Dipteryx oleifera Benth.

Plant Species Factsheet

Family: Fabaceae

Synonyms1: Dipteryx panamensis (Pittier) Record & Mell

Coumarouna oleifera (Benth.) Taub.

Coumarouna panamensis Pittier

Cumaruna oleifera (Benth.) Kuntze

Oleiocarpon panamense (Pittier) Dwyer

Listed in CITES as: Dipteryx panamensis (Pittier) Record & Mell

Vernacular name: Almendro2, Eboe2, Tonka bean2,

almendro de montaña3, almendro amarillo3,

Waldmandelbaum4

Basic information on species: D. oleifera is a large canopy emergent tree growing up to 40 m. The fruit is a one seeded drupe of 4 to 6 cm length and 3 cm width. Seeds are 3 to 3.5 cm long and 1.2 to 1.5 cm wide and surrounded by a brown seedcoat. Flowering period starts in July ending in February while fruiting period is from September to April (STEVENS et al. 2001). Fruits are dispersed by large frugivorous bats that take the fruits to roosting sites where they feed on the pulp and drop the seeds and by terrestrial mammals like agoutis or squirrels hoarding and burying seeds (RUIZ 2008).

The almendro tree grows in humid and very humid rainforests in the atlantic zone from Nicaragua to Colombia at elevations between 0 – 300 m (STEVENS et al. 2001). Other authors indicate its maximum elevations as 500 m (JIMÉNEZ et al. 2002 cited in SCHMIDT 2009) or 1300 m (FLORES 1992 cited in MADRIZ-VARGAS 2004). Natural habitats have a mean annual temperature of 24 °C to 30 °C and a mean annual precipitation of 3500 mm to 5500 mm (VOZZO 2002 cited in SCHMIDT 2009).

Distribution: D. oleifera is naturally distributed in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. In Costa Rica the potential distribution area is 10,177.8 km², but the actual available area is reduced by 55.5 % (see Fig. 2). Only 3.8 % of its habitat is government protected area (ESTRADA CHAVARRÍA et al. 2005). The remaining populations concentrate in the northeast from Rio San Juan to Braulio Carrillo National Park (HANSON 2006). In Panama it occurs in the Canal Zone, Bocas del Toro, Colón, Panamá and Darién (CROAT 1978).

Fig. 1.: D. oleifera in flower.   Source: tropicalbiology2010.providence.wi kispaces.net, viewed 26.09.2014 

                                                            

1 The Plant List, 2013 2 www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb 3 MADRIZ-VARGAS, B. 2004 4 http://www.wisia.de

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Fig. 2: Map of the potential distribution area of D. oleifera in Costa Rica (ESTRADA CHAVARRIA et al. 2005).

Red dots: collection points, green: forest area, yellow: no forest, orange: protected area. Sources: Mapa de Cobertura de la Tierra 1992, Ministerio de Agricultura y ganadería (MAG); Mapa de Cobertura 1997, Centro Científico Tropical/ CIEDES/ Fondo Nacional de Finaciamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO); Mapa de Cobertura Forestal 2000, Fondo Nacional de Finaciamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO); Herbario CR Museo Nacional de Costa Rica; Herbario INB Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad; SIG Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad.

Ecology: D. oleifera is considered a keystone species due to its fruit quantity and its fruit availability during the dry season (FRANKIE et al. 1974 cited in HANSON et al. 2008). BONACCORSO et al. (1980; cited in HANSON et al. 2008) observed sixteen species of mammals and FLORES (1992; cited in HANSON et al. 2008) approximately 100 species of birds in fruiting trees. Probably the most popular bird depending on the almendro is the great green macaw (Ara ambiguus). In the dry season fruits of D. oleifera make up for 80% of its diet. Additionally they prefer nesting in natural cavities of tall almendros (FRAIXEDAS et al. 2014, MADRIZ-VARGAS 2004). The great green macaw is listed as an Appendix I species by CITES since 1985 (UNEP-WCMC database) and its global conservation status is Endangered (IUCN 2014).

Conservation status: In an evaluation of Costa Rican native plant species using IUCN red list criteria ESTRADA CHAVARRÍA et al. (2005) designated D. oleifera as Vulnerable. The species has not yet been assessed globally for the red list through the IUCN.

The main threats to this species are the loss of habitat by conversion into for example pineapple plantations, clearing for pasture and small-scale farming and logging (FRAIXEDAS et al. 2014, HANSON 2006).

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Legal status: Costa Rica listed D. oleifera as a CITES Appendix III species in 2003 and Nicaragua in 2007. Thus it is also listed in Annex C of the Commission Regulation (EU) No. 750/2013.

In 1996 the Ministry of Environment and Energy in Costa Rica published the decree No. 25167 which restricted the use and logging of D. oleifera in an area between the rivers San Carlos, Sarapiquí and San Juan. The decrees No. 25663 published 18th December 1996 and No. 30961 published 3rd February maintained these restrictions (MADRIZ-VARGAS 2004). In 2008 the exploitation and withdrawal of Almendro trees from the wild was completely banned by the Costa Rican Ministry of Environment and Energy (FRAIXEDAS et al. 2014, ÁVALOS 2008 cited in SCHMIDT 2009).

Collection: The seeds and fruits are collected when they fall off the tree (CHIZMAR

FERNANDEZ 2009). Logging is done selectively taking only the largest trees. This method has great consequences for the great green macaw as it not only removes food availability but moreover withdraws the limited nesting sites.

Utilization: D. oleifera has got a very hard, durable wood, which makes it economically interesting. It reaches highest prices on local markets (RODRIGUEZ & CHAVES 2008). The wood can be used among others for industrial floors, marine construction, boats, machines and sport equipment (FOURNIER 2002). In addition the oil extracted from the mesocarp is used in soap production. The seeds are roasted and eaten like dry fruit or almonds or ground to mix a beverage with e.g. coconut water or milk. As for its pretty pink flowers the almendro has also potential as an ornamental (CHIZMAR FERNANDEZ 2009).

Fig. 3: D. oleifera blooming (Credit: Marcos Guerra) 

Source: smithsonianscience.org/2013/07/, viewed 

26.09.2014 

Fig. 4: Wood of D. oleifera 

Source: http://www.rarewoodsandveneers.com/pages/specimens 

/rarewoods/rarewood24.htm, viewed 08.10.2014 

Wood: A distinction of the different species of Dipteryx based on macroscopic wood properties is not possible (GESAMTVERBAND DEUTSCHER

HOLZHANDEL s. dat.). As mentioned above, the wood is very hard and heavy with a specific gravity of 0.83 to 1.09. The sapwood is whitish in green condition and brown-yellow when dried, whereas the heartwood is yellow when green and gets a yellow-red colour in dry condition (FOURNIER 2002).There are different opinions concerning the

transition between sapwood and heartwood. FOURNIER (2002) states that there is no clear transition whereas the GESAMTVERBAND DEUTSCHER HOLZHANDEL (s. dat.) says there is an abrupt transition. The grain is strongly interlocked and growth rings are poorly defined but pores are visible. The wood has a waxy texture. Due to its hardness it is difficult to cut and process (FOURNIER 2002) but fits as a substitute for Bongossi, Balau, Greenheart (only freshwater), Moabi and others (GESAMTVERBAND DEUTSCHER HOLZHANDEL).

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Trade: Freely accessible trade data on D. oleifera are scarce. The CITES trade database gives information at least on trade since the listing by Nicaragua in 2007. But these data do not have to be complete as they are often based on given permits while the actually traded quantity can be lower.

Overall known traded quantities are not very high. By far the largest exporter is Nicaragua. Most trade is between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, especially since Costa Rica banned the use of D. oleifera from the wild in 2008. Importers outside of Central America are the United States and Germany. Nearly all goods come from wild populations or are traded illegally. Only Costa Rica exported a small amount of artificially propagated timber in 2010.

Table 1: Trade data on Dipteryx oleifera from 2007 to 2011 by the CITES trade database (http://trade.cites.org/).

Year App. Importer Exporter Importer reported quantity

Exporter reported quantity

Term Unit Purpose Source

2007 III US NI 4   carvings m³ T I

2008 III US PA 22746   sawn wood kg T I

2009 III CR NI   45.652 timber m³ T W

2010 III DE PA 28700   sawn wood kg T W

2010 III US CR   22.92 timber m3 T A

2011 III CR NI   48.741 sawn wood m3 T W

2011 III CR NI   325.271 timber m3 T W

2011 III US NI   14.745 timber m3 T W

Also the Oficina Nacional Forestal of Costa Rica annually publishes freely accessible statistics on Costa Rican timber prices at http://onfcr.org/publicaciones-tecnicas-onf/precios-de-la-madera (viewed 08.10.2014).

Artificial propagation: There are some commercial and experimental plantations in Costa Rica (OFI-CATIE 2003), but there is no information on the extent of cultivation available.

For information on cultivation practices the Árboles de Centroamérica Project is a good source. It was established by the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI) and the Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) and provides a source book for farm planting and ecological restoration of Mesoamerican tree species. This book includes cultivation advice and information on biology and use of the trees.

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References

ÁVALOS, Á., 2008. Sala IV prohíbe explotación del almendro Amarillo. Martes 16 de septiembre de 2008. La Nacion. San Jose, Costa Rica.

BONACCORSO, F.J., GLANZ, W.E., SANFORD, C.M., 1980. Feeding assemblages of mammals at fruiting Dipteryx panamensis (Papilionaceae) trees in Panama: seed predation, dispersal and parasitism. Revista de Biologia Tropical 28: 61-72.

CHIZMAR FERNANDEZ, C., 2009. Plantas comestibles de Centroamérica. Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio). Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica.

CROAT, T.B., 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Redwood City.

ESTRADA CHAVARRÍA, A., RODRÍGUEZ GONZÁLES, A., SÁNCHEZ GONZÁLES, J., 2005. Evaluación y Categorización del Estado de Conservación de Plantas en Costa Rica. Museo Nacional de Costa Rica, Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio), Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservación (SINAC). San Jose, Costa Rica.

FLORES, E., 1992. Dipteryx panamensis. Arboles y Semillas del Neotropico 1: 1-22.

FOURNIER, L.A. 2002. Dipteryx panamensis (Pittier) Record & Mell, Tree seed manual species descriptions. Reforestation, Nurseries & Genetics Resources. – URL: http://www.rngr.net/publications/ttsm/species, viewed 24 September 2014.

FRAIXEDAS, S., FERNÁNDEZ-LLAMAZARES, A., RICO, A., BACH, A., BORRÓS, M., BARRIOCANAL, C., BOADA, M., 2014. Suitability of the South Caribbean Coast of Costa Rica for Reintroduction of the Great Green Macaw Ara ambiguus. Natural Resources 5: 653-665.

FRANKIE, G.W., BAKER, H.G., OPLER, P.A., 1974. Comparative phonological studies of trees in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 62: 881-919.

BUNDESAMT FÜR NATURSCHUTZ, 2014. WISIA Online. – URL: http://www.wisia.de. Viewed 29.09.2014.

GESAMTVERBAND DEUTSCHER HOLZHANDEL E.V. (GD Holz) (s.dat.). Merkblattreihe Holzarten, Blatt 112, Cumarú. 

HANSON, T., 2006. Effects of habitat fragmentation on the reproductive ecology and conservation genetics of the almendro (Dipteryx panamensis), a keystone rainforest tree. Phil. Diss., University of Idaho.

HANSON, T., BRUNSFELD, S.J., FINEGAN, B., WAITS, L.P., 2008. Pollen dispersal and genetic structure of the tropical tree Dipteryx panamensis in a fragmented Costa Rican landscape. Molecular Ecology 17: 2060-2073.

IUCN, 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2. – URL: www.iucnredlist.org. Viewed 30 September 2014.

JIMÉNEZ, Q., ROJAS, F., ROJAS, V., RODRÍGUEZ, L., 2002. Árboles maderables de Costa Rica – Ecología y Silvicultura. Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad. Heredia, Costa Rica.

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INTERNATIONAL LEGUME DATABASE & INFORMATION SERVICE (ILDIS),  Legume Web. – URL: www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb. Viewed 23.09.2014.

MADRIZ-VARGAS, B., 2004. Relación de dependencia directa para la alimentación y anidación de la lapa verde (Ara ambigua) y el almendro (Dipteryx panamensis) en la zona norte de Costa Rica. Informe de consultoría presentado a la Comisión Interna del SINAC y FONAFIFO. 

OFI-CATIE 2003. Árboles de Centroamérica. – URL: http://www.arbolesdecentroamerica.info/index.php/en/species/item/150-dipteryx-oleifera. Viewed 30 September 2014.

RODRIGUEZ, A. B., CHAVES, G. S., 2008. Precios de referencia de la madera en Costa Rica – 2008. Oficina Nacional Forestal pp. 5. Bélen, Costa Rica.

RUIZ, J.E., 2008. Effects of dispersal and insect herbivory on seedling recruitment of Dipteryx oleifera Benth. (Fabaceae) a tropical tree. Phil. Diss., University of Michigan.

SCHMIDT, F., 2009. The effect of site selection on the growth of Dipteryx panamensis in timber plantations in Costa Rica and Panama. M. Sc. University of Technology, Dresden.

STEVENS, W.D., ULLOA ULLOA, C., POOL, A., MONTIEL, O.M., 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 85: i-xlii. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Saint Louis.

N.N., 2013. The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet. – URL: http://www.theplantlist.org/. Viewed 23.09.2014. UNEP-WCMC, 2014. CITES trade database. – URL: http://trade.cites.org/. Viewed 30.10.2014.

VOZZO, J. A., 2002. Tropical tree seed manual. pp. 899. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Washington D.C. 

Prepared by Stella Fließwasser for

Federal Agency for Nature Conservation Konstantinstraße 110 53179 Bonn

8.10.2014

 

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