked in practice? Will the Channel Tunnel ever make a profit? Why and how has value management been developed in practices?

Like the other methods there are a number of points you need to consider: • Context. What is the larger context that

the study is operating in? What or who is involved?

• Issues. What are the key issues and main

points of interest in the study? Have they been studied by anyone else?

• Complexity. If the scheme, project or

whatever is large and highly complex how are you going to approach it? Do you have time to deal with the totality, or do you need to concentrate on particular aspects? If so, what are the criteria for that?

• Completeness. Is the case complete? If

not, how will this affect your conclusions? Can you get access to all the information you need? Is it politically or commercially sensitive?

• Lessons learned. What does the study

tells us about how activity, techniques, relationships and so on should be changed as a result?

Take the Channel Tunnel as an example. The context here is the economic environment of the 1980s that encouraged the private sector to take on large-scale projects. Because of the size of the project there were an enormous range of issues. They included, among others, finance, the relationship between client and contractors, safety standards, working practices, inter-professional relationships, management systems, and procurement. This range and its complexity means that you have to concentrate on one aspect, e.g. finance and focus on the issues to be found there. Now that the Tunnel has been operational for a number of years a considerable amount of data is available. It should be possible, therefore, to come to a view about the financial viability of this project. The problem, however, is in deciding whether what has been learned is transferable to other projects. If not then the value of the study becomes very limited. This point is one that needs to be taken into account in all case studies and needs to be carefully assessed before too much effort is expended. Surveys A survey is a method of collecting information from

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people that records their views, feelings, plans and attitudes. The purpose of a survey is to obtain information that can be analysed to show patterns, trends and/or correlation. A survey usually takes the form of questionnaires or interviews or both. But there is more to this than just asking people what they think. In order to conduct successful surveys, you need to: • Decide why you are conducting the

survey • Select a representative sample • Prepare the questions • Distribute and collect the data • Analyse it • Present your findings More information on this, and structured interviews, can be found in ‘Guidance Notes on Conducting Surveys and Interviews’. Comparative Analysis Employing this method allows you to compare and evaluate different and competing techniques/processes/ hypotheses and choose between them. As with other methods you have to set up your analysis very clearly: • Specify the problem area and

demonstrate that there are competing models or hypotheses. If there are a large number of alternatives take some angle which allows you to reduce the field.

• Outline the different competitive models. • Establish and justify the criteria needed to

choose between the competitors. This may include factors such as cost, simplicity, aesthetics, time, quality, the environment, safety, and so on. The list could be extended almost indefinitely so you have to be selective and justify that selection. This, in fact, is the really difficult part not made any easier by the fact that you will have to assign weightings to these different factors.

• Test each of the alternatives against the

criteria which you have created and evaluate the outcomes.

• Draw the appropriate conclusions and make recommendations. But remember, the soundness of your argument here depends crucially on the plausibility of your assessment criteria.

A relatively straightforward example would be a comparison of procurement methods. But why would you want to do this? What is the context and what are the issues? Which of the many methods would you select and why? A way in might be to examine procurement methods from the perspective of the client. The context might be that some procurement methods are acknowledged to favour clients more than others. Your task would be to evaluate this claim. The criteria you establish to make the comparisons would, of course, be linked to the interests of the client. But don’t forget that clients come in all shapes and sizes and this makes the creation of widely applicable criteria that much more complicated. This is no less a demanding task than the other approaches. Not surprisingly, the skills demonstrated in being able to choose between competing alternatives that are all highly regarded. Triangulation This involves the combination of methods that could be used individually to investigate a problem. The robustness of your findings can be assessed by comparing the results produced by the different methods. If the different methods provide similar findings then you can be more confident of your conclusions. On the other hand, if your results are contradictory your conclusions will be more tentative. For example, if you were investigating the likelihood of different forms of contract to cause conflict you might study the contracts (analysis) interview professionals (structured interviews) and conduct a survey (questionnaire). Simply relying on one method might unduly bias your results. This is not an exhaustive list of research methods and you may want to try a different approach. There are lots of possibilities - but if you are having difficulties talk to the dissertation’s supervisor if you have not already been appointed a tutor. Whichever method you choose, make sure that you have clearly specified the problem situation or context. Also make sure that you know what you are trying to achieve and how you are going to do it.

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Writing the Methodology Section

The following provides you with some guidance on how you go about structuring and writing your methodology statement. There is no correct way of doing this but you do need to be able to explain how you have gone about producing your dissertation and why it has a particular structure. In the methodology section of your proposal or introductory chapter you will need to explain and justify your approach and account for the structure of the dissertation, what it contains in what order and why. So, critically evaluate the following student examples of a method statement. Concentrate on the following questions:

• What disciplinary/theoretical frameworks have been employed?

• How has the data been generated?

• Have the methods been justified?

• Does the statement explain and justify the

structure of the dissertation? Student Example 1 The dissertation will begin with an analysis of the claim of the Victorian terrace to heritage status, setting this type of dwelling within the context of what constitutes ‘heritage’. The first chapter will therefore consider whether the Victorian terrace is indeed of significant historical, architectural and cultural value, as the heritage bodies claim, or whether it is, in fact, simply an outmoded anachronism that contributes little of value to 21st-century society; the view propounded by those who support its widespread demolition. This will involve a detailed consideration of the historical and architectural significance of the dwelling type, including an examination of its development, the methods used in its construction, the architectural features it reveals, and its vernacular importance and contribution to local character. It will also involve an investigation of the cultural significance of the terrace, including its links to industry, to settled communities and to the wider social scene of Britain’s towns and cities.

This chapter will also consider whether the terrace is, in fact, part of a dissonant cultural heritage, linked to class struggle in Britain, and whether this is responsible for creating the negative perceptions of this dwelling type that persist into the present day. In effect, this chapter will aim to answer the question ‘is the Victorian terrace worthy of conservation?’ It will take an architectural, philosophical, historical and sociological approach to answering this question and will involve both primary and secondary research. The secondary research will take the form of a review of existing literature to gain an understanding of prevailing views and attitudes, and to chart how these have changed over time. Primary research will take the form of semi-structured interviews to gain an insight into perceptions of the cultural significance of the terrace and its contribution to local character. These interviews will focus on gathering the opinions of those with influence over the future of these houses, namely residents of terraced properties and regeneration professionals. The aim of the research will be to understand better the attitudes affecting, or likely to affect, the future of these dwellings and to determine whether there is convergence or divergence of opinion between practitioners and residents. Having established the attitudes that exist in relation to the heritage status and conservation value of the Victorian terrace it will be possible then to consider its future within this context. The second chapter of the dissertation will look at the issues threatening the future of the terrace, in particular technical issues such as thermal performance and compliance with the new Housing Health and Safety Rating System. This chapter will consider whether it is technically feasible to refurbish Victorian terraced dwellings to standards that meet current Building Regulations and government energy efficiency targets. In effect, this chapter will aim to answer the question ‘is the Victorian terrace capable of

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meeting contemporary needs and building performance standards?’ This will involve undertaking research within a building surveying and construction technology framework to understand better the problems facing this type of dwelling, the current performance levels achieved by this type of building and the implications of refurbishment on future levels of performance. Research for this chapter will involve a desk-based analysis of available performance data and a critical review of current technical literature. It will also involve making site visits to relevant case studies to investigate, first hand, how terraced dwellings around the country are being upgraded and the impact this is having on their long-term sustainability. In visiting these case studies I intend to interview practitioners involved in refurbishment projects to understand how different projects have approached refurbishment and to ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches. Technical feasibility in itself does not necessarily make refurbishment a viable option and this chapter will therefore also consider some of the wider issues surrounding refurbishment that are fuelling the current demolition versus refurbishment debate. This will give context to the discussion of the final chapter. The final chapter of the dissertation will consider the appropriateness of a conservation-led approach to the refurbishment of Victorian terraced dwellings. This will take into account the findings of the previous chapters in order to determine whether such an approach is warranted and, if so, the extent to which it is desirable in practice. This chapter will begin with a philosophical consideration of what constitutes a conservation-led approach to refurbishment, examining conservation principles, degrees of intervention and the theory that underpins such an approach. It will then involve an analysis of the potential benefits of adopting this type of approach to the refurbishment of Victorian terraces followed by a consideration of potential problems and limitations of a conservation-led approach. This will involve reviewing existing literature, visiting and analysing case studies and interviewing practitioners. In particular it will involve a consideration of case studies from earlier phases of conservation-led regeneration to investigate how they have performed in practice and how they have fared over the intervening years, with a view to determining how the original decision to adopt conservation principles has contributed positively or negatively to their survival. Student Example 2

In order to answer this question there must first be an analysis of the scale of the housing shortage in the UK. This chapter will firstly look at the scale of the housing shortage, then the reasons for the housing shortage will be analysed. The shortage will then be looked at with regards to projections as to how many new homes are required over the next twenty years to rectify the housing shortage. This will be done primarily through collecting data of how many new homes are required, including population increase due to migrant influx, higher life expectancy, higher number of divorces, young people staying single for longer and the general birth rate. This information will then be compared to the number of projected houses being built. This chapter will also study research already compiled about the UK housing shortage to analyse whether suggested solutions have already been put forward. Following this there will need to be an investigation into whether house builders in the UK are currently building at their optimum rate. This will be done by conducting a series of interviews with leading UK house builders, and by researching into the amount of land they have available, how many planning applications are currently being processed, and how much work they could theoretically take on at any one time. The primary method of research for this chapter will be interviews conducted with senior employees of the companies in order to find out up to date financial and statistical information about the organisation. Next, an analytical comparison will need to be carried out between traditional housing projects and those constructed using Accelerated Project techniques. This comparison is necessary to ascertain the difference in project lengths and costs between the two methods and to understand why Accelerated Project initiatives have not yet been adopted widely throughout the UK housing industry. The primary method of research for this chapter is to consist of interviews with senior employees involved in projects implementing Accelerated Project Initiatives, to find out where costs and duration are cut from the programme. This form of qualitative research was chosen to gain the most accurate and impartial information possible. The interviews will be conducted using open ended questions to allow the employees to talk freely about the scheme. The responses will however, need to be treated with some caution to prevent bias towards the scheme. The initiative is a new one, and it has been pioneered by one company. However, it consists of a series of new methods of construction and programme shaving techniques. These can be

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broken down and analysed to ascertain the importance of each and the reason for it's use. The collaboration of these techniques is what forms an API project. The implementation of API projects will need to be analysed from the opinion of the main contractor, who will be able to discuss the implications of API project on its staff, as well as the client and the subcontractors. From this information it can be found whether or not the implementation of this scheme on a widespread scale throughout the industry would be feasible, in terms of the effects it has on all stages and job roles involved in the project. This chapter will also analyse the industry perception of methods used in APIs to ascertain their feasible use on a widespread scale. The conclusion will compare the findings of the comparison between the traditional construction approach and the API approach which will then be applied to the UK housing industry projections as a whole. Once it has been ascertained whether house builders are currently building at their optimum rate, the potential advantages of the scheme will be applied to the rate they are working now, and the rate at which they could be working, to find out what gains are possible and whether a significant reduction to the UK housing shortage could be made. The conclusion will also take into account other factors influencing the housing shortage ascertained in the second chapter. Student Example 3 The answer to this question first begins with a relational discussion between subcontractors and main contractors and the industry in which they participate. In turn, this should be compared to the current practice of partnering in order to gauge how the partnered relationship should look and feel. This theoretical basis can then be used to provide the comparative insight into the subcontractors' current views and recommendations for the future of supply chain partnering. The aim of this research is to add to the partnering debate the insight of the subcontracting industry. An attempt was made to ensure the survey sample is both large enough and from an ample selection of trades. Much of the work already done on the subject of partnering is based on single case studies and direct interviews with a small sample of individuals (Bresnen & Marshall, 2002). This is seen has having a negative impact on the level of empirical research currently conducted. The method of this survey utilised a questionnaire designed to elicit responses to both closed and open questions. In using a questionnaire the aim was to create a larger sample than could be

offered by structured interviews. The majority of the questions were closed and based on a Likert Scale (Bell, 2005). This was conducted to ensure that a quantifiable result could be achieved in contrast to much of the anecdotal evidence currently available. The sample was selected to create confidence in the survey results. Clearly, the sample must be knowledgeable of contractor - subcontractor relationships both inside and outside of the definition of partnering. The level of understanding of strategic relationships requires that the respondent is a senior manager or director, thus the survey was addressed at this level. Furthermore, the survey was targeted to those companies currently on supply chain/partnering lists of members of the Major Contractors Group. Two contractors, both part of the Major Contractors Group offered assistance and access to contact details of their subcontract partners. The companies remain anonymous due to ethical considerations. To avoid the results being heavily weighted on the experiences of working for these two companies alone, further businesses were selected from trade body web sites. No connection was made between the survey and either of the contributing contractors or trade body web sites to avoid any implications this may have on the validity of the results. Through the use of both open and closed questioning the research should add to the volume of quantitative and qualitative data on the subject (Wood & Ellis, 2005). Quantitative questions were designed to show the prevalence of supply chain partnering, and through the use of a Likert Scale, an attempt was made to put values to perceptions of cost, value and risk in partnering. The qualitative section involved an open opportunity for respondents to provide further feedback regarding the current reaction to partnering compared to more traditional methods of subcontractor procurement. This provided the platform for answers outside the scope of the closed questions and also provided some further insight, mainly anecdotal, into partnering. The dissertation opens with a discussion of the prevalence, importance and issues of subcontracting. The adversarial history of subcontractor - main contractor relationships will be put into the context of the modern construction industry. The discussion will concentrate on the 'old' by looking at the procurement techniques, payment terms and contractual conditions that resulted in a descent towards the unworkable relationship. Following the analysis of the 'where we were' (or even are), chapter three turns the discussion to the methods proposed by partnering. The concept is explained and analysed from its origins, through

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to a discussion of the key components proposed in the literature. Further to this, the debate on partnering's application is viewed from both sides of the argument in order to highlight the key issues and concerns of the academics and industry insiders. The chapter remains specifically focused on the implication of partnering the supply chain. This discussion provides the requisite knowledge to help decipher the responses of the surveyed companies. The survey results are then described, analysed and discussed in chapter four. The results show how successful partnering is currently perceived from the perspective of a section of the industry so often overlooked. The questionnaire provides results in sections relating to a subcontractor's business processes such as commercial, tendering and health and safety. The further comments and suggestions of the managers and directors provide some interesting and alternative solutions and opinions which are also discussed. These findings, and the evidence built in previous chapters, is then synthesised to offer a number of recommendations. The conclusion of the work will state whether there is an improving perception of partnering from the lower echelons of construction. Without an improved perception at this level the question may remain, why continue at all? Notes

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Using the Appropriate Language in your Dissertation The Abstract

The Abstract

This dissertation is concerned with ...

Identify topic/problem area

The introduction of ... has produced a number of problems The main aim was to explain/analyse/investigate ...

Purpose

The study was based on an analysis of previous research in ...

Sources of information. Basis of argument.

A survey of ... was conducted The research shows ...

Findings

The evidence indicates that ... Significant differences emerged between ... and ... The findings confirm ...

Conclusions

Survey results demonstrate ... The analysis shows that ... Further research is required in order to establish/show/confirm ... Four recommendations follow form this. Firstly…..

Recommendations

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The Introductory Chapter The primary purpose of the Introduction is to specify the problem which is to be investigated; the reason for the research; the solution on offer; identify the issues involved with this; specify the purpose or aim of the work; discuss the work of the writers associated with the chosen research field, i.e. relevant literature; and provide an overview of how your work fits into this research field; explain how the issue is to be tackled, i.e. the methodology. Each of these sections requires fairly specific phrases and terms; these are shown, with examples, below. They can of course be used elsewhere in your work.

Problem Specification

It is quite clear that there was widespread dissatisfaction with the 1996 Housing Grants, Construction

and Regeneration Act.

The problem is how to upgrade listed buildings without undermining their historic value.

The Construction Industry is facing a chronic shortage of skilled labour.

The difficulty in allocating risk is holding up the PFI programme.

The Reason for the Research

... is currently attracting a lot research interest but there is still no agreement.

... has stimulated considerable interest and this has produced ...

Little critical analysis has been devoted to ...

Considerable research has been conducted on ... , but few studies have focused on the following ...

Previous studies have produced contradictory/confusing findings.

However, important questions still remain in relation to ...

Solutions and Issues

There are a number of possible solutions to this problem but…

The solution would seem to lie in a return to previous practices.

Reform of the Act would appear to be the only way forward.

Although there are a number of theoretical solutions to this, there is only one practical alternative.

This solution, however, raises a number of issues.

This solution requires an analysis of a number of economic and managerial issues.

This solution means that a number of measurement issues will have to be addressed.

The Purpose or Aim of the Dissertation

The purpose of the dissertation is to analyse ...

The purpose of the dissertation is to explore ...

The aim of this research is to analyse ...

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The aim of this dissertation is ...

Literature The following phrases present different ways of introducing readers to the relevant literature and authors. The list is not comprehensive. It is suggested that you make a list of your own. Refereed journals are a good source for critical discussions in which work, research or theories proposed or undertaken by different authors or organisations are introduced into an argument.

Introducing The Literature and Making Reference to an Author, or Publication Previous work in this area has indicated that ... Recent studies of ... In related articles it has been shown that ... A number of researchers have found that ... Several investigators have demonstrated that ... ... et al. (19...) have established that ... ... et al. (19...) analysed ... and found that ... Previous researchers have discovered/shown that ... Gorse (1999) suggested… Wood (1999), claimed… Ellis (1989), proposed… According to Nicholas (1992)… It is suggested (Gade, 1999) that … It is claimed (Maor, 1999) ... It was proposed (Norman, 1999)… Nicholson (1999) argued from quite a different perspective, … Evans (1999) countered this argument by suggesting that ... Reports by Johnson (1999) and Hobday (1989) present quite different perspectives on the subject… Jones (1999) makes a clear distinction between the two approaches… In their report Emmitt, Jones and Shaw (1997) proposed… The findings were compared with a study on…. (Nicholls, 1989) Pearce (1997) analysed no less than 600 questionnaires. In a survey conducted by (Rogers, 1987) … Bate’s (1997) study of… New approaches need to be developed (Egan 1998). Johnston (1997) believes that … Bates (1999) describes… Bell (2000) lists no less than x reasons for… Models of communication vary from the specific interactionist ones of ... and ... (1979) to the more general models of ... and ... As Dow (1998, p.23) states (writes, appreciates), “it’s much more to do with hard work than natural intelligence.” Plott and Levine (1977) showed that members who had agenda setting authority could potentially bias a group decision. Questions relating to these taxonomic issues have been addressed in a recent study (Davis et al., 1994). Results of work by Golinski (1998) suggest ... A variety of models (frameworks, research, statements) have been offered (Mayers 1998, Emmitt, 1997) to explain ... Hobday (1999) concludes… As Hobday and Mirowski (1999) have noted… Rahim’s model (1998) clearly defines… Sklar (1998) views this as a positive (negative) contribution. Following Roegen’s (1997) conceptualisation of ... While entering the debate O’Neil (1999) fails (neglects) to address this specific issue. Your Research

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Your Research

This dissertation extends the argument of ...

This dissertation, therefore, focuses on ... aspect of the problem

The dissertation critically examines the views of ...

The dissertation, therefore, explores the ideas of ...

This study builds on the work of ... and attempts to ...

The dissertation evaluates and compares ... Methodology

The Methodology

A comparative evaluation of ... was attempted in order to ...

A number of approaches were involved: firstly ...

A variety of methodologies were employed: firstly the legal issues were considered in the light of case law; secondly ...

The approach taken required the support of survey data.

The argument is then supported by empirical data drawn from a variety of sources. These include ...

The dissertation is organised around the historical development of ... Linking Sections and Chapters

Links

Having examined ... it is now necessary to ...

It can be seen then that ...

It now remains to examine ...

What the above shows is ...

This analysis, therefore, will be deepened/extended in the next section/chapter.

What we saw in the last section/chapter was ...

This section has provided us with ...

Having established ... in the last chapter the aim now is to ...

But how did this develop? Why is it so important? To answer these questions we must now turn to ...

In the next chapter we will see that ...

This chapter will attempt/illustrate/show/indicate/define/assess/evaluate/compare ...

This chapter has attempted/shown etc.

In this section/chapter the question of ... is approached by looking at ...

This will be considered in more detail in the next section/chapter. Try not to overdo it. Don’t force connections when the sense and direction of your work is quite clear.

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The Conclusion It is very important that you are able to come to a view about the evidence you have provided. You also need to show clearly that the conclusions you arrive at are based squarely on that evidence. In addition, you must not introduce any new material.

Conclusion

What the argument shows then is ...

It can be concluded that ...

There are a number of conclusions to be made.

From the evidence it can be concluded that ...

From the evidence it is clear that opinion is divided/confused

The analysis demonstrates/shows/suggests/indicates

What then are we to make of the evidence? Firstly ...

This dissertation has been concerned with the image of the construction industry. What the evidence demonstrates is that ... Recommendations These should follow from the conclusions and suggests where we should go from here in order to address the issues identified in the dissertation.

Recommendations

Given the conclusions a number of recommendations follow. Firstly, … Clearly a number of amendments need to be made to the Act. Firstly, … The recommendations relate to three major areas of concern. Firstly, … The argument points clearly to the need for changes in policy. Priority must be given firstly to ….

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Guidance Notes on Conducting Surveys and Interviews Introduction These guidance notes outline how to conduct a survey, the steps to take and how to analyse the data collected. But note, this is only a very brief outline of what is a very big field so please refer to the further reading list at the end of these notes for more guidance. A survey is a method of collecting information from people about their views, feelings, plans and attitudes. The purpose of a survey is to obtain information that can be analysed to show patterns, trends or correlation. What Surveys Involve A survey usually takes the form of questionnaires and/or interviews. But, there is more to it than just asking people for their views. In order to conduct a successful survey, you need to: • Decide why you are conducting the survey • Select a representative sample of people • Prepare the questions • Distribute and collect the data • Analyse and present your findings Before you launch a full-scale survey you might consider conducting a pilot. This is invaluable as it helps you to measure whether your sample is representative, whether the questions are appropriate and whether you are going to collect data worth analysing. Why Conduct a Survey You need to have clear objectives and know the purpose of your survey. For example, assume that the topic of your research is the evolution of your profession. Now, imagine that you have noticed that value management has become an important issue in the professional journals and papers and that it appears to be linked to future direction of professional practice. It becomes important for you, therefore, to discover the extent to which value analysis is understood and employed in private practices. Discovering this will allow you to draw some conclusions about both the future direction of the profession and its ability to adapt and survive in the face of technical change and competition from other professionals. Surveys, then, should provide answers to the following types of question: • What is going on? • Where is it happening? • When did it start? • Why is it happening?

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• How is it working? • Who is involved? • How many believe this or that? But remember surveys are only one source of information and they cannot provide you with all the information you need for your dissertation. It is important, therefore, that you combine surveys with other sources of information to back up your results. These information sources may, for example, be other surveys or articles covering the area of study. In order to gain a deeper insight into the issues involved you may decide to do follow-up interviews with a smaller sample of your respondents. See the section on structured interviews for information on how to go about this. Sampling The first thing to decide on is your target sample. There are many to choose from - local organisations and national organisations; colleagues in the field and professionals from other disciplines; small, medium and large firms; private and public companies; domestic and foreign institutions and so on. The sample will be determined by the aims of the survey but you need to ensure that you get a representative sample. A representative sample is one that includes a cross-section of the wider community of a specific group. The ideal is to get a true random sample, but in small-scale research this is not always possible because of lack of time and finding suitable respondents. However, you must clearly state how and why you selected the sample you did and indicate the restrictions that such a sample will have on your analysis and interpretation. Do not forget that the larger the sample the more confidence you can have in your interpretation of the data because the size of the sample affects the margin of error: the larger the sample the more reliable the results. The following table makes this clear.

Margins of Error given 95% Confidence Intervals for Different Sized Samples with f(0.5)

Sample Size Confidence Int Margin of Error

10 .20 - .80 +/- .30

25 .28 - .72 +/- .22

50 .36 - .64 +/- .14

100 .40 - .60 +/- .10

250 .44 - .56 +/- .06

500 .46 - .54 +/- .04

1000 .47 - .53 +/- .03

2000 .48 - .52 +/- .02

10000 .49 - .51 +/- .01

When the sample represents a significant proportion of the total population then the margin of error is reduced. See Leeds Met Guide Sheet: ‘Estimating the Sample Size Needed for a Survey’ by Paul Marchant - available in the Library. Questionnaire design

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The aim of a questionnaire is to obtain responses that enable you to compare results, to relate one set of answers to another and to demonstrate that there are trends in attitudes, procedures and so on. In order to do this your questionnaire must be well structured and your questions well thought out so that you get the responses that are worth analysing. Therefore you need to: • Group similar types of questions together under indicative headings. • Make the form clear and easy to read; for example, ensure that respondents can move easily from

one question to the next. • Provide easy response formats - if you use check boxes for example space them out so that when

respondents tick them they don’t cover 2 or more check boxes. • Make the instructions clear; for example, are all questions to be answered? Is there a time limit in

responding? Framing of questions In general your questions should be framed in such a way that two people in the same situation would answer your questions in the same way. This means thinking very carefully about the words and phrases you use. Ask yourself - is this a question that will mean the same thing to everyone? Is this a question that people can answer? Is this a question that people will be willing to answer? Bell (1993) provides a useful list: • Be aware of ambiguity, imprecision and assumptions • Don’t put too much strain on people’s memory • Ask questions that you know are within people’s range of knowledge • Don’t ask double questions • Don’t ask leading questions • Don’t ask presuming questions • Don’t ask hypothetical questions • Don’t ask offensive/sensitive questions • Use standard English • Keep questions concrete • Don’t be personal • Be aware of your own bias in framing of questions • Don’t ask questions which don’t help achieve the project’s goals.

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Types of Questions The type of question you ask will determine the type of information generated. a) Structured questions These come in a variety of forms: • Yes / No • Rating scales (rank on a scale 1-5) • Rating scale (continuum - agree totally, agree, not committed, disagree, totally disagree) • List (select any from a list) • Category (e.g. 20-29, 30-39, etc) • Quantity The above are relatively easy to score and interpret but the answers the respondents provide will be effectively limited to the questions you pose. If do not ask the right questions or frame them properly you may not get the information you need. This is why it is important to try out your questionnaire on a small sample of fellow students before you launch the ‘real thing’. b) Open-ended These ask people to provide more information about what they think and why. Clearly, these are more difficult to categorise and therefore make the task of interpretation/generalisation that much harder. They do have some advantage, however, since they permit you to obtain answers that you might not have anticipated. Distributing and Collecting the Questionnaires By and large delivering and collecting the questionnaires personally ensures a higher response rate. If you can’t deliver and collect personally, then you will need to send out a covering letter, explaining who you are, what you are doing and why you would like them to return the completed questionnaire. It is also helpful to include a self-addressed envelope. The important thing here is to make the project sound interesting important and useful to the profession. You are more likely to get a response if you can clearly demonstrate the relevance of what you are doing. Non-respondents: You need to decide how to deal with non-respondents. If you have many these then your analysis may be invalid because you don’t have a representative sample. There may be many reasons why people do not respond, lack of time, lack of interest, on holiday, lost the form and so on, so you can’t make generalisations about this group. You may decide to try again and resubmit the questionnaire. Analysis & Interpretation Once all the questionnaires have been received you need to collate the answers. For this it is useful to design a collating sheet so you can see at a glance the number and type of responses to each question. The analysis will be made simpler if you have already designed your questionnaire so that the response you get make the drawing of comparisons, similarities and differences and the identification of groupings, trends, patterns and items of particular significance that much easier. You must interpret your information and not just describe it. It’s no use saying 30% said yes to a question if you can’t say anything significant about it. This is why you need to ask the right questions. For example, if you are conducting a survey which is going to measure professionals’ understanding of value management then

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you need to test not only their understanding of the key terms but also if they understand the concept in use. The reason for this is that people are often aware of techniques but do not know what they are called in more academic circles. If you do not take this into account you may produce a very misleading analysis about what the profession does and does not know and do. In the above case what you would be trying to do is get enough good quality information that would allow you to identify the knowledge differences and shades of opinion among the respondents. Again, if you have asked the right questions, you will be able to divide them into categories. For example, some of your questions may ask about the size of the organisation, the number and type of employees, the turnover, etc. This will give a framework for interpreting the data. You may also find that in a large organisation certain attitudes prevail, but in smaller organisations because of a different work culture the attitudes are different. Your questions should be able to reveal these differences. Presenting Your Findings Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms are obviously among the most useful and interesting ways of presenting data. Bar charts and histograms, in particular, are useful for displaying broad comparisons, while graphs are good at showing trends. However, don’t use graphical presentations as a substitute for analysis and interpretation. You need to be able to comment critically on your data - it will not speak for itself. The spreadsheet facilities in the Brunswick It Suite will provide you with most of the support you need in order to produce good quality graphics - see Further Reading below. Structured Interviews There are a number of ways in which you can conduct interviews but by the far most useful is one which is structured around predetermined questions which the interviewee has had time to think about. In addition, structured interviews allow you to question people face-to-face. This is a much more sociable thing to do and is often preferred by some people who may well put anonymous looking questionnaires in the bin. So this approach can often be more fruitful than questionnaires, but it has its limitations. While you are able to explore all sorts of avenues and pick up on the unexpected there is a limit in the number of people you will have time to talk to and the ground you can cover. This means that you have to think carefully about why you might want to conduct structured interviews and how the results will fit into your evidential framework. The factors that need to be taken into account in structuring and organising interviews are similar to those of questionnaires: • Select a sample - to be determined by your aims. • Then design your questions - make them open-ended e.g. ‘Why did you introduce life-cycle costing

techniques into your practice?’ rather than closed, as in ‘do you use life-cycle costing techniques?’ which will only elicit a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’. Then try them out on other students, staff or practitioners you may know.

• Do not frame too many questions. You will not have time to get through them all so make sure that

your questions are central to your aims. • Contact potential interviewees (the telephone produces the best results) tell them what you are

doing, why it is important and what sort of questions you have in mind and then seek their assistance. If they agree, make an appointment and send them copies of the questions.

• At the interview remember not rush the interviewee. Give them time to think and answer and perhaps

introduce interesting or novel aspects into the discussion. • Make notes as you go along and then write them up immediately after the interview. If you don’t do

this you will soon forget what was said. • Analyse the results commenting critically on similarities and differences of response across the

group(s) you interviewed. Further reading

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The above is only an introduction to some of the key problems you need to address if you do decide to conduct surveys. For more detailed information consult the following: Hague, P. (1993) Questionnaire Design, Kogan Page. Oppenheim, A.N. (1992) Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. Bell, J. (1993) Doing Your Research Project, Open University. Marchant, P. (1998) Guide to Surveys, Leeds Met Learning Support. Marchant, P. and Fazal, N. (1996) Estimating the Sample Size Needed for a Survey, Leeds Met Learning Support.

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Ethical Issues This is taken very seriously by the university and dissertations will not be accepted without you having completed an ethics release form. You can obtain a form from the school office. It is your responsibility to complete the form and discuss it with your tutor at your first meeting. The overriding concern with ethical issues is that you are honest with people and with the data. What this means in relation to people is that you should: • Inform them about what you are doing. • Obtain their consent to use the

information they provide. • Record accurately what they have to say

and do not distort the information they provide.

• Inform them who your supervisor is. • Offer them feedback. • Respect their privacy and anonymity. • Offer something in return - even if it is only

thank you.

You also have to be scrupulous in the way you handle the data. There are a number of issues you need to address: • Plagiarism - this has to be avoided at all

costs. You must not pass off the work of others as your own - it is dishonest. Acknowledge your sources of information and use quotation marks where necessary.

• Cover all relevant points of view - as well

as those that contradict yours. • Don’t manufacture information, e.g. filling

in questionnaires yourself, or providing the missing numbers in data sets.

Don’t torture the data in order to get a confession - it will probably be worthless.

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Writing the Dissertation Introduction Once you have had the topic title and synopsis accepted you are ready to begin serious research. The first thing you need to do, however, is to draw up an action plan and a timetable for all activities - some time for setbacks is also needed. The action plan should be fairly detailed and identify all the stages required together with a deadline for each stage. In your final year, in negotiation with your supervisor, a series of meetings must be arranged when you present either orally or in writing the next stage of your dissertation. This may be a draft section of the work or a short presentation that would then be discussed. Following each of these discussions write-up the relevant section and hand it in at an agreed time. If you do not do this and instead leave everything until two weeks before the deadline you will have a terrible time trying to find, sort out or even to understand the notes you need. Do bear in mind your own limitations in terms of time and resources. Make sure that if you do require any resources you will have access to them as and when you want them. What to Expect from Your Tutor Support Overall the role of the tutor is to provide you with a support framework. They should be able to advise on the practicalities of your research and may be able to suggest people or groups to get in touch with as well as recommending reading material. If you get into difficulties, it is important that you contact your supervisor - don’t just panic and do not ignore appointments if you are getting behind. Criticism Academically it is your tutor’s role to provide a critical analysis of your work as it develops. This means probing the strength and coherence of your arguments; questioning the validity of the evidence you provide; and scrutinising the logic and structure of your dissertation as it emerges. Your tutor may also extend criticism to syntax and style. You must realise, however, that you will only be offered advice - you will not be told what to do. Assessment Guidance

You should discuss the Assessment with your tutor so that you have a clear understanding of the standards required. Tutorial Meetings You can expect to have regular meetings with your tutor. A meeting, of about twenty minutes, every three weeks or so should be adequate. Because of the way in which your dissertation evolves you may want to modify this as you proceed. In particular, you may find that as you begin to master the material and your confidence increases that you need fewer meetings. Nevertheless, at the end of each meeting you must agree what the next meeting should cover. Range and Perspective Before you start bear in mind that you should aim to produce a dissertation which is interesting to read. There is little point in reiterating what has already been done or said. Some of you will find that others have already covered the area of research you are interested in. The solution is to either provide new information or present existing information in a new light provided by your own insights. One of the most difficult aspects in writing a dissertation is coping with the material. From your preliminary reading you will already be aware that there is either a lot of information already about your topic or that there is very little. If there is a lot of information you will need to be selective, maybe you need to narrow your topic down so you can give a more in-depth analysis; where there is little material you may have to broaden it out to give your topic some meat. Your supervisor will be able to help you here. Either way you will need to spend some time just thinking and reading; discussing your topic with both your supervisor and fellow students is useful at this stage as it helps to clarify your thoughts. Where your dissertation involves some action research (e.g. questionnaires or interviews) you need to set these up very early on. See previous section. Active Reading and Note Taking

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When you start reading you should actively interrogate the material (see Analysing an Article, for more details on this.) and ask yourself: • Is it relevant - you can quickly discover

this by skim reading. • Who has written it, what is their

background, experience, attitude etc. • What do I hope to get out of this

chapter, journal article or whatever. • What are the main arguments; are they

adequately supported by the evidence. • Does it make unsupported assertions

or invoke authority figures to make its case.

• Is it biased or too limited in scope or

poorly argued. • Generally how good/poor/useful is it for

yourself or later researchers. While you are doing this: • Make notes - preferably after you have

read a section. • Do not copy large sections - quote

sparingly. Quoting should only be used to provide startling or particularly interesting examples or illustrations; it does not replace your own summary of other peoples’ ideas.

• Summarise in your own words - this will

aid understanding. As you comment on others’ work or summarise the pros and cons of others’ arguments, make sure that your summary of their ideas is sufficiently adequate to justify your own commentary on it.

• Keep references of all the articles, books

etc you used. This really is very important. If you fail to keep proper records you will waste enormous amounts of time trying to locate references at a later date. The accuracy of your bibliographical referencing is part of the overall assessment so be warned.

Writing up It is important that you write up each stage as you

complete it. This is crucial for a number of reasons: • Writing it up while it is fresh in your mind

makes it easier to do. • It helps to clarify each section and

prepare the ground for the next stage. • It allows your supervisor to check that you

are keeping to the timetable and that you are keeping to the point!

• It gives you time to draft the content and

then spend time refining your style!! • The sooner you start writing the sooner

you will get feedback and this is more important than all the guides you may be given.

Always keep your synopsis to hand when writing up - this helps to remind you of the aim or purpose of the dissertation and prevents you from being side tracked. As you are writing remember that you are writing for an audience. Given that your work may be read, largely but not exclusively, by future students you may want to write for their level of understanding. Alternatively, you might want to appeal to professionals in the field, but always have an audience in mind, as it will help you to achieve the right level of content and style. You can, of course, make assumptions about what your prospective audience will already know. This will avoid long textbook explanations of fairly simple technical matters. It will also give you the space to develop your ideas and to intellectually challenge your intended readership. The order in which you write your material is important and requires thought. You will be tempted to write the introduction first and work your way through to the final chapter: don’t! The Introduction and the Abstract should be written last when you know finally what you have said and what you have done. As you progress in your research you may find that you decide to ignore certain questions you previously thought important and develop others. If you have already written the introduction you will have to go back and change it and that is a complete waste of time. Obviously, the conclusion and recommendations should obviously be written after the main body of the dissertation. Very importantly, before you begin to write up anything make sure that you have a plan and methodology for each of the chapters as well as their chapter headings. You may change

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them later but you do need a clear overview of how the work is likely to shape up and how each chapter is related to the other.

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Writing the Dissertation - Common Problems Writing a polished and persuasive piece of work requires accuracy and attention to detail. In what follows a number of problem areas have been identified which cover the meaning of some key terms, style, and some aspects of grammar. The errors and mistakes seen below are quite common in both spoken and written English. In written English, however, where you may not be physically present to correct any errors, these problems can lead to confusion and misunderstanding. They also have an irritating psychological impact on the reader. Pay attention to these issues and you will improve your grades. General 1. The terms hypothesis and research

question are often and incorrectly used interchangeably. A hypothesis is not a question: it is a testable claim (i.e. an educated guess) about how some aspect of the world works. For example, ‘PFI is more cost effective than traditional procurement routes’, is a hypothesis that can be tested. The aim of the dissertation would be to establish whether this claim is valid.

A question, on the other hand, makes no claim about the way of the world, rather it seeks an explanation. For example, ‘Why is the BPF form of contract rarely used?’ The purpose of the dissertation would be to discover why this is the case.

2. The difference between an aim and an

objective is often confused. The aim of a dissertation is to test out some hypothesis or to find the answer to some research question. Individual objectives are important points that are made on the road to that final gaol. They form the substance of the chapters.

3. The term theory is widely misunderstood.

In science a theory is not an arbitrary set of ideas - as in ‘oh, that’s just a theory’. A theory is a coherent well-founded set of ideas that explains some physical, social, economic or cultural phenomenon. For example, the laws of gravity are theories

that account for the motion of bodies in space; natural selection is a well-established theory which accounts for evolution.

4. The term prove is problematic. In

axiom-based systems, like mathematics, it is generally possible to prove statements such as 2+2=4. In the physical and social sciences knowledge is more tentative and provisional. It is not possible to establish the absolute truth about some state of affairs. Depending on the quality of the evidence, we have varying degrees of confidence in the knowledge we produce. So, in your dissertation do not state that your aim is to prove x, y and z.

5. The difference between the title of your

dissertation and your hypothesis or research question. These are not the same. The title is brief (no more than seven words) and is supposed to capture the essence of the dissertation - it does not have to form a sentence. The hypothesis or research question is a more specific and will be presented in the form of a sentence.

Style 6. One sentence paragraphs. Do not write

one-sentence paragraphs. There are a few of reasons for this. Firstly, the purpose of a paragraph is to introduce and develop an idea and provide some link to the preceding or following paragraph/idea; generally, at least three sentences are needed if a paragraph is to do its job properly. Secondly, an isolated sentence usually belongs to the preceding or following paragraph. Thirdly, isolated sentences makes the text read like a set of notes.

7. The use of italics. As a rule never use

italics except to put stress on a word or phrase in a sentence or to highlight the

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title of a book in a reference or to employ a foreign word or phrase. There is quite widespread and indiscriminate use of italics for quotations which is completely unnecessary. It is difficult to read and hence very irritating for the reader - so don’t do it.

8. Quotations are frequently mishandled.

As a rule never separate a quotation from a paragraph if it is about forty words or less. This allows the rhythm of the paragraph to be maintained. If it is more than forty words then separate it from the paragraph, indent it and present it with single line spacing. The reason for quoting so much would have to be justified in terms of the nature of the argument, striking language or other special quality that the quotation possesses. Generally, don’t use quotations unless they are significant. It is better to use your own words as far as possible - see Quotations and Plagiarism for examples of this.

9. Phrases and clichés to avoid. What

these terms signify, if anything, is found after them.

• and stuff (among other things) • at the end of the day (ultimately) • at this moment in time (now) • do the business (appropriate) • due to (owing or payable, it does

not mean ‘because’) • forward planning (planning) • go-for-it (try to achieve) • into the 21st Century (be more

precise, decide exactly what it is you are trying to say)

• in the new millennium (ditto) • kick-start (start) • noun+situation (this is a

pointless expression as for example in ‘a profit situation’ - don’t use it)

• meaning or meaning that

(which means that) • out there (there, somewhere)

• pear-shaped (went wrong) • players (players are found in a

game not in business so use participants, representatives or interested parties instead)

• pre-book (book or book in

advance) • pre-pay (pay or pay in advance) • pre-planning (planning) • proactive (initiate) • re-invent the wheel (waste time) • rocket science (difficult) • take a look at (never ever use

this term - be more precise, use examine, study, analyse etc.)

• take-on-board (recognise) • the reason being (never ever

use this term - the reason is) • today’s+noun (this is also

pointless as, for example, in ‘today’s construction industry’)

• up-to-speed (competent) • up-for-it (willing)

10. Referring to the dissertation. Often

students refer to their dissertation as ‘this paper’ or ‘this report’ because they have seen it in other dissertations. This is incorrect. You are not writing a paper for a journal and you are not writing a report for an employer but a dissertation for your degree.

11. Referring to the writer of the

dissertation. Research is a collective effort and your work is supported by that of others. Therefore, keep the personal and authorial out of it. So instead of writing ‘in this dissertation I am arguing that...’ or ‘the author is arguing that’, write ‘in this dissertation it is argued that...’

12. Referring to previous points. Try and

avoid clumsy phrases such as ‘as said before’, ‘as before mentioned’, ‘as earlier stated within this chapter’, and so on. Instead use ‘as noted above’, ‘as we have

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seen’ or ‘as stated earlier’. 13. Gender. There is no excuse for using ‘he’

when both ‘he’ and ‘she’ are indicated. However, the use of ‘s/he’ is inelegant. The best strategy is to form the plural.

For example:

The architect always wants to be project manager. He tends to think that he is ideally suited for the role.

This can be rendered gender neutral very easily:

Architects always want to be the project manager. They tend to think that they are ideally suited for the role.

14. Tense. Write your dissertation in the

present tense, as in: this dissertation is an examination of …

15. Sentence length. Vary the length of

sentences. This makes it easier to read and allows you to alter emphasis and tell your story more effectively. Avoid very long sentences.

16. When to write numbers. Starting a

sentence with a numeric is not acceptable. For example, ‘7 years ago a number of promises were made to the British people.’ The sentence should begin, ‘Seven years ago...’

Grammar 17. When to use number and amount and

less and few. Number is used with countable nouns, amount is not. So, you cannot have an amount of people or an amount of houses only a number of people, or a number of houses. An amount of timber is correct.

Few(er) is used with countables, less with uncountables. So, ‘Less people will be living in Leeds in ten years’ time’ is incorrect and should read ‘Fewer people will be living in Leeds in ten years’ time. ‘There is less money in circulation’ is correct.

18. Commas, semicolons, colons. This

appears to be a major problem for most people not least because commas, for example, have many different functions. In general, keep it simple and use as few

commas as is possible without distorting the meaning of a sentence. What follows, adapted from The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage, are some examples of how these grammatical tools may be used.

Commas:

a) Use commas to separate adjectives that come before the noun which they describe, as in: a simple, geometric design; a warm, red colour.

b) If two or more adjectives are joined by and, but or or there is no need for a comma, as in:

He led a timid and lacklustre government.

It was a comprehensive but dull introduction.

No good or useable materials … .

c) Where a number of words or phrases are run together, commas should be used before the conjunction, as in:

They included economic, financial, and managerial factors.

She was politically astute, economically competent, and socially effective.

d) Insert a comma before the conjunction that joins main clauses. The comma introduces a brief, natural pause, as in:

What we have is economic growth through credit, and consumers shoulder the burden.

The growing volume of output, and the increasing profitability of firms was unexpected.

e) In a sentence a clause may appear as an aside, so surround it with commas, as in:

The new Act, which was the result of prolonged consultation, still failed to resolve the main issues.

Public transport, long neglected by successive governments, is now having a negative impact on the economy.

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f) However and moreover. These words need to be followed by a comma when they begin a sentence. When the first two words are found in a sentence they should be surrounded by commas, as in:

Moreover, it was not for the want of trying.

It appeared to be a good argument, however, it contained a serious error.

g) Used to avoid ambiguity, as in:

In the graph below, the data presentation is ambiguous.

Semicolons:

The strength of a semicolon lies between a comma and a full stop. A semicolon generally separates clauses which go together and have about the same importance. In long sentences it is used as a pause. It is also used in paragraphs to separate the items of a list. For example:

Natural philosophy was the old name for science; it is still preserved in the titles of some university departments.

Stylised facts, created to suit a hypothesis, are not merely inadequate, they are almost always not facts at all; their effect is to mislead.

There were three people present: the site manager; the engineer; and the architect.

Colons:

We saw above that where clauses are more or less balanced or equal a semicolon is used. Where one thing leads to another or where there is some progression, then a colon is used. For example:

Moreover, he was an easy target for his critics: he was often hostile and perverse, and typically remote and withdrawn.

But that was only the first part of the argument: what came next was far more powerful.

They are also used to introduce examples, as shown above.

19. Beginning a sentence with and or but.

There seems to be a very widespread belief that this is not allowed. But this is not so! And I’ll show you why. These words are used to maintain continuity in a passage, to express surprise, or to emphasise a point, as in:

And some fundamental parts of science have been deduced from untestable or false premises.

And one more point needs to be made.

But how else will they survive the recession?

20. Who and whom. These are pronouns

and they stand in for nouns. The difference between who and whom is best brought out through examples.

There were six professionals at the party, all of whom (object of professionals) were surveyors.

There were six people at the party, but who (indirect question) were they?

These were officials for whom (object of officials) it was of no concern.

Who (question) does it really concern?

There were six of them, who (linked to previous individuals or groups) would go to Torquay every year.

21. Its. Notice that there is no apostrophe

inserted into this possessive adjective. For example: The dog and its big bone. Britain and its tourist industry are expanding.

It’s on the other hand means either it is or it has and nothing else. For example: It’s about time we left means It is about time we left. The confusion surrounding these words is so great that it would be better never to use the apostrophe and always write the words in full.

22. The use of abbreviated terms - i.e.

(id est) and e.g. (exempli gratia).

i.e. means ‘that is to say’. In other words, saying the same thing in a different way. It is usually preceded by a comma and whether it is followed by one or not depends on the sense of the sentence. Generally, the phrase should be written out in full and only abbreviated if the sense of the sentence requires little

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additional amplification. While it is permissible to begin these definitional notes with i.e., such practices are not allowed in the writing of a dissertation.

e.g. means ‘for example’. It indicates that you are going to provide a concrete example to illustrate your point. Again, it should only be used in its abbreviated form where the sense of the sentence requires only a simple, single illustration. Where written in full at the start of a sentence is should be followed by a comma. Where it is found in a sentence then it should be surrounded by commas. Don’t begin any sentence in your dissertation with e.g. or E.g.

23. The difference between practice and

practise. Practice is a noun, as in: the dental practice was located on the edge of the town. Practise is a verb, as in: she would practise the piano every day.

24. When to use affect and effect. The

words can be used as verbs and nouns. As a verb affect means to have an influence on, to act upon, to infect, to aim at, to concern. For example:

The laws mainly affect (are aimed at) the elderly.

The policy will not affect (influence) the way pensions are delivered.

Note: Do not use affect as a noun.

As a verb effect means to bring about, to cause, to produce, to result in, to accomplish. For example:

The drug may effect (bring about) a change in your personality.

Such a strategy will not effect (secure) his election.

The bribe effected (resulted in) his release.

As a noun effect means the result of an action, the impression produced, reality, goods (possessions). For example:

The effect (result) of his intervention was calamitous.

The effect (impression made) was moving.

In effect (reality) this was the only way to

do it.

All their worldly effects (goods) were stolen.

Presentation 25. Lists. Students frequently produce lists

without any real explanation and which serve no useful purpose. Before you insert a list into your dissertation ask yourself, what is it for? Lists cannot speak for themselves, they cannot say why the list has a particular order, or which items in the list are more or less important - that is your responsibility. Once you begin to approach lists in this way you might find yourself writing a paragraph about each item - the list then becomes redundant. Try and avoid unexplained lists. And do not forget that you writing a dissertation and not a report. This means that the emphasis must be on producing a more or less continuous narrative.

Here are a couple of examples of utterly pointless lists. Student Example 1 “The origins of Asbestos Asbestos (Greek meaning ‘unburnable’, ‘unquenchable’, ‘inextinguisable’) is a naturally occurring silicate mineral rock that is mined in asbestos quarries (Tolley’s, 2003). One of the many misnomers associated with asbestos is that many people believe it to be a man made substance when in fact it the complete opposite. Asbestos is a collective term to describe a family of several types of silicate mineral rock, of which six distinct groups have been identified: Amphibole Group • Actinolite

(Never Commercially Significant) • Amosite

(Commonly known as “Brown” asbestos) • Anthophylite

(Never Commercially Significant) • Crocidolite

(Commonly known as “Blue” asbestos) • Tremolite

(Never Commercially Significant) Serpentine Group • Chrysotile

(Commonly known as “white” asbestos) The three main types that the industry come into

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contact with have been renamed brown, blue and white by the Asbestos Industry (as defined above and from now on within this dissertation) whilst the other three where never commercially significant and never used within construction industry.” A lot of the above is unnecessary and repetitive. It could be rewritten as follows: The Nature of Asbestos Asbestos is not, as many people believe, an artificial substance: it is in fact a naturally occurring fibrous mineral of which there are many types. Generally, asbestos can be organised into two groups: the amphiboles and serpentines. They both contain commercially significant varieties. In the former is found amosite (brown asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos); in the latter chrysotile (white asbestos). Student Example 2 “The DDA A broad range of disabilities are covered by the Act: • Sight impairment • Hearing impairment • Physical/mobility impairment • Mental ill health • Learning disabilities There is no point in this list. It can be rewritten as follows: The Act covers a broad range of disabilities which include sight, hearing, and physical impairment, as well as mental and learning disabilities.

26. Graphs. Make sure that your graphs do not get in the way of your data. Too many different kinds of presentation can be confusing. Keep it simple and don’t forget to cite the source of your information at the bottom of the graph.

27. Appendices. Do not overburden the

dissertation with appendices. The results of questionnaires, for example, should not be included. They should of course be available for your tutor to examine.

28. Numbering of chapters and sections.

Apart from numbering the chapters there is no need for you to number anything else. Do not number subheadings and try not to use too many of them. The practice is common and useful in reports but not in a dissertation. Under no circumstances should you number the bibliography.

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Layout & Presentation 1. Binding At your discretion the dissertation can either be professionally bound and lettered or well presented in a comb binding. You are recommended to submit two hard-bound copies. 2. Lettering The outside cover should bear the title of the dissertation and the name of the University and the month and the year. If professionally bound, the spine should bear your name, the course title and the year (and nothing else). The layout should be as follows: Spine Outside Front Cover

TITLE OF DISSERTATION

Leeds Metropolitan University Month Year

NA

ME

Course Title

Year

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3. Format • The dissertation must be typed; • A4 paper (210x297) is required - weight optional but not lighter than 80g/m2; • Line spacing should be one-and-a-half except for the Abstract, indented quotations or foot/endnotes,

where single spacing should be applied. • Margins: left approx. 40mm all others approx. 20mm • Pages should be numbered consecutively. Page 1 (Arabic numeral) is the first page of the first

chapter. Preceding pages that include the Abstract, Acknowledgements and Contents pages should be numbered with lower case Roman numerals. Page numbers should be bottom centred.

• Chapter headings should be followed, on the same page, by the text of the chapter. • The title page, which should be preceded by a blank page, should be set out as follows:

TITLE OF THE DISSERTATION

BY

(INSERT  YOUR  NAME  HERE)

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

BSc(Hons) (insert your course title here)

Leeds Metropolitan University Month Year

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4. Abbreviations Abbreviations should be those in common use or recognised in accredited journals. If you use specialised abbreviations a page must be included describing the precise meaning of the abbreviations used. 5. Additional non-standard materials These should be included in special ‘wallets’ or ‘pockets’ at the end of the dissertation. Professional binding firms will give advice on how this should be organised. 6. Copies You must present TWO copies of your dissertation to the School Office on the specified date. One copy will be returned to you after the relevant Examination Board. At the same time you must also submit and electronic copy of your dissertation.

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Assessment Dissertation Assessment In the interests of fairness and comparability a certain measure of uniformity has been imposed on the structure and format of dissertations. This does not mean that you are exclusively restricted to the above but if you wish to be innovative you must negotiate this with your supervisor so that an adequate basis for assessment can be established. Criteria for Assessing Dissertations Set out below are the factors that guide the assessment of dissertations. As you can see high regard is given to clarity of argument, knowledge of the field and analytical rigour. It is also quite clear why some work is considered to be unacceptable: lack of structure, a disorganised or poorly framed argument, description rather than analysis, superficiality and poor presentation.

ASSESSMENT COMMENTS

ABSTRACT

The topic area has been identified. The issue / problem / phenomenon giving rise to the research has been explained. The aim of the dissertation has been made clear. The type of information and form of analysis, that the argument is based on, has been identified. The main findings (the evidence) have been presented. The main conclusions have been stated. The recommendations can be seen to follow from the conclusions.

10

PROBLEM / ISSUE SPECIFICATION

A clear account of the problem giving rise to the research. Demonstrates knowledge of alternative ways in which this problem could be tackled or resolved. Explains which of these alternatives is to be investigated. Identifies the issues that this approach gives rise to (these issues would form the basis of chapters within the dissertation). The aim of the research is clearly specified.

4

LITERATURE REVIEW

The introduction provides a structured overview of the field that includes type, breadth and depth of material and the issues addressed by key authors. The review builds a structured argument around these authors that reflects the introduction. The weaknesses in the literature are identified. The conclusion to the review states where the dissertation will stand in relation to previous work

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and clearly shows how the stated research question or hypothesis has emerged from the literature. The question or hypothesis is seen to be challenging.

6

METHODOLOGY

Provides an introductory statement about the theoretical perspectives being employed. Identifies and justifies the research methods that are appropriate for the generation of relevant data. The structure of the dissertation is very clear and well justified.

5

ARGUMENT AND EVIDENCE

The structure of the argument is clearly identified. The argument is coherently and validly sustained throughout the dissertation. Weaknesses in the argument are acknowledged through critical evaluation of the evidence. The evidence is clearly seen as relevant to the argument.

40

The Conclusion restates the aim and the research question/hypothesis. The significance of the evidence is made clear. For example, ‘Firstly, the evidence suggests that… Secondly ...’ There is an overall assessment of what the evidence means for the question/hypothesis?

15

The recommendations are based on the conclusions. For example, ‘Given these conclusions a number of recommendations follow. Firstly, the government should …’ The number of recommendations is approximately the same as the number of conclusions.

5

REFERENCING AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Accurate use of the Harvard System. See Quote / Unquote and Dissertation Module Booklet for details on how to do this properly. Bibliography alphabetically arranged without bullet points or numbers.

5

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PRESENTATION

Fluently written: concise and accurate. Attention has been paid to grammar and spelling. No unnecessary use of quotations. Graphical material is well presented and where possible created for the dissertation. Visually attractive.

10

OTHER COMMENTS

% MARK

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Bibliography There is a wealth of material available which will help you through your dissertation. Books, study packs and computer based resources exist to guide you in the selection of a research topic, the production of a literature review, the choice of methodology, the collection of data, and the writing up of your findings. Books There are very many texts on how to do, survive and write your dissertation. A few are listed below together with comments on their approach and a description of their contents. Most of these books are available in the University Library. Bell, Judith (1993) Doing Your Research Project, Open University. Subtitled ‘A guide for first-time researchers in Education and Social science’, this book has wide appeal and covers the planning of a research project, keeping records and reviewing literature. It also examines different methods of data collection such as documentary evidence, questionnaires, interviews, diaries, and observation studies. A final section explores the interpretation of evidence and the writing up of a project. It has an extensive bibliography which provides resources for a more detailed examination of research processes and procedures. Berry, R. (1995) The Research Project: How to Write It, Routledge. Good guidance on choosing a topic, getting the best out of a library, preparing a bibliography, taking notes, keeping records and how to compose an academic paper. Phelan, P. and Reynolds, P. (1996) Argument and Evidence, Routledge. The authors ask ‘how do we know whether or not an argument is incomplete? what counts as evidence? how does one make reliable estimates when the evidence is incomplete?’. In answering these questions they take the reader through the nature of formal and informal arguments, the

grounds for belief and statistical analysis. Rudestam, K. E. (1992) Surviving Your Dissertation, Sage. Examines the structure and content of the dissertation and the process of producing it. Introduces quantitative and qualitative (and other) research methods. ‘Content’ takes the reader through the statement of the research problem, the literature review and methodology. It also offers advice on the presentation of data. ‘Process’ includes a section on writing the dissertation, using computers and common ethical concerns. Creswell, John W. (1994) Research Design, Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Sage. The introduction discusses the focus of a research project, the choice of approach and format. Other chapters deal with the literature review, providing a rational for the research, the framing of hypotheses and the use of theory. It also deals, in detail, with the methodologies employed by quantitative and qualitative analysis. Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., Tight, M. (1997) How to Research, Open University. This is an excellent all round introduction to research. WEB SITES There is a mass of material available via the University’s Web site. http://skillsforlearning.leedsmet.ac.uk/local/research/category_homepage.shtml One of your first tasks as researchers is to become very familiar with this site. Electronic access to most of the journals the University subscribes to can be found at Library Online: Quick Access to Resources Another useful site for developing search skills is: http://www.vts.rdn.ac.uk/

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Dissertation Checklists

THE ABSTRACT

Has the topic area been identified? The issue / problem / event / phenomenon giving rise to the research needs to be made clear.

Has the aim of the dissertation been made clear?

Has the type of information, that the argument is based on, been identified?

Have the main findings (the evidence) been presented?

Have the main conclusions been stated? That is: What does the evidence suggest?

Recommendations. Do these follow from the conclusions?

PROBLEM SPECIFICATION

Is there a clear account of the problem giving rise to the research?

Is it shown how this problem could be tackled or resolved? Where applicable are alternatives solutions highlighted?

Have the issues, that the chosen solution gives rise to, been identified (these issues would form the basis of chapters within the dissertation)?

Has the aim of the research been specified?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Does the introduction provide an overview of the field that includes type, breadth and depth of material and issues addressed in the literature?

Does the review build a structured argument (around what the authors have to say) that reflects the introduction?

Have the weaknesses in the literature been identified?

Does the final paragraph state where the dissertation will stand in relation to previous work and does it clearly state the research question or hypothesis?

Have island of information and unnecessary lists and quotations been avoided?

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METHODOLOGY

Does it provide an introductory statement about the theoretical perspectives being employed?

Does the introduction identify the research methods that would be appropriate for the generation of relevant data? The reasons for using these methods should be given later.

Has the structure of the proposed dissertation been made clear?

Has the structure and approach been justified? This means justifying the order of the material and the methods employed (for example, explain why a questionnaire has been used and not interviews).

Have the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen methods been discussed? For example, if questionnaires have been used how good is the sample and how large is it, what type is it?

ANALYSIS: THE EVIDENCE

Is the relevance of each chapter made clear?

Is the relevance of the content of each chapter apparent?

Has the evidence been thoroughly interrogated? Are the strengths and weaknesses of the evidential material identified?

Are the gaps or weaknesses in the argument adequately discussed?

Have unsubstantiated generalities been avoided?

Is the discussion sufficiently grounded in the real world?

As the argument develops, has the relationship between the chapters been made clear?

SYNTHESIS: THE CONCLUSION

Has the aim of the dissertation and the research question/hypothesis been restated?

Are we told what the evidence means? For example, ‘Firstly, the evidence suggests that… Secondly, …’

Is there an overall assessment of what the evidence means for the question/hypothesis?

Does the Conclusion successfully close the argument?

Is the Conclusion based squarely on the evidence presented and nothing else?

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THE RECOMMENDATIONS

Are the recommendations based on the conclusions? For example, ‘Given these conclusions a number of recommendations follow. Firstly, the government should…’

Is the number of recommendations approximately the same as the number of conclusions?

PRESENTATION

Has the dissertation been written fluently?

Is it concise and accurate?

Has sufficient attention been paid to grammar and spelling?

Does the dissertation contain a judicious number of quotations?

Is the graphical material well presented and explained? Has it been created for the dissertation?

Overall is the dissertation visually attractive?

REFERENCING AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Has the Harvard System been accurately employed in the text and in the bibliography?

Has the bibliography been alphabetically arranged without bullet points or numbers?

NOTES

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This material has been edited and produced by Marianne Dee with support from Max McMurdo, Sandra McDowell & Mike Berrington.

The Harvard Style of Referencing Published Material Introduction CITING means formally recognising, within your text, the resources from which you have obtained information. BIBLIOGRAPHY is the list of sources you have used. REFERENCE is the detailed description of the item from which you have obtained your information. Why is Referencing Necessary? It is to acknowledge the work of other writers; to demonstrate the body of knowledge on which you have based your work; to enable other researchers to trace your sources and lead them on to further information. For these reasons it is very important that you think of the information needed to cite material correctly when you are carrying out a literature search. Always ensure that you record references to materials you consult precisely. Failing to do so could cause you additional work when you need to incorporate a reference into your bibliography. Without such discipline the ability for researchers to trace relevant information becomes impossible. You would suffer along with all other researchers if limited or partial information was used in research work. A standard system of citing these references ensures an easier system of tracing academic and other knowledge more efficiently. There are a number of systems for referencing but we recommend the Harvard System. The details are outlined in these pages. The bibliography for your piece of work represents the results of your information/literature search and you may wish to discuss your search method in the text of your writing, for example, in the ‘methodology’ section. Why Harvard? This system developed in the USA and grew in popularity during the 1950’s and 1960’s, especially in the physical and natural sciences and more recently the social sciences. Over several decades it has become the most common system internationally and is frequently the standard house style for academic journals. The Harvard system has advantages of flexibility, simplicity, clarity and ease of use both for author and reader. There is no third place to look, such as footnotes and chapter references, which are features of other systems. NOTE: Harvard is NOT necessarily the same as a publisher’s house style. When writing an article for inclusion in a professional journal, you must consult the editor’s notes on style used in the specific publication.

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Citing in the Text The Harvard system of citation is the most straightforward method of acknowledging other people's work, because initially all you need to do is mention the author and date of publication in the text of your work. So, at each point in the text which refers to a particular document, insert the author's surname and publication year.

e.g.

The work of Preece (1994) was concerned to emphasise the importance of quality in social research.

The reader can easily locate the full description of the item you have cited by referring to the alphabetical list of references (or bibliography) provided at the end of your report. The system has the advantages of showing at a glance the authority used, and how recent or contemporary the information might be.

Note the following points: • In the main text, initial letters are only used when two or more authors have the same surname and have

published in the same year, in which case they should be identified by initials in order to avoid confusion. • Use lower case letters after the date if referring to more than one item published in the same year by the

same author.

e.g.

The CBI, which has been very influential in raising the public profile of guidance, has itself adopted three very different positions on this matter: having initially argued that the careers service should be transferred from LEAs to Training and Enterprise Councils (CBI, 1989a) it subsequently appeared to support the notion that it should be led by LEA-TEC partnerships, and then announced that the TECs should not be directly involved in guidance delivery at all (CBI, 1993). There has however been increasing support for the notion of an individual-centred system. It is significant that the CBI, in its report Towards a Skills Revolution (1989b), generally argued the classic liberal case for individual choice in the education training market.

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• If the author's name occurs naturally in the text, the year follows in parentheses.

e.g.

Customer compatibility management emphasises the controllability of customer to customer interaction in the higher education environment (Rowley, 1996). If the customer to customer interaction is good then you will get a return visit. It is the objective of effective customer compatibility management to enhance the service experience. Thus Rowley (1996) asserts that the ethos of the student environment does have an impact on student achievement.

Direct Quotations: If you are giving direct quotations you should identify the page numbers. If details of parts of the document are required e.g. page numbers, track or title numbers of sound recordings, these appear after the date within parenthesis. The abbreviations are: page (p.), pages (pp.), section (s.) or sections (ss.)

e.g.

There is a need to create “stopping off” places in the learning process or what Kornbluh and Green (1989) refer to as “professional encapsulations.” These encapsulations allow individuals time to assess and practise what they have learned, understand it more clearly and decide upon its relevance. “These resting times provide periods for reflection and permit time for new things to be learned, mastered and brought to fruition” (Jones, 1995, pp.122-3).

Multiple Authors: • In the case of three or fewer Authors to a source, list all the names (from the title page of the source)

e.g.

Cutler, Williams, & Williams (1986).

• In the case of four or more Authors to a source, use the name of the first author (from the title page of the source) followed by ‘et al’, or ‘and others’

e.g.

Matlock et al. (1996).

• When more than one reference is given at the same point in the text, they should be listed chronologically.

e.g.

Smith (1958), Brown (1964) and Jones (1992).

Citing in the Bibliography

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The bibliography appears at the end of your work, is organised alphabetically and is evidence of the literature and other sources you have used in your research. The first two elements of your reference, i.e. author and date, constitute the link you made in the text. Thus the reader can move between the text and the bibliography and trace a correct reference. There are three styles in common use as ways to highlight the key element of a reference; they are the use of bold text, underlining and italics. You should use one, and only one, of these techniques throughout your bibliography.

Throughout the associated Web Site, we have used bold text to highlight the key element of each reference. This is because underlined text might be confused with links to other pages, and italic fonts don't always display as well as their non-italic equivalents.

When a document is type-written, underlining is often the only option; it is therefore commonly used in printed materials. It is the technique used in these downloadable files.

When a document is type-set (e.g. a book or journal), the use of italics is frequently preferred.

In order to maintain consistency in your bibliography you should only use the initial letters of the writer's forename(s), even when you have more information. In some cases you may feel that this hides the gender balance of the research base; in such cases it is possible to refer to the writer's full name in the main text.

Book References • You should use the title page (if any) rather than the document cover as your authority. Include the following information, the order is: (1) Author (s), editor(s) or the institution responsible for writing the document. (Note: ed. is a suitable

abbreviation for editor.) (2) Date of publication (in brackets). (3) Title and subtitle (if any). Underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent throughout the

bibliography.) (4) Series and individual volume number (if any). (5) Edition if not the first. (6) Place of publication if known. (7) Publisher.

e.g. Spence, B. ed. (1993) Secondary school management in the 1990's: challenge and change. Aspects of Education Series, 48. London, Independent Publishers.

e.g. Mohr, L.B. (1996) Impact analysis for program evaluation. 2nd ed. London, Sage.

Journal articles When referencing Journals, include the following information in this order: (1) Author of the article. (2) Year of the publication in brackets. (3) Title of the article. (4) Title of the journal, underlined or emboldened or in italics. (5) Volume and part number, month or season of the year. (6) Page numbers of article. • Where author(s) known:

e.g. Bennett, H., Gunter, H. & Reid, S. (1996) Through a glass darkly: images of appraisal. Journal of

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Teacher Development, 5 (3) October, pp.39-46

or

Clarke, T.J. (1995) Freud's Cezanne. Representations, No 52, Fall, pp.94-122.

• Where the article is anonymous:

e.g. How dangerous is obesity? (1977) British Medical Journal, No 6069, 28th April, p.1115.

Newspaper Articles When referencing Newspapers, include the following information in this order: (1) Author of the article. (2) Year of the publication in brackets. (3) Title of the article. (4) Title of the Newspaper, underlined or emboldened or in italics. (5) Date of publication. (6) Page numbers of article. (7)

e.g. Baty, P. (1998) Learners are born, says report. Times Higher Education Supplement, 16th January, p.5.

Exhibition Catalogues • Where there is no author, use the Gallery or Museum.

e.g.

Museum of Modern Art. (1968) The Machine. New York, MOMA.

• It is also the custom to capitalise the names of art movements.

e.g.

Haskell, B. (1984) Blam! The explosion of Pop, Minimalism and Performance 1958-64. New York, Whitney Museum of American Art.

Conferences You should include the following information. The order is: (1) Name of the Conference. (2) Number (if appropriate). (3) Date. (4) Location (if appropriate). (5) Date of publication.

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(6) Title of published work, if different from the name of the conference. This should be underlined, emboldened or in italics, and a consistent style should be used throughout the bibliography.

(7) Author/Editor. (8) Place. (9) Publisher.

e.g.

Conference on Economic Crime, 2nd. 1977. London School of Economics and Political Science, (1980) Economic Crime in Europe. Leigh, L.H., ed. London, MacMillan.

“In” References • A Common mistake is to confuse the name of the contributor to a book of collected writings with that of

the editor. Also used when citing a particular conference paper from the conference proceedings. The order is: (1) Author of Chapter/Section. (2) Date of publication. (3) Title of Chapter/Section. (4) “In” followed by a colon. (5) Author/Editor of collected work (6) Title of collected work, underlined, emboldened or in italics. (7) Place of publication. (8) Publisher. (9) Pagination of section referred to. Book of collected writing:

e.g.

Porter, M.A. (1993) The modification of method in researching postgraduate education. In: Burgess, R.G. ed. The research process in educational settings: ten case studies. London, Falmer Press.

Conference Paper from Conference Proceedings:

e.g.

Fedchak, E. & Duvall, L. (1996) An engineering approach to electronic publishing. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Multimedia Software Development, 25-26 March, Berlin. Los Alimos, Ca, IEEE Comput. Soc. Press. pp.80-8.

Note

The title of the collected work should be highlighted, as that is the information someone needs in order to gain access to chapters within it

Theses and Dissertations • For theses and dissertations, include the name of the awarding institution. (1) Name (2) Year of Publication (in parenthesis) (3) Title and subtitle (if any). This should be underlined, emboldened or in italics. (4) Type of document (i.e. Ph.D. thesis, Degree Dissertation). (5) Place of publication (if not clear from institution name, e.g. Birmingham, University of Central England.)

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(6) Awarding institution.

e.g.

Whitehead, S.M. (1996) Public and private men: masculinities at work in education management. Ph.D. thesis, Leeds Metropolitan University.

British Standards Publications Include the following information. The order is: (1) “British Standards Institution” (2) Date of publication (in parenthesis). (3) British Standard Number and Year (separated by a colon). (4) Title and subtitle (if any). This should be underlined or emboldened or in italics. (5) Place of publication (if known). (6) Name of publisher, which is the abbreviation “BSI”.

e.g.

British Standards Institution (1990) BS5605:1990 Recommendations for citing and referencing published material. Milton Keynes, BSI.

Research Reports. No one example can explain the type and range of reports. However it is important to include the subtitle and series information: 1. Author’s Name. 2. Date of publication (in parentheses). 3. Title and subtitle (if any). This should be underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent

throughout the bibliography.) 4. Research Report No. 5. Place of publication, (if known). 6. Publisher.

e.g.

Mullineux, N. (1997) The world tyre industry: a new perspective to 2005. Research Report 348. London, Economist Intelligence Unit.

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Citing Official Publications

UK Official Publications Non-Parliamentary Publications

e.g.

Department of the Environment.(1986) Landfilling wastes. London, HMSO (Waste Management paper, 26)

e.g.

Department of National Heritage. (1997) Guide to safety in sports grounds. 4th ed. London, HMSO.

Acts

Acts of Parliament are referenced by citing the title and including the Act’s chapter number for clarity.

e.g.

Further & Higher Education Act 1991 (c.13) London, HMSO.

Acts are organised numerically throughout the year. Public General Acts are given Arabic numerals. Local and Personal Acts are given lower-case roman numerals.

N.B. Prior to 1963 a different system operated, based on the date of the Sovereign’s accession to the throne and the dates of the Parliamentary session.

e.g.

Education Act 1944 (7&8 Geo 6 c.31) London, HMSO.

Parliamentary Papers

A range of subjects as well as Select Committee proceedings are covered under Parliamentary Papers. They are organised numerically according to which House they originate from. House of Commons Papers have a serial number printed on the bottom left of the title page.

House of Lords Papers are identified by a serial number in the same place but enclosed within round brackets. Include the following information:- (1) abbreviation of the House - HC/HL (2) Paper number. (3) Parliamentary Session.

e.g.

HC 7 (1990-91)

HL (244) (1984-85)

References to reports issued by Joint Committees of the House of Lords and the House of Commons should include both serial numbers followed by the Parliamentary Session.

e.g.

HL 40, HC 15-viii (1981-82)

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Parliamentary Bills

Parliamentary Bills are organised numerically and according to which House they originate from. Each Bill has a number in the lower left hand corner of the title page. House of Commons Bills enclose the number in square brackets.

House of Lords Bills used to have their numbers enclosed in round brackets but now are designated ‘HL Bill’ followed by a number without a bracket.

References to a Parliamentary Bill should include the following: (1) Parliamentary Session in round brackets. (2) The Bill’s serial number. N.B. A Bill is renumbered whenever it is reprinted during its passage through Parliament.

e.g.

HC Bill (1989-90)[51]

HL Bill (1991-02)27

Statutory Instruments

Include the following information: (1) Title, underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent throughout the bibliography.) (2) The abbreviation “SI”. (3) Year of publication. (4) Number. (5) Place and publisher.

e.g.

National assistance (assessment of resources) regulations (1992) SI 1992/2977. London, HMSO.

Official Reports of Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) Include the following information: (1) Abbreviation of the House of Lords or the House of Commons - HL/HC. (2) The abbreviation “Deb”. (3) Parliamentary Session in round brackets . (4) Volume number. (5) The abbreviation “col”. (6) Column number.

e.g.

HC Deb (1990-91) 195, col.311

HC Deb (1990-91) 195, written answers col.41

HL Deb (1990-91) 529, col.111

Official Reports of Parliamentary Debates in Standing Committees

Include the following information (note that the first three elements should be considered part of the title, and highlighted accordingly):- (1) The abbreviation ‘Stg Co Deb’. (2) Parliamentary Session in round brackets. (3) Standing Committee identifying letter. (4) Title of legislation under discussion. (5) The abbreviation “col”. (6) Column number.

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e.g.

Stg Co Deb (1980-81) Co E Finance Bill col.46

Command Papers

Command Papers are presented to Parliament ‘by command of her Majesty’. There are a number of different types, including - • Statements of government policy — often referred to as ‘White Papers’. • Discussion or consultation documents — often referred to as ‘Green Papers’, but not all Green Papers

are published as Command Papers. • Reports of Royal Commissions. • Reports of Departmental Committees. • Reports of tribunals or commissions of enquiry. • Reports of permanent investigatory bodies such as the Law Commission and the Monopolies and

Mergers Commission. • Treaties and agreements with other countries or international organisations. • Annual accounts.

Command Papers are numbered sequentially regardless of Parliamentary session. The running number and prefix is on the bottom left hand corner of the cover and the title page. The prefix has changed over the years, and you need to be careful in citing this abbreviation correctly. The series of Command Papers published so far have been numbered as follows- 1st series [1]-[4222] 1833-1869 2nd series [C. 1] - [C.9550] 1870-1899 3rd series [Cd. 1] - [Cd.9239] 1900-1918 4th series [Cmd. 1] - [Cmd.9889] 1919-1956 5th series Cmnd. 1 - Cmnd. 9927 1956-1986 6th series Cm. 1 - 1986 - Include the following information: (1) Title. (2) Command Paper number. (3) Year of publication.

e.g.

Royal Commission on Local Government, 1966-1969 (Cmnd. 4040, 1969) London, HMSO.

EC UNION Publications The guidance on citing European Documentation will not necessarily conform to the Harvard system because of the particular methods employed to organise the range of publications. The following is for your guidance only in order to aid some form of consistency. An example of a comprehensive citation for an EC regulation:

Council Regulation (EEC) No 2015/92 of 20 July 1992 amending Regulation (EEC) No 1432/92 prohibiting trade between European Economic Community and the Republics of Serbia and Montenegro (OJ No L205, 22.7.1992, p.2).

COM documents.

COM documents are proposals for new legislation put forward by the European Community. The final versions are only published after much discussion with interested parties - earlier drafts are not generally publicly available.

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Include the following information: • The last two digits of the year in round brackets • The serial number • The word ‘final’ to indicate that it is in fact, the final version and not one of the earlier drafts.

e.g.

Proposal for a Council directive on uniform procedures for checks on the transport of dangerous goods by road, COM (93) 965, final.

Secondary Legislation

Include the following information: • Its institutional origin — Commission or Council. • Its form - Regulation, Directive, Decision. • Its unique number. • Its year of enactment. • Its institutional treaty under which it was made — EEC/EC, ECSC, Euratom. • The date it was passed. • Optional information can include the title of the legislation and a reference to the issue of the Official

Journal of the European Communities in which it was published. Regulations are normally cited with the name of institutional treaty, followed by the legislation number and the year of enactment.

e.g. Council Regulations (EC) No. 40/94 of 20 December 1993 on the Community trade mark

A shorter version would be cited as follows:

e.g.

Council Regulation 40/94/EC

Directives and Decisions are cited by the year of enactment, the legislation number and then the Institutional treaty.

e.g.

Council Directive 90/365/EEC of 28 June 1990 on the right of residence for employees and self employed persons who have ceased their occupational activity.

Commission Decision 94/10/EC of 21 December 1993 on a standard summary form for the notification of a decision to award the Community eco-label.

Shorter Versions would be cited as follows:

e.g.

Council Directive 90/365/EEC

Commission Decision 94/10/EC

Official Journal References

References to the Official Journal should include the following information:- (1) OJ series L (Legislation) C (Communications and Information) S (Supplement) (2) issue number.

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(3) date of issue. (4) page number.

e.g.

OJ No. C311, 17.11.93, p.6

Citing Audio-Visual Sources

Film &Video Guidance for the referencing of videos, off-air recordings and film seems to be fairly relaxed. However it is important to bear in mind the needs of the researchers following you. In the case of audio-visual sources they are not only going to need as much information as possible to trace the recording but they may also need to know the formats if they are actually going to be able to play it back. Where possible quote the format, such as VHS Video; 35mm Film etc.

Film You should include the following information, in this order: (1) Film Title (underlined or emboldened or in italics: be consistent throughout the bibliography.) (2) Date of Release (in parentheses.) (3) Director's name. (4) Place of publication. (5) Production company name. (6) [Medium:Format]

e.g.

Now Voyager (1942) Directed by Irving Rapper. New York, Warner [Film:35mm]

Video

It is important to include the transmission date, especially for series which are transmitted throughout the year. You should include the following information, in this order: (1) Series Title. (2) Series Number. (3) Programme Title, underlined or emboldened or in italics. (4) Year. (5) Place of publication. (6) Publisher. (7) Date of transmission. (8) [Medium: Format].

Off-Air Recording

e.g.

World in Action. (1995) All work and no play. London, ITV, 21st January, [video:VHS]

Business Matters.(1990) Give and take, 2. Meeting to negotiate. London, BBC 2, 17th October, [video:VHS]

Commercial Recording

e.g.

Fragile Earth,5. (1982) South American wetland: Pantanal. Henley on Thames, Watchword Video, [video:VHS]

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Citing Electronic Sources Note Remember that Internet based material may only be available for a short time and hence may not be suitable for referencing. It is advisable to keep a personal copy as evidence that the information existed.

CD-ROMs The citing of information from computer databases varies. If you have, for example, been using a CD-ROM to obtain journal references you only need to cite the journal as your source of information, not the CD-ROM.

e.g.

Royal Institute of British Architects. (1998) Architecture and Design Illustrated. London, RIBA [Multi-media CD-ROM]

If the information you are using is only available as a computer database you should cite it as follows:

e.g. Gray, J. M. & Courtenay, G. (1988) Youth cohort study [computer file]. Colchester:ESRC Data Archive [distributor]

Citing URLs (Uniform Resource Locator/Internet Address) in a Bibliography. There are a number of approaches to citing work from the Internet. We have chosen a style which fits with the Harvard style in order to maintain consistency. The following points should be noted: • Be consistent throughout. Fit with the Harvard style. • Cite enough information for the reader to locate the citation in the future. Occasionally, the URL for an

electronic journal article may be excessively long as it will contain control codes. It is sufficient in such cases to just include enough of the URL to identify the site from where the journal came.

• Many Web documents do give an author. If the information is not explicit you may find it in the header of the HTML encoded text (although that may reflect who “marked up” the document, rather than who actually wrote it.) You can view the header by choosing the option to view document source (a choice available from the view option in Netscape). Otherwise use the title as the main reference point as you would with any anonymous work.

• If a document on the web is a series of linked pages — what is the title of the document? Do you cite the main contents page, or a particular page you are quoting from? This is a grey area.

• You should cite the date the document was last updated if this is apparent, or the date when you accessed it if not.

In Internet addresses punctuation is important and the stops and commas in a bibliographic citation may confuse the reader; hence the common convention of using < and > to delineate the start and end of an URL.

Electronic Journal Articles Include the following information. The order should be:- (1) Author(s)/ Editor(s). (2) Year. (3) Title of Article. (4) Title of Journal, underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent throughout the bibliography.) (5) [type of medium]. (6) Date of publication.

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(7) Volume number (issue number), pagination or online equivalent. (8) Availability statement. Note general points about URLs. (9) [Date of accession if necessary].

e.g.

Smith, J (1996) Time to go home. Journal of Hyperactivity [Internet] 12th October, 6 (4), pp.122-3. Available from: <http://lmu.ac.uk> [Accessed June 6th, 1997]

e.g.

Korb, K.B. (1995) Persons and things: book review of Bringsford on Robot-Consciousness. Psycoloquy [Internet] 6 (15). Available from: <http://wachau.ai.univie.ac/Psycoloquy/95.v6/0162> [Accessed June 17th,1996]

OnLine Images Include the following information, in the following order:- (1) Title of Image, or a description. Underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent throughout the

bibliography.) (2) Year. (3) [OnLine image]. (4) Available from <URL>. Note general points about URLs. (5) Filename including extension. (6) [Date accessed].

e.g.

Hubble space telescope release in the Space Shuttle's payload bay. (1997) [online image]. Available from <http://explorer.arc.nasa.gov/pub/> SPACE/GIF/s31-04-015.gif, [Accessed 6 July 1997]

World Wide Web Documents Include the following information, the order should be: (1) Author/Editor. (2) Year. (3) Title. Underlined or emboldened or in italics (be consistent throughout the bibliography.) (4) [Internet]. (5) Edition. (6) Place of publication: (7) Publisher (if ascertainable). (8) Available from: <URL>. Note general points about URLs. (9) [Accessed date].

e.g.

Holland, M. (1996) Harvard System [Internet] Poole, Bournemouth University. Available from: <http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/service-depts/lis/LIS_Pub/harvardsys.html> [Accessed 22 August, 1997]

Email Discussion Lists Include the following information in the order indicated:

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(1) Author/Editor. (2) Year. (3) Title of message. (4) Discussion list name and date of message, underlined, emboldened or in italics. (5) [medium] — Internet discussion list. (6) Available from: <e-mail list address> [accessed date].

e.g.

Brack, E.V. (1996) Computing and short courses. Lis-link2 May 1996 [Internet Discussion list]. Available from: <mailbase@mailbase.ac.uk> [Accessed 15 Apr 1997]

Sample Bibliography Bennett, H., Gunter, H. & Reid, S. (1996) Through a glass darkly: images of appraisal. Journal of Teacher Development, 5 (3) October, pp.39-46. Conference on Economic Crime, 2nd. 1977. London School of Economics & Political Science. (1980) Economic crime in Europe Leigh, L.H. ed. London, Macmillan. Fragile Earth, 5. (1982) South American wetland: Pantanal. Henley on Thames, Watchword Video, [video:VHS] Holland, M. (1996) Harvard system [Internet] Poole, Bournemouth University. Available from: <http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/servicedepts/lis/LIS_Pub/harvardsys.html> [Accessed 22 August, 1997.] Now Voyager (1942) Directed by Irving Rapper. New York,Warner [Film:35mm]. Porter. M.A. (1993) The modification of method in researching postgraduate education. In: Burgess, R.G. ed. The research process in educational settings: ten case studies. London, Falmer Press. Spence, B. ed. (1993) Secondary school management in the 1990's: challenge and change. Aspects of Education Series,48. London, Independent Publishers. Whitehead, S.M. (1996) Public and private men: masculinities at work in education management. Ph.D. thesis, Leeds Metropolitan University. World in Action. (1995) All work and no play. London: ITV, 21st January, [video:VHS]

NOTE

In order to maintain consistency in your bibliography you should only use the initial letters of the writer's forename(s), even when you have more information. In some cases you may feel that this hides the gender balance of the research base; in such cases it is possible to refer to the writer's full name in the main text.

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Useful Hints and Common Conventions

NOTE

Useful for researchers interpreting work produced by others — this is NOT a part of the Harvard style of referencing.

Ibid. (Latin) is used as a ditto instead of repeating the previous reference.

e.g.

Lashley,C. (1995) Improving study skills. A competence approach. London, Cassell.

Ibid. p.155

Ibid. p.170

Op. Cit. (Latin) is used after an author’s name to mean the same work as last cited for this author.

e.g.

Bennett, C. (1996) Researching into teaching methods in colleges & universities. London, Kogan Page.

Manger, J.J (1995). The essential internet information guide. New York, McGraw Hill.

Bennett, C. op. cit. p.175.

Et al (Latin) commonly used as an abbreviation for “and others”.

e.g.

Bennett, H et al. (1990) Managing Education. London, Falmer Press.

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Bibliography Booth, W.C., Colomb, C.G. & Williams, J.M. (1995) The Craft of Research. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. British Standards Institution. (1990) BS5605:1990. Recommendations for citing and referencing published material. Milton Keynes, BSI. The Chicago Manual of Style. (1993) 14th ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Fisher, D. & Hanstock,T. (1994) Citing References: a guide for users. 2nd ed. Nottingham, Nottingham Trent University. Fletcher, G. & Greenhill, A. (1995) Academic Referencing of Internet-based Resources. Aslib Proceedings, 47 (11/12) November/December, p.245-52. Holland, M. (1996) Harvard System [Internet] Poole, Bournemouth University. Available from: <http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/service-depts/lis/LIS_Pub/harvardsys.html> [Accessed August 22,1997] Li, X. & Crane, N. (1993) Electronic Style: a guide to citing electronic information. Westport, Conn., Mecklermedia. Rudd, D. (1994) Cite Me, I’m Yours or References, Bibliographies, Notes, Quotations ...etc. Harvard Version. Bolton, Bolton Institute of Higher Education. Rudd, D. (1995) Writing a Dissertation. A Brief Guide to Presentation & Literature Searching. Bolton, Bolton Institute of Higher Education. Shields, G. & Walton, G. (1995) Cite Them Right: How To Organise Bibliographical References. 3rd ed. Newcastle, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, Information Services. Turabian, K.L. (1987) A Manual for Writers of term papers, theses and dissertations. 5th ed, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Turner, B. ed.(1996) The Writer’s Handbook 1996. London, Macmillan.