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Final Draft

The contribution of the DIPECHO Project to the Hyogo Framework for Action

November 25, 2010 Kathmandu

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Author Dhruba Gautam, PhD National Disaster Risk Reduction Centre Nepal NDRC Nepal Ekantakuna, Jawalakhel Phone: +0977-1-5000214, 5000219, 98510-95808 Email: drgautam@wlink.com.np, ncdrnepal@yahoo.com

Special contributors P.V. Krishnan, Shyam Jnavaly and Ashok Pokharel

Study organised by ActionAid Nepal/DIPECHO P O Box 6257, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: 977 1 4436477 Fax: 977 1 4419718 Website: www.actionaid.org

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of ActionAid Nepal (AAN), other DIPECHO partners, or DG ECHO. AAN does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. For more information, please contact the author in one of the above addresses.

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List of abbreviations and acronyms CA Constituent Assembly CFUG Community forest user group CCA Climate change adaptation DRR Disaster risk reduction DM Disaster management DP Disaster preparedness DDRC District disaster relief committee DMC Disaster management committee DRM Disaster risk management DN-CDMC District network of community DMCs DDRT District disaster response team DoHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology DDC District development committee EWS Early warning system HFA Hyogo Framework of Action HVCA Hazard, vulnerability and capacity assessment ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction INGO International non-governmental organisation MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs MoLD Ministry of Local Development NSDRM National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management NRCS Nepal Red Cross Society NN-CDMC National network of community DMCs NCRA Natural Calamity Relief Act NEOC National Emergency Operation Centre NAPA Nepal’s National Adaptation Plan for Action PVA Participatory Vulnerability Analysis REFLECT Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques RSLU Risk-sensitive land-use Planning SMC School management committee SOP Standard operating procedures SWOLID Strengthening Women to Develop Leadership in Development TGDM Task group for disaster management VDC Village development committee VCA Vulnerability and capacity assessment

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Acknowledgement We would like to acknowledge the support of the European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid department, which helped to carry out this study. We would also like to acknowledge ActionAid Nepal’s DIPECHO team Mr. P.V. Krishnan, Mr. Shyam Sundar Jnavaly, and Mr. Ashok Pokharel for providing us with useful comments and feedback on the conceptual framework of this research and on our draft report. The teams of other DIPECHO partners--Care Nepal, Danish Red Cross, Handicap International, Mercy Corps, Mission East, Oxfam GB and Practical Action--provided us with a wealth of information while producing this report. We are particularly grateful to AAN’s district-level NGO partners namely UPCA (Sunsari), KVS (Saptari), Nava Prabhat (Udaypur), CDM (Nawalparasi), FSC (Rupandehi), BEE Group (Banke), RKJS (Bardiya) and NRCS and CSSD (Kailali). To collect primary information in the field, we interacted with local-, district- and national-level stakeholders, including the members of district disaster risk coordination teams regarding various issues laid out in the terms of reference. We are thankful to them for providing us with information and data. The members of various task forces, disaster management committees and networks served as valuable resource persons and fine company during our fieldwork. We are grateful to the communities of the DIPECHO projects for their patience in providing us with a wealth of information and for being so cooperative during the study. We would further like to extend our sincere gratitude to all who helped make this study a success by contributing their time, feedback and suggestions. Mr. Guna Raj Shrestha and Ms. Neeta Thapa, members of the DIPECHO Evaluation Team also deserve special thanks for the field notes they developed. These notes were very useful to us. We are grateful to ActionAid Nepal and to the project management team of DIPECHO for entrusting us to conduct this interesting and challenging study. Dhruba Gautam and Pravin Rokaya National Disaster Risk Reduction Centre Nepal NDRC Nepal Ekantakuna, Lalitpur November 2010

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Executive Summary Background: The problem and the study The increase in the frequency and magnitude of disasters in Nepal has made it very difficult for the government to address the impacts of disasters adequately. It has now recognised that providing relief alone is also insufficient. And that it is disaster risk reduction (DRR), a holistic, comprehensive, and strategic approach to disasters, which is the need of the day to reduce the devastating impacts of disaster and to cope with increasing vulnerability. In recognition of Nepal’s need to tackle the problem of disaster risks and mitigate their impacts on people's lives and livelihoods, the European Commission (DG ECHO) began to provide financial assistance to Nepal when it released its First DRR Action Plan in 2003. On 15 June 2009 DIPECHO launched its Fifth Action Plan, which emphasises the need for initiating a wide array of community-based disaster preparedness (DP) and DRR interventions, including developing a disaster management and risk reduction legal framework, implementing disaster education, constructing small-scale mitigative infrastructures, coordinating among agencies, conducting research, developing early warning systems, and building capacity. The projects under DIPECHO’s Fifth Action Plan involve eight partners, cover 18 districts, and will run to 15 December 2010. The purpose of this study was to take stock of the progress that these eight partners have made towards achieving the five priorities of the HFA in Nepal and to contribute to the global report on the achievement of the HFA. All the secondary information made available by the DIPECHO partners was thoroughly reviewed. Then multiple instruments, including a range of participatory tools and techniques, were used to collect and collate reliable primary information from DIPECHO project communities and districts. Holding interaction meetings and mini-workshops with local-level stakeholders helped deepen the team’s understandings of projects achievements. Also at the field level, separate interaction meetings were held with each implementing NGO partner in order to listen to its concerns and issues and to crosscheck the reliability of information collected. The key findings of this report were drawn from all these sets of information. Many are illustrated with short case studies and direct quotations. Project achievements The fact that the project period for all DIPECHO projects was fixed at 15 months irrespective of the level of activity, the capacity of the implementing partners (partner NGOs) and communities, the geographic location and remoteness of the communities, and the types of hazards to address put tremendous pressure on most of the communities and partner NGOs to complete the prescribed project activities within the set timeframe. Despite the pressure, however, the quality of work of each partner was good. In addition, they were very much appreciated by the project communities and by DRR stakeholders at the local, district and national levels. Despite the challenges they faced, DIPECHO projects helped to achieve the five priority actions and the three strategic goals of the HFA. They facilitated the formation and strengthening of community-based disaster institutions, particularly DMCs, and of DM networks extending from the cluster to the national level. All the institutions established worked to provide disaster-affected people with support and to advocate and campaign to see them able to claim their rights. The project empowered people, making them aware of their rights and of the legal obligation of the government to protect them from disaster risks. It also developed mechanisms that enable people to secure human and financial resources to deal with disaster and to increase their resiliency. Capacity-building initiatives filled and continue to fill knowledge gaps in DP and DRR; as a result, communities are gradually developing the knowledge and skills they need to reduce their vulnerability. Schools and health facilities have planned and carried out disaster prevention and response measures, too.

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Community-based early warning systems (EWS) have been modified in order to capitalise on people's indigenous knowledge; these EWS have helped identify, assess and monitor existing and potential disaster risks. DIPECHO projects held dialogues and consultations to foster information sharing; technical backstopping; and resource, idea and experience sharing in order to encourage people to improve project initiatives. The DIPECHO projects successfully used knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels by managing information and exchange, imparting formal and informal education, raising public awareness, and making sure that safer schools play a greater role in DRR. Underlying risk factors have been identified so that their adverse impacts can be reduced. People are now more aware of what adaptation to a changing climate entails. They have undertaken initiatives that enhance food security, provide socio-economic protection nets, and reduce poverty. Land-use planning efforts have put degraded land to better use and building awareness about building codes has seen the construction of safer infrastructures. In order to reduce underlying risk factors, public facilities have been protected at the local level. DP has been strengthened and the response skills of communities have been enhanced and made more effective. The development of emergency response plans has made it easier to evacuate needy people to shelters (or to schools serving as shelters) along clearly marked and accessible evacuation routes. Refresher trainings, drills and simulations have made sure that people retain the skills and knowledge they acquire, and good coordination has enable communities to get support from duty bearers and civil society. The various stakeholders concerned demonstrate a good understanding of DP and response. All the initiatives discussed above have made a significant contribution to the effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies and planning and programming at all levels. They have put special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction. Moreover, DIPECHO projects helped develop and strengthen those institutions, mechanisms and capacities of all levels, in particular those at the community level, which can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. Continuous advocacy and campaigning resulted in the systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes during the reconstruction of disaster-affected communities. The way forward Gaps and areas for improvement While the efforts made by all DIPECHO partners to support the HFA are commendable and much has been achieved, DIPECHO, their coverage, in terms of both area and people, is limited and the gaps, huge. If the current levels of prioritisation of and funding for DRR are not increased, Nepal will not achieve the HFA goals by 2015. In addition to DIPECHO partners, other stakeholders, including the government, are carrying out DRR initiatives that directly or indirectly contribute to the HFA. Unfortunately, the scale of action is simply too limited. So far, 67 districts have DP plans and district disaster relief committee (DDRCs) have been empowered to carry them out. The remaining eight districts also need to be mobilised. The extent of action at the village level is much less promotion. Only 66 VDCs in Banke, Bardia, Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of over 3000 in the country have prepared DM plans, and only four of 58 municipalities have started implementing safe building construction practices. There is more need for the government and non-government organisations to enforce the national seismic safety standards effectively across the country. While it is encouraging that disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaption (CCA) are being institutionalised in planning, the level of funding needed to carry out these plans has not been forthcoming. The current interim three-year plan (2010-2013) focuses on climate change and disaster resilient planning

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and each sectoral strategy integrates comprehensive DRR and emergency response preparedness. Other positive planning efforts include the development of risk-sensitive land-use planning for Kathmandu Metropolitan City and plan to extend it elsewhere Also promising is that the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) has set up an emergency operation centre at the national level and intends to set up regional centres too. In addition, standard operating procedures for hospitals, security forces and local communities are being developed and there are national programmes and policies to make schools and health facilities safe in emergencies. Contingency plans, procedures and resources and financial arrangements are in place to deal with major disasters, and methods and procedures to assess damage, loss and needs have been adopted. Money to fund these initiatives is inadequate. Neither the national budget nor district budget have specific allocations for DRR and although some VDCs have started allocating separate funds for DRR, guidelines are inadequate and the process has not yet been institutionalised. In addition, no initiatives have been undertaken to incorporate the costs and benefits of DRR into the planning of public investment or to invest in reducing the risks vulnerable urban settlements face. The sharing of information is also problematic. The national forum, with representatives from civil society organisations, national planning institutions, and key economic and development sector organisations use a national multi-hazard risk assessment to inform planning and development decisions, but since disaster losses are not systematically reported, monitored or analysed, it is not as effective as it could be. Nepal participates in regional and sub-regional DRR programmes to share its experiences, but ironically has no national disaster information system publicly available. DRR is included in the national educational curriculum and is a public education campaign issue but is not included in the national scientific applied-research agenda or budget. Environments and societies do not yet receive sufficient protection either. There is no mechanism in place to protect and restore regulatory ecosystem services and the social safety nets which do exist are inadequate to the challenge of increasing the resilience of risk-prone households and communities. Many initiatives have been taken up jointly by DRR stakeholders in Nepal, but most are not mature and some are still in their nascent stages. In particular, a multi-hazard, integrated approach to DRR and development which considers gender perspectives, human security and social equity has been adopted and institutionalised; capacities for DRR and recovery have been identified and strengthened; and the engagement of and partnerships with non-governmental actors, civil society, and the private sector have been fostered at all levels. Now Nepal must build on these initiatives. Recommendations Several key initiatives are needed in order to promote the HFA and to build the resilience of the Nepali people in the face of natural disaster:

• Whenever possible, large-scale, nationwide, long-term multi-sector initiatives involving a wide array of actors, including the DRR Consortium and Five Flagships, and reflecting the national strategy should be carried out whenever the specific mandates and timeframes of DRR stakeholders allow for it. Such linkages have to be considered carefully so that they will have a demonstrated impact within the project lifespan.

• Advocacy for gender inclusiveness and end to gender-based violence is urgent. • Global DRR global campaigns, particularly school and hospital safety, and safer cities, should be

promoted. • The impacts of CCA should be clearly demonstrated and quantified and steps to address them taken

up in improved DP and DRR strategies in a carefully considered fashion.

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• Disaster risk consideration, including relief and rehabilitation should to be effectively integrated in policies, planning and programming for sustainable development at all levels, right from the proposal stage when their expected multiplier and long-term effects are considered.

• An exit strategy should be prepared and capacity-building support provided for its execution so that good initiatives are sustained.

• A DRR consortium which includes DIPECHO partners should be established in order to carry out policy advocacy at both the regional and national levels.

• Institutions, mechanisms and capacities that can build resilience to hazard should be developed and strengthened at all levels, in particular at the community level.

• Risk reduction approaches, including emergency preparedness, response and recovery, should be systematically incorporated into the design and implementation of reconstruction programmes for affected communities in order to increase their resilience and reduce their vulnerability.

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Table of Contents List of abbreviation and acronyms 3 Acknowledgements 4 Executive summary 5 1. Introduction 11 1.1 Background 11 1.2 The context 13 1.3 The Hyogo Framework of Action 13 1.4 Study objectives 14 1.5 Study methods 14 2. Major findings 15 2.1 Priority action 1: Governance 15 2.1.1 Frameworks and structures 15 2.1.2 Right to participation 19 2.1.3 Financial resources 20 2.1.4 Human resources 21 2.1.5 Schools and health facilities 23 2.2 Priority action 2: Risk assessment 23 2.2.1 Disaster risk assessments 23 2.2.2 Early warning systems 25 2.3 Priority action 3: Knowledge and education 28 2.3.1 Information management and exchange 28 2.3.2 Formal education 30 2.3.3 Public awareness and understanding 31 2.3.4 Informal education 31 2.3.5 School safety 32 2.4 Priority action 4: Risk management and vulnerability reduction 32 2.4.1 Environment and natural resource management 32 2.4.2 Adaptation to climate change 32 2.4.3 Food security 33 2.4.4 Social protection 33 2.4.5 Economic protection 34 2.4.6 Poverty reduction 34 2.4.7 Land-use planning 35 2.4.8 Building codes and standards 35 2.4.9 Protection of public facilities 36 2.5 Priority action 5: Disaster preparedness and response 37 2.5.1 Disaster preparedness and response 37 2.5.2 Response skills 39 2.5.3 Evacuation 40 2.5.4 Training drills and simulations 40 2.5.5 Emergency resources 41

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2.5.6 Coordination and information exchange 41 Chapter 3: Conclusion 42 3.1 The context: 42 3.2 The way forward 44 References 45

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The contribution of the DIPECHO Project to the Hyogo Framework for Action

"More effective prevention strategies would save not only tens of billions of dollars, but save tens of thousands of lives. Funds currently spent on intervention and relief could be devoted to enhancing equitable and sustainable development instead, which would further reduce the risk for war and disaster. Building a culture of prevention is not easy. While the costs of prevention have to be paid in the present, its benefits lie in a distant future. Moreover, the benefits are not tangible; they are the disasters that did NOT happen. " Kofi Annan, “Facing the Humanitarian Challenge: Towards a Culture of Prevention”, UN General Assembly, A/54/1

1. Introduction

1.3 Background Disaster is not a new phenomenon but it is one that increasing in intensity and frequency. Every year, more than 200 million people in the world are affected by different natural hazards, including droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, wildfires, epidemics, avalanches, rock fall, landslides, mud and debris flows, and glacier lake outburst floods. A flash appeal launched by the UN in 2007 revealed that since the 1970s the annual number of natural disasters attributable to both climatic and non-climatic hazards has quadrupled and that the average number of people affected each year had increased from an average of 100 million to an average of more than 250 million. While the reasons for the increase in disaster risks are many, the primary one is the increasing exposure and vulnerability to weather and climate hazards and to environmental degradation. The rise in population density, global warming, and poverty all exacerbate the impacts of natural hazards. Climate change has impacted lives and livelihoods and has prevented millions of people from exercising their fundamental rights. Disaster affects the entire globe without discrimination. From Indian Ocean tsunamis to South Asian earthquakes, from the devastation caused by hurricanes and cyclones in the United States, the Caribbean and the Pacific to heavy flooding across Europe and Asia, hundreds of thousands of people have lost their lives and millions have seen their livelihoods eroded by natural hazards. While natural hazards can affect anyone anywhere at any time, it is the poor; women, particularly those who are lactating or pregnant; children; the elderly; and persons with disabilities who suffer most from disaster as they lack the information, resources, capacities and social safety nets that could protect them. While many are well aware of the human misery and crippling economic losses resulting from disasters, few realise that the extent of devastation can be prevented or at least mitigated through people-led disaster risk reduction (DRR) initiatives. Nepal, like many developing countries in Asia and the Pacific, is situated in the world’s hazard belt and is subject to multiple hazards. It is periodically struck by major natural disasters due to climatic and seismic factors. Though the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, which began in 1990, raised awareness in Nepal, the number of deaths and the extent of property loss have increased drastically since then. Vulnerability to disasters has increased due to the lack of capacities and resources as well as the increased aggregation of people in urban centres and insufficient planning and preparedness. Nepal's Tarai, flat, low-lying land is the south, experiences annual flooding as rivers originating in the hills overflow their banks during the monsoon months of June to September. Both seasonal as well as flash floods have devastated people's lives and livelihoods. The hills, in contrast, because of the influence of topography, are more likely to be hit by landslides than floods. Human activities like deforestation, cultivation, and haphazard construction destabilise the constitutionally fragile slopes. As a result of the combined actions of

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natural factors, mostly heavy rainfall, and human-induced factors, as many as 12,000 landslides occur in Nepal each year (ESCAP, 1995a). In addition, Nepal, particularly the areas in the Himalayan region, is vulnerable to seismic activities of varying intensity (ibid.). The increase in the frequency and magnitude of disasters in Nepal has made it impossible for the government of any one to address the impacts of disaster adequately. Providing relief alone is also insufficient. It is DRR, a holistic, comprehensive, and strategic approach, which is the need of the day to reduce the devastating impacts of disaster and to cope with increasing vulnerability. In recognition of Nepal’s need to tackle the problem of disaster risks and mitigate their impacts on people's lives and livelihood, the European Commission (DG ECHO1) began to provide financial assistance to Nepal to implement DRR-focused interventions with the implementation of DIPECHO’s First Action Plan for South Asia in 2003. Over the last several years, there have been important changes in the legal framework for DP and DRR in Nepal. Some were influenced by DIPECHO partners while others were the result of the international trends. These changes have implications for all levels of interaction but what they are is currently unknown and the changes themselves are probably changing. The legal framework needs to be assessed in order to i) measure progress, ii) identify gaps, iii) adapt to the new rules and constraints, iv) focus on the remaining gaps. DIPECHO had a clear mandate: it focused on natural disasters, the implementation of pilot projects for demonstrative purposes and with clear exit strategies, the replication and scaling up of projects, participation in larger DRR initiatives, and building local response capacities. It objectives in short are to reinforce the resilience and response capacity of communities and disaster management (DM) authorities, integrate DDR in humanitarian response, and intensify capacity building, advocacy and coordination. DIPECHO was created in 1996 and since 1998 has channelled more than EUR 186 million to DRR projects worldwide. DIPECHO covers nine regions at present. In South Asia, DIPECHO is working with 27 partners in five countries, 38 districts, and 730,000 direct beneficiaries. Since the First Action Plan for South Asia was developed, both its budget and number of partners have increased significantly. DIPECHO’s Fifth Action Plan was initiated in Nepal in June 2009. This plan emphasises the need for initiating a wide array of community-based disaster preparedness (DP) and risk reduction interventions, including the development of a disaster management and risk reduction legal framework, the implementation of disaster education, small-scale mitigative infrastructures, coordination among agencies, research, development of early warning systems, and capacity building.                                                             1 The activities of DG ECHO in the field of disaster preparedness are “to ensure preparedness for risks of natural disasters or comparable circumstances and use a suitable rapid early-warning and intervention system”. The DIPECHO programme was set up in this context to improve the capacities of communities at risk to better prepare and protect themselves against natural hazards. Until two or three years ago DG ECHO’s DRR activities were more or less synonymous with those of DIPECHO, but now the focus of DG ECHO's DRR support include disaster preparedness (DIPECHO and DRR-targeted projects); mainstreaming DP and DRR in all of ECHO’s interventions; advocacy with regard to the other services provided by commissions, donors, and stakeholders (LRRD); and developing additional funding lines (thematic funding and ad hoc decisions).  

 

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1.2 The context In Nepal, DIPECHO’s Fifth Action Plan has a budget of 31,40,397 Euro from eight international non-governmental organisations2 (INGOs): ActionAid Nepal, Care Nepal, Danish Red Cross, Handicap International, Mercy Corps, Mission East, Oxfam GB and Practical Action3. The main mandate of DIPECHO is to improve DRR initiatives in Nepal by supporting five areas: (i) local disaster management; (ii) institutional linkages and advocacy; (iii) information, education, and communication; (iv) small-scale infrastructure and services, and (v) the stockpiling of emergency and relief items. DIPECHO’s overall objective is to ‘reduce the vulnerability of Nepali populations living in areas most affected by natural disasters' and its specific objective are to ‘support strategies that enable local communities and institutions to better prepare for, mitigate and respond adequately to natural disasters by enhancing their capacities to cope and respond, thereby increasing resilience and reducing vulnerability.' The projects under DIPECHO’s Fifth Action Plan cover 18 districts of Nepal. The programme is to run from 15 June 2009 to 15 December 20104. 1.3 Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) One of DIPECHO’s key roles is to assist Nepal in putting into action its commitment to the three strategic goals and five priority actions of the Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) (see Box 1 and 2). Released by the World Conference5 on Disaster Reduction, the HFA is a global blueprint for DRR. It aims to substantially reduce disaster losses, measured in terms of lives as well as the social, economic, and environmental assets of communities and countries, by 2015. The HFA supports the efforts of nations and communities to become more resilient to and cope better with the hazards that threaten their development gains. As part of its HFA commitment, Nepal is in the final stages of approving the Disaster Management Bill of 2007, which will replace the Natural Calamity Relief Act of 1982. It also adopted the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) in October 2009 and has carried out various projects and programmes to achieve the priority actions of HFA. These include those projects which were designed by DIPECHO. All these initiatives are

                                                            2 They are known as DIPECHO partners in Nepal. 3 In addition to Nepal, DIPECHO’s Fifth Action Plan applies to Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. 4 Though the starting and ending dates of some of the DIPECHO partner vary, the duration was originally fixed at 15 months. 5 This conference was held January 18-22, 2005, in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan. The 168 governments in attendance adopted a 10-year plan (2005-2015) to make the world safer from natural hazards by building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters.

Box 2: HFA's key priorities for action • Governance: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national

priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation • Risk assessment: Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and

enhance early warning • Knowledge and education: Use knowledge, innovation and

education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels • Risk management and vulnerability reduction: Reduce

underlying risk factors • Disaster preparedness and response: Strengthen disaster

preparedness for effective response

Box 1: The three strategic goals of HFA • To more effectively integrate disaster risk considerations into

sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and vulnerability reduction;

• To develop and strengthen at all levels, in particular the community level, those institutions, mechanisms and capacities that systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards;

• To systematically incorporate risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs in the reconstruction of affected communities

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set within an enabling national policy context which emphasises the role of people and their participation in community preparedness. The government’s Tenth Five-Year Plan6 (1996-2006) and Three-Year Interim Plan7 (2007-2010) both stress the active role of community people in disaster management. The objectives of the government’s long-term plans are consistent with DIPECHO’s overall objectives, mission and vision. Though this study was commissioned by ActionAid Nepal, the contributions of all eight DIPECHO partners are duly reflected as they have worked cooperatively to achieve the key mandates of HFA. 1.4 Study objectives The purpose of this study is to take stock of the progress the eight DIPECHO partners in Nepal have made towards achieving the five priorities of the HFA in Nepal and to contribute to the global report on the achievement of the HFA. Specifically, the objectives of the study are to:

• Identify the progress made in the implementation of the HFA at the local level, • Collect evidence of the progress made in achieving Nepal’s NSDRM and the priority actions of the

HFA, and • Document that progress so that it can be feed into the national-level review of HFA achievements.

1.5 Study methods Multiple instruments were used to collate primary information from DIPECHO project communities and districts. Before setting foot in the field, however, the study team first identified the scope of the study and the keys areas. In order to develop a comprehensive checklist, all the secondary information made available by all DIPECHO partners was thoroughly reviewed. Then, using the checklist, the team held consultation meetings with projects stakeholders at the central, district and community levels. At the central level, the team met with the DIPECHO project team, government officials and key networks members while at the district level, it met the members of district disaster relief committees (DDRC) and other DRR players. In all interactions, the goal was to ascertain their overall impression about the key achievements made by DIPECHO partners in Nepal at the national, district and community levels. During its field investigation in DIPECHO project areas, the team used participatory tools and techniques to collect reliable information. To familiarise itself with the key visible achievements which helped reduce disaster risks, the team conducted transect walks with key knowledgeable people. In addition, it conducted in-depth informant interviews and focus group discussions to validate the information gathered from various sources. Holding interaction meetings and mini workshops with local level stakeholders also helped deepen the team’s understandings of projects achievements. At the field level, separation interaction meetings were held with each implementing NGO partner in order to listen to their concerns and issues and to cross-check the reliability of other information collected. The key findings of this report were drawn from all the sets of information. Many of the key findings are illustrated in the report with small case studies and direct quotations. Because there was so little time (just two weeks for field work and more two weeks for writing) to conduct the study, it was not possible for the study team to visit the project areas of Mission East and the Danish Red Cross. To compensate for this gap, the secondary information of both organisations was extra thoroughly analysed and the key evaluation findings they contained have been duly incorporated.

                                                            6 Disaster risk reduction (DRR) has become a national priority for sustainable development. The 10th five year plan (2002-2007) underscored that the main objective of DRR as to contribute substantially to make the public life secure by managing the natural and man-made disaster systematically and effectively. 7 The 3-year interim plan (2008-2010) also emphasized that DRR is an integral component of sustainable development and accorded priority to pre-disaster preparedness.

 

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2. Major findings In keeping with the international framework for DRR and the HFA, the DIPECHO partners in Nepal formulated ideas and resources designed to contribute towards the achievement of the five priority actions and three strategic goals of the HFA. The key findings in terms of the achievements made under each priority action are discussed below. 2.1 Priority action 1, Governance: Ensure that DRR is a national priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation

The achievements in governance are discussed in terms of five areas: frameworks and structures, the right to participation, financial resources, human resources, and schools and health facilities. 2.1.1 Frameworks and structures Well-organised institutions, groups and committees capable of deciding what to do in the case of a disaster and how to overcome associated disaster risks exist and are functional in DIPECHO projects area. In fact, four tiers of institutions have been formed to respond the disaster: (i) a task force at the thematic level; (ii) disaster management committees8 (DMCs) at the community/VDC level9; (iii) district networks of DMC (DN-CDMC10) at the district level; and, (iv) a national network of DMC (NN-CDMC11) at the central level. The former two are engaged mostly at the project implementation level whereas the latter two contribute mostly to policy advocacy and campaigning. At the community/hamlet level, disaster task forces12 (or thematic-level sub-committees in the nomenclature of some DIPECHO partners) have been established to mobilise disaster-affected people based on their interests and the special skills they can contribute. The goal of DIPECHO is to mobilise task force members instantly without having them duplicate their roles. The early warning system (EWS) taskforces work particularly well and trust among the members of communities is growing. Monthly meetings of task forces provide a good platform to discuss disaster and other social issues collectively, to come up with ideas to address them, and to review their plans of action as per evolving needs. In this regard, Mr Ramdev Yadav, Secretary, DN-CDMC Saptari, had this to say:

Previously we all operated individually and did not engage in collective action and efforts. Though we did have plenty of skills and knowledge to carry out DRR, we only realised recently that we, as a community, are skilful in DRR because we were so dispersed before and because our actions were almost non-existent. However, after working with the DIPECHO project, we were surprised to discover that local actions are a fundamental part of successful DRR. Because we are involved in the various task forces, our roles are defined; as a result, our actions are prompt. There is a kind of healthy competition among task force members. I am confident that we will do even better in the future as we are committed to improving.

Like Ramdev, many opined that DRR taskforces perform well as members are able to translate skills and knowledge acquired from trainings, orientations, and interactions into practice. The majority of taskforce members interviewed have a clear understanding of their jobs and duties. Even those who are not taskforce

                                                            8 The terminology used by the eight DIPECHO partners varies for disaster committee at community/VDC level: the Danish Red Cross uses ‘DP Unit’; Mercy Corps, DPC; Oxfam, CDMC; ActionAid, DMC; Practical Action, DRRC; and Care Nepal, VDMC. 9 They are lowest administrative unit of the government of Nepal. 10 Though DN-CDMCs exist in 22 districts, they are still nascent and the processes they will adopt and the guidelines which will govern them have not yet been finalized. 11 The NN-CDMC was formed in 2008. In order to serve as a multi-stakeholders platform to mainstream DRR in national-level development policy and action. 12 Task forces include search and rescue, food and water, shelter and non-food items, communication and coordination, EWS, and health and sanitation.

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members are familiar with the roles and functions of the task forces. However, in some cases, there are institutional gaps as not all task force coordinators are members of the local DMC. As a result, it is difficult for the DMC to its plans and programmes and to make sure that task force members carry out their assigned roles and duties during emergencies. In the project areas of ActionAid and Oxfam, REFLECT13 circles and Strengthening Women To Develop Leadership in Development (SWOLID), which function at a still more local level, have been formed at the community level. In Sunsari District, musibat bahas kendra (REFLECT circle) are the major forums for discussion, assessment and action with respect to reducing disaster risks. DMCs have been formed at the community and VDC levels to look after disaster-related activities. The architecture of the DMC is designed in such a way that each is linked with a VDC and with district-level government structures. In particular, DMCs are involved in the periodic planning processes of both DDCs and VDCs; as a result, their issues find a place in the resultant plans. DMCs are effective social platforms which serve a dual function: to steer all taskforces and to coordinate DP and response work. However, DMCs will not be registered and thus legally bound until the Disaster Management Act is fully enacted by the Constitutional Assembly. There is a concern that the current level of interest and the quality of DMCs may decline before then. As their role is seasonal (they are most active during the hazard-prone monsoon season), it may be difficult to imbue them with the same spirit and institutional strength year-round. Not all DMCs have fully internalised the idea that they should perform tasks from preparedness to mitigation and relief to response throughout the year. DMC members14 focus their discussions on disaster-related issues and vulnerability reduction and hold regular meetings to plan, design, and implement action plans. The Danish Red Cross has provided DMCs with furniture, cupboards, and relief and rescue materials in order to promote the establishment of offices, which are generally housed in local public buildings, schools or local clubs. Because DMCs are well-informed and their actions well-coordinated their efforts are appreciated by local level stakeholders. DMCs are gender- and socially-inclusive though to varying degrees: not only do their members come from all ethnic, religious, linguistic, caste and political groups but they have inculcated the culture of listening to the voices of the previously voiceless. In the establishment of a DMC, four fundamental questions (see Box 3) are kept in mind. People are aware that it is essential that women, the elderly, persons with disabilities and other marginalised groups participate in DP efforts. In many project areas, women had assumed key leadership positions; in Bhajani, Kailali, for example, there are women bhalmansha15. The role bhalmansha play in Tharu communities has been strengthened because one key project strategy is to foster local culture and practices. Mr Hiru Lal Chaudhary, bhalmansha of Thapapur-2, Kailali expressed this opinion about how DMCs were able to capitalise on the local cultural context:

DMCs act as parental organizations. During the decade-long armed conflict, the socio-cultural values of Tharu society largely collapsed. With the emergence of DMCs, however, our cultural values have been

                                                            13 REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques) is an approach to literacy and social change which fuses the political philosophy of Paolo Freire with the methodologies of participatory rural appraisal. Reflect centers are located in public places, shelters or schools where the members of DMCs and task forces as well as other men and women can easily access them. 14 Each DMC is representative of the members of the community from which it is derived. Thus, it includes a variety of people, including teachers, farmers, nurses, youth club members, women, PwDs, children, the elderly, water and forest user group member, the poor, and the marginalized. 15 The first level warning was to alert the villagers of the incoming flood. Second level warning was for the people to act on the first warning and to collect important document and dry foods. Third level warning was to get people to safe places in the higher grounds with their family members, livestock and important belongings.

Box 3: Four fundamental questions to ask in order to ensure social inclusion • Which people in the community are most

affected by disasters? • Who will be the most vulnerable people in

the community if a disaster occurs in the near future?

• Who needs more skills, information and knowledge related to disaster preparedness?

• Which people in the community are most marginalised and excluded from development endeavours?

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restored. The role of the bhalmansha is a much respected one in society. Assigning bhalmasha to serve as DMC chairpersons maintained social harmony and the accepted protocols of the community. Pleased by their new, expanded role, the bhalmanshas of 19 communities in Thapapur, Kailal District, federated so that they can address large disaster events through a socially harmonious relationship. I think DRR endeavours will never peter out and die as DMCs are connected with to local culture and no one can break cultural ties.

DMC have full authority to plan, design and implement local-level preparedness and mitigation work, and their authority extends to the procurement of materials. Through various trainings, they have been strengthened so that they can act as local-level advocates, mobilise internal resources, and claim their rights to external resources for DRR activities. Each DMC the study team consulted has a DP and a contingency plan to respond to disasters. Since VDC secretaries have to approve community/VDC-level plans, there is a strong link between DMCs and VDC. However, DMCs formed at the community level often find it difficult to access resources from the VDC. As the majority of VDC secretaries are not locals, they may be tempted to use VDC resources for purposes other than disaster works. In addition, while DDCs have, as per the conditions of the NSDRM, circulated a directive to VDCs to from a VDC-level DMC, this directive will not be legally binding document until a new act is formulated. The DMC of Prata-5, Udayapur District, is an exception: it has prepared it a stature and is in the process of legally registering at the district administration office. The training and materials provided to each DMC helped them serve their intended functions. To illustrate, they were trained in light search, rescue and evacuation operations and now have the knowledge and skills they need to search for and rescue missing people after a disaster as well as to evacuate children, the elderly, persons with disabilities and pregnant women first using rescue and relief materials appropriately. Each DMC includes volunteers trained in first aid and an emergency kit at the ready. However, because the seasonal migration of youths and men to India to earn their livelihood is very high in some communities, targeting training at these groups may simply be a waste of resources. In Doti District, first aid training and kits are especially beneficial because people have to walk at least three hours (in some instances) to reach the nearest sub-health post. DMCs have also established local-level protocols. In Bhajani, Kailali District, for example, children are prohibited from swimming when rivers are in full spate as there is too much risk of snake bite and of being carried away by the current. DMCs have been instrumental in replacing people’s previously passive and fatalistic attitude with a “we-can-do” outlook. Mr. Nabanandan Mourya, the DMC chairperson of Nawajigaun of Banke, highlighted the role of training and life-saving equipment:

DMCs impart skills that we need. We can trust DMCs because their structure is based on the principles of gender empowerment and social inclusion. DMCs have received various types of life-saving equipment which helps members translated the knowledge they have acquired into action. Sometimes I wonder why no agency was able to provide us with such materials in the past, especially as their cost is very low compared to the benefits they provide. To achieve true empowerment, training alone does not make an impact. Similarly, the distribution of materials without training is also ineffective. We are grateful that DIPECHO managed to provide us with both materials and training. With a boat in the community, a first aid box at the school, and rope and buckets in individual houses, we have been able to reduce the risks of disasters considerably.

Each DMC sends two representatives, one male and one female, to the DN-CDMC. Each DN-CDMC in turn is successful in coordinating with district-level stakeholders, sharing resources, and advocating for the rights of disaster-affected families. The DP Units promoted by the Danish Red Cross have federated with the existing network16 of the Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) and district disaster response teams (DDRTs) have been established to respond at the district level. These DDRTs are effective. For example,

                                                            16 NRCS has 75 district chapters, one in each district, and over 1000 sub-chapters.

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when there was a fire in a VDC in Sarlahi District, the DN-CDMC easily coordinated relief and response; in the past, however, such an effort—even on a small scale--would have taken several days to months to implement. Because of the DN-CDMCs, some mitigation measures have received government support. District soil conservation offices, for instance, have provided gabion boxes and sacks to control erosion and district forest offices have supplied seedlings and timber. These inputs are only a few of the many examples of government action. A 19-member NN-CDMC17 comprised of DN-CDMCs representatives from each development region—one male, one female to achieve gender balance--has been formed at the central level. Its roles are also similar to those of the DN-CDMCs but the activities it conducts are done at the central level. Both district and the national network have prepared protocols18 for resource allocation. They are an effective means of linking the people to the government structure so that their voices can be heard and also of making government officials more responsive and accountable to the people. As DMCs themselves are not fully institutionalised, however, it will be difficult to fully institutionalise the networks which they constitute. Networks have played a crucial role as pressure groups capable of alerting the national and district disaster relief committee of the need for mitigation and preparedness. Their continuous policy advocacy saw many positive developments: the NSDRM was enforced19; the commitment of government officials and constituent assembly members to enact the proposed Disaster Management Act has been increased; concerned line ministries and line agencies have appointed disaster focal persons; VDC secretaries in project districts have been trained in DRR; and disaster risks management stakeholders were jointly engaged in making a DRR tool kit20. The multi-agency DRR tool kit initiative was facilitated by ActionAid. It was designed to inform and sensitise Constituent Assembly (CA) members of Nepal so that they would be able and willing to strengthen the country’s DRR framework. ActionAid, together with other DIPECHO partners, has used advocacy to create an enabling DRR policy environment. At the central level, DIPECHO partners jointly organised activities on the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR21) Day, Earthquake Safety Day22, and World Environment Day in order to sensitise people and stakeholders about the importance of DRR. About the usefulness of networks, Mr Hanuman Godiya, DMC Treasurer of Gangapur, Banke shared this opinion:

We are very happy that, two members of our DMC, Namanandan Mourya and Ali Ahamad Mukeri, are represented in the NN-CDMC. Because they represent our area, they have shared our concerns and issues to policymakers and high-level governmental officials. Our voices are now loud enough to reach the level of policymakers and project designers. Networks enabled us to get many resources for both community development and risk reduction initiatives.

Because they understand the crucial role local plans play in responding to disaster, DIPECHO partners facilitated the preparation of community-based disaster risk management (DRM) plans at the VDC and municipality levels. ActionAid also strengthened the National Platform Strategy in close partnership with the MoHA. The social structures to make great strides in achieving DRR are in place. Whether or not the

                                                            17 AINTGDM (Oxfam, ActionAid, World Vision, UMN, LWF) initiated this mission at the national level with the support of other DIPECHO partners and DRR stakeholders. The NN-CDMC has organised and represented disaster-affected people from 22 flood and landslide affected districts representing all over the country. It ensures that their voices are heard by all stakeholders and policy makers at the national level. 18 DN-CDMCs have begun to collect data on the existing DMCs with support from Oxfam, ActionAid, Lutheran, CIDA, the Centre for Disaster Management (CDM), and the Koshi Victims Society, as well as from DDCs. They collect Rs. 250 from each DMC as a membership fee. Of the total, 50% goes to the VDC-level network, 30% to the DN-CDMC, and 20% to the NN-CDMC. 19 UNDP DIPECHO provided technical support to develop the NSDRM along with other DRR stakeholders. 20 A DDR tool kit, or information package, was developed for the DRR stakeholders in Nepal with the joint input of 16 organisations and networks, including INGOs, the United Nations, the Ministry of Home Affairs, and NGOs. Initially, just one thousand copies were prepared for CA members; later, they were widely distributed. 21 In October 2009, the DIPECHO partners provided the NN-CDMC with the support it needed to mark the UN’s ISDR Day. 22 The DIPECHO partners provided support to the National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) to organise Earthquake Safety Day in Kathmandu. The activities included raising awareness about the risk of earthquakes in Nepal and advocating for the government and other stakeholders to adopt measures to mitigate and prepare for this risk.

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innovations thus far implemented will be sustainable or not will now depend on the functionality of the institutions in the long run. 2.1.2 Right to participation After conducting a thorough analysis of the level of understanding of disaster-affected people and DMC members, the study team concluded that people are aware of their fundamental rights and of the legal obligation of government to provide them with protection from disaster risks. In a series of interactions and capacity-building initiatives, DIPECHO partners shared with people the basic norms and standards of the relief and response system laid out in the Natural Calamity Relief Act (NCRA) of 1982. Mr. Khalil Mansuri, the DMC chairperson of Inarwara-6, Khikharipatti, Sunsari, said this about the response norms:

Before the DIPECHO projects, we had a very limited idea about our fundamental rights and the response package we are entitled to. We believed that relief materials were provided merely out of compassion on the part of the organisations involved. Now, because of information shared, we know that the government must provide Rs. 25,000 to the family of every person who dies. Injured persons are entitled to treatment and to a transportation allowance to return home. Seriously injured people should be airlifted to a well-equipped hospital. Those whose houses are destroyed are entitled to Rs. 10,000. If a disaster threatens or if a house is temporarily unsafe to live in, then up to Rs. 5000 shall be provided to arrange for temporary accommodations. We found out about such things because the projects emphasise people’s right of participation.

It must be acknowledged, however, that not all people are as aware about response norms as Khalil is. The right of participation of the deprived and marginalised sections of the society was reinforced by the advocacy of DMCs, task forces and networks. ActionAid, Oxfam and Handicap International employ a rights-based approach to their development, humanitarian and advocacy works which ensures the right of participation to disaster- affected people focusing inclusive DRR. While in the past, people assumed that the right to participate was an act of mercy bestowed upon them, now they understand that it is a right they are entitled to and have begun to advocate that duty bearers fulfil their rights. A series of interactions and advocacy initiatives have enabled them to learn-- in varying degrees--about multi-sectoral policies, plans, rules, regulations, and disaster legislation. Community mobilisation in DRR ensures that both communities and volunteers will participate actively. This participatory approach is just one of many ways that has helped secure people’s right to participate. Participation has made a valuable contribution to community efforts in reducing vulnerability and ensuring human security by demonstrating to all that all are entitled to secure their fundamental rights through legal and policy instruments as well as cultural codes. Sometimes harmony among people and organisations collapses and it is not possible for people to secure their rights, but since the basic norms of a value-based approach are in place, people’s rights are not violated if the environment is harmonious. By adopting a gender- and socially-inclusive approach, one that 'puts the last first', DIPECHO partners have ensured that everyone has the right to participate in planning for and implementing DRR. Even persons with disabilities and the elderly, traditionally among the most neglected groups, are given due and equal importance in the DRR process. The success of sensitising individuals with disabilities and their neighbours about their rights and duties with respect to participation in DRR interventions has been enhanced by the distribution of assistive devices (through the support of Handicap International) that enable persons with disabilities to participate. Initiatives by the DIPECHO partners, such as including systematically a person with disability into the DMCs and other DRR related committees and facilitating their acceptance, recognition and active participation have enabled to give a practical application of the right to participate.

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2.1.3 Financial resources DIPECHO project communities have accessed financial and material resources from local government bodies in order to reduce the impact of disasters and to recover from disasters. Local people have helped to raise financial resources by establishing emergency funds, collecting grains, making cash collection through monthly saving and credit programmes, and carrying out “fistful of rice” campaigns in which contributions in kind are collected. The communities in all DIPECHO project area have established emergency funds. In ActionAid’s project area, 19 DMCs have raised more than NRs 555,000. They have also prepared guidelines for the best use of emergency funds to carry out actions which they themselves have prioritised clearly. In Myagdi District, the communities of Aula and Torakhet raised NRs 147,000 and NRs 48,000 respectively in just one year. In most areas, funds are collected monthly as part of a savings scheme. Recognising the relevance of emergency funds, the DDRC chairperson (Chief District Officer) in Myagdi has proposed that all district-level stakeholders establish a similar sort of fund for mobilisation in line with local needs. Some DIPECHO partners have given each DMC a seed grant varying in amount from NRs 5000 (Danish Red Cross) to NRs 50,000 (ActionAid) to encourage members to add to the revolving fund. Some DMC members collect grains after every harvest. When the bins are full, they sell the grain and deposit the proceeds in their emergency fund. During emergencies, “fast foods” such as beaten rice, salt, biscuits, noodles and sugar were procured using the emergency fund so that there would be no delay in providing relief. DMCs do not give out cash except in the case medical treatment is required. This restriction ensures that resources are not misused. Mr Khum Bahadur Khadka, Bhajani-1 Rajwara, Kailali opinion about grain collection is typical:

With small contributions, we have been successful in exploiting financial resources at the local level. We simply systematise the use of things that we already have. We have passed a rule that after each harvest, each family has to raise 1 paseri (2.5 kg) paddy. Because this amount is very small, every family can afford to contribute, yet if all the contributions are added, the volume is quite large. This year, when some houses in Kushumghat of Kailali burnt down, we immediately provided them with grain from the emergency fund. In Lalbhoji, Kailali District, schools also established emergency funds, raising NRs 5 from each student so that the schools could be equipped with first aid kits. The value of a first aid kit to a school is well worth the NRs 5 per month students pay. What is really important is how to use collective action to make things easier. Until a few years ago, we used to spend NRs 2500 to get materials worth NRs 250 from Dhangadhi (District headquarters of Kailali District). The most important thing we have learned is that VDC officials are our friends, not our enemies. We are quite happy that VDCs have contributed a lot in terms of implementing small-scale mitigation initiatives and providing money for our emergency funds.

Besides monthly savings programmes and “fistful of rice”, DIPECHO relied on community contributions, volunteer labour, and youth mobilisation in order to raise materials resources. In some areas, emergency funds are channelled into entrepreneurial and household uses using a savings-and-credit or other modality23. Although money is used in non-humanitarian sectors, a minimum amount is always maintained in the balance in order to ensure that sufficient money is available for any emergency that arises. Some communities have given the needy loans from their emergency funds. However, as not all the vulnerable households of any given community are involved in raising cash through saving schemes, it is often difficult to maintain a balance between savers and non-savers, and sometimes this disparity forms the seed of disputes.

                                                            23 In Doti District, for example, NRs 11,000 was collected for an emergency fund through the efforts of two cooperatives which were established with financial assistance from the Lutheran World Foundation for some 5-7 years back. 

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DMCs are able to leverage resources from local and district governments for DRR. In some instances, the advocacy of DMCs has had very positive results: VDCs allocate budget explicitly to serve as emergency funds. Kamdi VDC in Banke District has the impressive allocation--NRs.350,000—while Narshingh VDC of Sunsari allocated NRs. 30,000 and Matehiya and Gangapur VDCs of Banke District have allocated NRs. 19,000 each. In Kailali District, the VDCs of Narayanpur and Dhansingpur have allocated about one-third of their total budgets (roughly eight to nine hundred thousand rupees) for DRR activities, particularly small-scale mitigation works. Even where money has not been allocated, government and other stakeholders are informed about and support the endeavours of DMCs. The Home Affairs and Local Development ministries work together with DIPECHO partners, DDCs and the Department of Water-Induced Disaster Prevention together made bio-dykes to protect river banks, and VDCs allocated resources to execute VDC-level contingency plans. Because DIPECHO projects are transparent, district governments are very willing to provide co- or parallel funding for low-cost mitigation work. The Kamdi DMC of Banke District was even able to get resources from the contractors who sell sand, stone and boulders from the river bank abutting their community. However, they spent these resources more on mitigation and response work than on preparedness initiatives. In cases where projects clusters are found only in a limited number of wards within a VDC, however, it is often difficult to channel VDC's funds to DRR activities. Another problem is that project wards are marginalised in terms of getting other community development work implemented because VDCs believe that the 'big project', meaning DIPECHO, will look after their emerging needs. Learning reflected that it is better to include an entire VDC within any given project area to ensure that VDC resources will be mobilised and that initiatives will be sustainable. 2.1.4 Human resources DIPECHO project communities have far more trained human resources than non-DIPECHO project areas. Representatives of each project community are provided with training in how to reduce risks and how to respond to disaster. In fact, realising the important role that trained human resources can play in DRR and immediate disaster response initiatives, all DIPECHO partners have made capacity building a key component of their efforts. Teachers; media personnel; the members of DMCs, task forces, child and youth clubs, and women’s groups; volunteers; local NGO staff; and people in the private sector were among those involved in capacity-building initiatives. Trainings and orientations have been designed so that the strengths, capacities, and resources available in communities and institutions can be effectively mobilised to reduce disaster risks. Capacity building aims to strengthen community cohesion and social bonds, increase people’s ability to make informed choices regarding their wellbeing, and enhance self-confidence through involvement in decision-making processes among other goals. Most of the trainings used a cascade model, in which DMC members, teachers and students are trained to serve as lead trainers and local resource persons who can later share their knowledge with their peers and other people. The emphasis is on translating the knowledge acquired into action. Learning from the Mid-and Far-West development regions demonstrate that it is wise to include women and children in capacity-building initiatives because many men migrate to India and are absent from the village during the peak emergency period in the monsoon24. The process of developing trained human resources began with assessing the knowledge, attitudes and practices of communities with respect to DP and DRR using a baseline study. Based on Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) and Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (VCA) tools, hazards and vulnerability were mapped; such assessment tools were able to gauge the existing level of information, skills and knowledge and identify the gaps that needed to be filled in order to carry out DRR successfully and to design an appropriate curriculum. Capacity-building initiatives focused on arming people with the skills and

                                                            24 Once paddy is transplanted in mid or late July, men migrate to India only to return at harvest time in November. Some, however, stay the entire year and return only in July to support paddy transplantation. Migrants are not at home during August and September, which are the most flood-prone months.

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knowledge they need in order to increase their resilience and be able to withstand even large disasters. They also enhanced the skills of both individuals and communities as a whole so that people take responsibility for mitigating disaster risks, rather than expecting and waiting for external support. In other words, capacity building emphasises what communities themselves can do rather than on what they would like others to do for them.

Under the capacity-building component, DIPECHO partners facilitated a range of trainings at different levels, including refresher trainings. Some of these trainings and their outcomes are presented in Box 4.

Overall, capacity-building initiatives are highly instrumental (see box 5) in preparing communities and schools

to participate voluntarily in DDR and to build institutional capacity to carry out DRR. They also increase people’s understanding of the problems they face and help to recommend suitable actions that will serve as

Box 4: Some of important trainings and their outcome • Community-based DRR trainings increased knowledge about DRR and heightened awareness about hazards

and risk reduction strategies. • Trainings in and simulations of light search and rescue developed people’s skills in searching for and rescuing

missing people. • Emergency response trainings improved the skills needed to manage emergency responses using local

resources. • Trainings in basic first aid accompanied by the provision of kits enabled people to provide immediate

medical attention before transporting the injured to health posts or hospitals for further treatment if needed. • Health and hygiene trainings helped teach vulnerable populations how to stay healthy during and after

disasters. • Leadership and community mobilisation trainings have improved people's confidence to deal with disaster

events. • Gender and social inclusion trainings have ensured that DMCs, task forces and networks are socially

inclusive and have developed a culture of listening to the voice of those who used to be voiceless. • Nursery management and bio-dyke trainings have enhanced using indigenous knowledge and skills in using

locally available materials and resources for riverbank protection. • Community-based EWS trainings have reduced the vulnerability of flood-prone communities by developing a

communication that enables people to prepare in advance. • Inclusive DRR trainings have updated recent innovations in DRR, in particular, introducing a disability

legislative framework and facilitating techniques to ensure the meaningful participation of persons with di bili i

Box 5: New initiative in capacity building ActionAid has successfully used national-level policy advocacy to build capacity. With other civil society organisations, it has mobilised national-level stakeholders by organising a series of awareness campaigns, rallies, and mass demonstrations and by raising DRR and climate adaptation issues at different forums for debate. In particular, it worked with concerned ministers and CA members to advocate that they adopt a strong DRR policy framework. The DRR Tool Kit and Sensitisation Workshop it held for CA members were milestone in the area of policy advocacy for DRR: CA members are now committed to passing the Disaster Management Bill. More than 100 of the 400 CA members and political leaders approached participated in the orientation on DRR issues, the first such interaction with elected representatives in the country. Regional administrators, chief district officers, and local development officers were also oriented to DRR and DP in three of Nepal’s five regions: the Far-West, Mid-West, and Eastern regions. A total of 216 participants attended these orientation workshops and more than 123 VDC secretaries of the three flood-prone districts of Sunsari, Udaypur and Banke were trained in DRR planning process. VDC secretaries were also trained in mainstreaming DRR into development by DIPECHO partner Practical Action.

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steps forward in a continual process of empowerment. Training programmes are short—just three to five days--so that people can easily spare the time to participate. Training guidelines have been distributed to serve as reference materials in the future and basic equipment has been distributed so that people can put the skills and knowledge they acquire into action. By conducting refresher trainings, DIPECHO partners have further sharpened people’s skills and knowledge. 2.1.5 Schools and health facilities So that they will be able to provide prompt services, schools and hospitals established committees to plan and carry out disaster prevention measures as well as to prepare for responding to disasters. For the most part, these committees function well. It was easy to carry out DRR-related activities at schools and in their vicinity because each school in DIPECHO project areas has a school-level DMC which has formulated a DP and contingency plan focusing on a range of activities, including mitigation activities. Students, teachers and school management committee (SMC) members have not only increased their skills and knowledge by participating in trainings in DP, light search and rescue, and first aid but have also taken action. For example, they pruned or cut down tall trees within school grounds, built compound walls to keep livestock out, and levelled school compounds to reduce accidents. Many schools built railings on stairs and around verandas. Other initiatives included plantation and protection work, like the construction of spurs and bio-dykes, in order to control soil erosion. Under the leadership of child clubs and school DMCs and with the support of community-level DMCs, small wooden river crossings were built to facilitate the movement of children to and from school during the monsoon season. DMCs were also formed at the sub-health post level. Local health personnel are included in community first aid task forces so that they will assume responsibility for providing health services during disasters. DIPECHO also arranged to re-supply first aid kits after medicines and other materials ran out. Ms Sunita Chaudhary, DMC Member, Rampura, Nawalparasi praised the mobilisation of health personnel under DIPECHO projects:

Health post personnel have made a significant contribution to raising awareness about why drinking water needs to be purified and how to avoid the emergence of water-borne epidemic during and after floods. We benefited a lot from the many awareness-raising campaigns. Even simple steps for making clean drinking water available deserve commendation. As inundation often continues for day, the aftermath of flooding has a big impact on us: the incidence of water-borne diseases increase and many large livestock die. After we addressed drinking water, our next initiative was how to destroy dead livestock timely and appropriately. Because of simple initiatives, floods are not as devastating as they used to be.

 2.2 Priority action 2: Risk assessment: Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning The achievements in risk assessment are discussed in terms of two areas: disaster risks assessment and early warning system. 2.2.1 Disaster risk assessments DIPECHO partners initially held meetings with representatives of all segments of the community, including women and vulnerable groups, in order to assess the existing disaster risks. Since then, periodic community-level meetings of task forces and DMCs have been held to assess developments in mitigating disaster risks. DIPECHO partners used participatory approaches like PVA, VCA and Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (HVCA) to identify potential hazards and the vulnerabilities and capacities of communities and

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to plan for specific adaptation and risk reduction measures. Participation not only helped individuals, households and communities to recognise their weaknesses and capacities in terms of addressing the impacts of hazards but also prepared them to reduce their vulnerabilities through local-level efforts. Ms Rekha Nepali, SMC member of Rastriya Lower Secondary School, Dhansinghpur of Kailali lauded the benefits of these participatory tools and techniques:

In the past we did not know how to respond to disasters in order to reduce their impacts. We did not even know how to initiate the process of disaster response. We learned about the importance of disaster risk assessment for the very first time when DIPECHO started its projects. At informal meetings and discussions, we prepared many mappings (I’ve forgotten their names) which clearly identified disaster-prone areas, settlements, existing infrastructures and institutions, disaster-sensitive months, what to do and what not to do, and other topics. We also explored what basic works we can carry out to reduce our vulnerability to disaster and allocated roles and responsibilities for coping with disaster.

During a disaster risks assessment, information is collected, collated and analysed. The particular tasks undertaken include the following.

• Prepare hazard, risk, and vulnerability maps and share them with relevant stakeholders to assess their reliability and validity

• Correct and update those maps and share them with relevant stakeholders and duty bearers and communities so that natural and related hazards, vulnerabilities and disaster impacts can be forecasted

• Identify the most-at-risk-populations and places of society, emerging risks and their nature • Prioritise risks • Analyse25 the information derived from these process • Prepare both short- and long-term community-based DRM plans taking into account capacity, the

extent of the problems identified, and their impacts—all information derived from the participatory exercises

• Develop community-agreed indicators of disaster risk and vulnerability for use in periodic monitoring of progress as part of a self-evaluation process

• Follow up on disaster-stricken areas regularly in order to enhance preparedness activities • Assess the impact of projects using pre- and post-project evaluations of knowledge, attitude and

practice. • Mercy Corps carried out a DMC Capacity Index study as part of impact assessment.

Participatory assessment at the community level has some flaws. Because people do not have adequate technical knowledge about the geology of the hills or the geo-hydrology of the rivers in the Tarai, it is often difficult to assess the level of risk and hazards with precision. As a result, the design of structural mitigation works is often poor and, as a result, so is their performance. Despite this problem, communities have, in fact, used participatory disaster risk assessments to identify disaster risks and develop community-based disaster risks management plans (under whatever name the different DIPECHO partners gave them). They were then able to use those plans to influence policy and to raise awareness about changing behaviours in order to create safer societies. Considering the nature of different hazards, DIPECHO partners carried out different approaches. As part of disaster risks assessment, Care Nepal carried out action research on landslides in Doti District and assessed the causes, effects and appropriate community-level solutions for landslide hazards. Its assessment was instrumental in designing appropriate actions for responding to the landslides. In Humla District, Mission East carried out a comparative risk assessment to help mountain communities respond to disaster risks.

                                                            25 The analysis comprised four steps: (i) situation analysis of community vulnerability, (ii) analysis of the causes and effects of that vulnerability, (iii) analysis of community action (existing coping mechanisms), and (iv) drawing up a community action plan based on that analysis. 

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Practical Action developed, published and disseminated a community-based DRM planning guideline based on comprehensive disaster risks assessment. Mercy Corps carried out a cost-benefits analysis based on its disaster risk assessment and educated people about the reasons for investing in mitigating flood-induced disasters. All these initiatives have helped increase the people's understanding about disaster risks and how to cope with them, but whether or not they will be continued will depend on how well DMCs and their networks function. 2.2.2 Early warning systems DIPECHO project communities have developed EWS to raise awareness about potential risks. For generations, people living in the rural areas of Nepal have drawn upon indigenous knowledge systems to forecast floods. The EWS adopted enhanced and built upon the strengths of those systems. Some of the forecasting systems that people rely on are described briefly in Box 6:

In the Tharu communities of Kailali District, efforts in DRR build on the existing cultural milieu and value system: aghariya26 assumed the responsibility for monitoring floods as assigned by bhalmasha27. In Dhungana settlement of Thapapur VDC, a tower constructed by the Dolphin Conservation Centre is used to monitor flooding, as are wooden posts and elevated machan28. Indigenous EWS have been modified and re-introduced in order to build the capacity of disaster-affected people. DIPECHO partners, particularly Practical Action, ActionAid and Mercy Corps, have established community-based EWS to address flood hazards in vulnerable communities and to build community-wide awareness and response capacity in flood-prone areas. These EWS put people, not just technology, at their centre. To popularise the concept of community-based EWS two slogans--“purbasuchana: sabai ka lagi sabai marphat (“early warning for all from all”) and “purbasuchana ko bistar: jokhim nyunikaran ko aadhar” (“the promotion of early warning: the basis for reducing risk”)—were introduced through FM radio and produce IEC materials.                                                             26 An agharia is an assistant to a bhalmasha who circulates messages to local people as instructed by that bhalmasha. 27 The first level warning was to alert the villagers of the incoming flood. Second level warning was for the people to act on the first warning and to collect important document and dry foods. Third level warning was to get people to safe places in the higher grounds with their family members, livestock and important belongings. 28 A raised tower made up of wood or bamboo and used to look out for marauding elephants. It is now also used for flood monitoring. 

Box 6: Some of the forecasting systems that people rely on • Clouds: Stationary black clouds in the east suggest there will be heavy rain within the hour. If clouds turn

yellow at the time of sunset, then there is a possibility of rain at night. • Rainfall: If there is heavy rainfall in the upper catchment and the Churia Hills, then the possibility of

flooding increases. • Mobility of ants: If a heavy rainfall is imminent, a colony of ants living in the earth will take their eggs and

climb trees or the walls of houses, seeking safer place. • Abnormal fly bites: If flies do not bite in the ordinary way, there is a possibility of a heavy rain. • Abnormal crying of animals, birds and insects: Abnormally loud or long cries by frogs, jackals, swans,

and cicada suggest that there will be a heavy rainfall. The abnormal howling of jackals at night is considered a bad omen.

• Storms: If thunderstorms come from the southeast or if wind blows from east to west, there is a possibility of a heavy rain. If the wind suddenly stops blowing in the evening, there may be a cloudburst

• Stars: If the stars twinkle differently, people predict a heavy rain. • Heat: If, all of a sudden, the temperature suddenly rises, people expect a heavy rainfall. • Rivers: The strange sounds of torrents, a muddy smell, water bubbles on the surface, and rising water levels

are all sign of an imminent flood.

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River gauge readers in upstream communities notified the coordinators of the EWS task force when rivers approached flood levels. The coordinators then verified the situation by observing downstream gauge meters themselves and informed the community by using large loudspeakers and hand mikes so that they would have sufficient warning time to be well prepared. Mr Dil Bahadur Chaudhary, the coordinator of the community FM Radio in Tikapur, Kailali, said that Tikapur’s community-based EWS was very effective:

The project provided ropes, sticks and torches to promoter individual safety and prepare us to evacuate to shelters safely. Persons with disabilities, pregnant women, children, and the elderly in particular are prepared to face disasters; their resilience has increased significantly. The most important aspect of EWS is that it has given us more time to prepare by informing us in advance. For example, to move from Chisapani to Narayanpur, flood waters take five-and-a-half hours; this time is enough to gather important belongings towards safer places or shelters. In the past, such facilities did not exist.

Though the installation of gauges is akin to engineering work, DIPECHO projects made sure to simplify their use so that communities learned how to measure average water levels and to determine higher, 'warning' levels. In addition to flood and rain gauges, local-level flood observation posts marking high, medium, and low flow with different colours (red, yellow and green respectively29 to mark no danger, caution and danger requiring evacuation) were installed as they are easy to interpret and readily alert communities. The levels were based on the last ten years of experience of the local people, both those up and downstream, at interactive meetings. However, it is possible that the bed levels of the rivers might have changed significantly and that the flood levels observed in the past no longer accurately represents the present time and that they will not do for the future. Since annual sedimentation rates in Nepal are very high, it would be best to verify the flood-level markings after determining the rise in river bed levels due to sedimentation. In Oxfam DIPECHO programme areas, a system of colour-coded flags is used to notify the hearing impaired. Handicap International also has designed a people-centred EWS which includes all members of the community, especially those who are most vulnerable and most-at-risk of not acknowledging the warning. In doing so, it got all segments of the population, including persons with disabilities, to participate and set up community-based communication networks. When water levels rise to dangerous levels, people are alerted through hand mikes, sirens, and telephones30; the entire community gets the message. Where there are no sirens or hand mikes, traditional musical instruments like the percussive dhol31 and madal32 are used to inform people. In this way, local people are informed about the possibility of heavy flooding. In addition, the project mobilised local FM stations to disseminate emergency news, weather-related bulletins, and DRR-related jingles in local dialects. Life-saving equipment, including first aid kits, life jackets, boats, ropes, tubes, torch lights and stretchers have been provided to each EWS task force so that they can also carry out rescues. The equipment is in very good condition and has been put to use well. Many task forces have prepared protocols prescribing the best use of the equipment. Since a blanket approach was used in the distribution of materials some EWS task forces have ended up with equipment they rarely use, like life jackets and tubes among hill groups. The approach to alerting communities to landslide in the hills is different. The Danish Red Cross, along with community people, developed the following indicators for landslide-based EWS which they use to determine when to adopt precautionary measures:

                                                             30 The telephone numbers of various actors at early information flow and flood measurement stations were pasted in public places for easy access by all community members. Local people have now started to communicate river-level readings obtained from gauge reader to downstream community members via telephone. Handy calendars with details about essential phone numbers are provided to locals. 31 These are local instrument used during festivals and religious functions.

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• Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations • Soil moving away from foundations • Leaning telephone and electricity poles, trees, retaining walls or fences • Crooked fences or distorted retaining walls • New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground or in street pavement • Sticking doors and windows and visible open spaces indicating jambs and frames out of plumb

Working with the mountain communities in Humla District, Mission East developed a set of simple indicators33 to assess the probability of landslides: it stretched a rope between a stable point and the potentially unstable slope that will break if the land starts to move and thus alert the population. In its experiences three indicators can help measure landslide risk: slope, vegetation and the quantity and intensity of rainfall. It devised a simple toolkit for communities to understand the causes of landslide, measure the risk using the given indicators, and to be alert if the risk becomes high. The solution is an affordable one which has significant numbers of households, human lives and livestock. Ms Padma Devi Deudi, Khirsene-6, Deudi Goan of Doti said:

In the long term, we should promote an integrated watershed management approach which entails gully control, terrace improvement, and the preparation of bhalkulo, or diversionary water runoff channels in strategic locations. We are happy that we got support in making bhalkulo though it was very small scale. I think the plantation of medicinal plants, hay, forage, grass, fodder, and bamboo; the control of grazing, and the construction of check dams, spurs, and brushwood dams in strategic locations are good immediate steps. The project opened our eyes to what to works and how to carry out coordinated efforts for making things different.

The benefits of comprehensive landslide treatment systems are multifaceted. First, the frequency and the extent of landslides have decreased so much that people are more confident about staying in their native villages and once again engaging in different agricultural practices. Second, they have realised that gabion boxes are not enough to control landslides and that bio-engineering is also crucial. Third, the fear and trauma associated with the monsoon have been declined. Fourth, the conservation of landslide areas has helped to meet local demands for firewood and timber. In collaboration with Practical Action, Mercy Corps Nepal helped Kailali District prepare a district-level EWS guideline, which has since been approved by its DDRC, and organised a national EWS strategic workshop to sensitise stakeholders. The modality of the flood-focused community-based EWS developed by Practical Action, ActionAid and Mercy Corps was replicated by other DIPECHO partners. Practical Action extended and scaled up EWS in districts other than Banke, Bardiya, Nawalparasi and Chitwan, its base, and provided support to the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DoHM) and other stakeholders to establish EWS in Koshi River System and Kailali district. Mercy Corps worked with the DoHM to pilot a low-tech flash flood forecasting model suitable for short river systems like those found in Kailali. Community-based EWS helped reduce economic losses by allowing people to better protect their assets and livelihood in advance. To promote their sustainability, EWS has been integrated with local-level contingency plans and partnerships among EWS task forces, DMCs, and VDCs have been established in order to institutionalise the process. Community-based EWS function well and have created great interest among disaster-affected people. As ESW are very simple, it is highly likely they will continue to operate even after external support is withdrawn.

                                                            33 The type and angle of a hill slope have a great influence on landslides. Landslides rarely occur on slopes less than 25°; the large majority of landslides occur on slopes with gradients ranging from 30° to 50°. The presence or absence of dense vegetation also determines the likelihood of a landslide.

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2.3 Priority action 3: Knowledge and education: Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels The achievements in knowledge and education are discussed in terms of five areas: Information management and exchange, formal education, public awareness and understanding, informal education and school safety. 2.3.1 Information management and exchange DIPECHO partners have established appropriate mechanisms and adopted several means by which to communicate key information on local hazards and potential disasters. The Radio is the most effective media as it instantly reaches many otherwise isolated communities and creates a two-way dialogue between duty bearers and rights holders. Media sensitise the masses and are effective in changing behaviour and influencing collective attitudes. All DIPECHO partners promote a risk-resilience culture through the identification of risks and the understanding of vulnerability. Situational assessments and analyses of local capacities and resources and explorations of ways and means to reduce associated risks have been carried out to increase people’s confidence. Once people are confident they carry out organised actions to reduce risks and to realise their rights to eliminate factors that threaten them. Handicap International tested the sensitisation of the masses to inclusive DRR using a two-pronged approach: (i) sensitisation of DRR stakeholders on the importance of all sections of society, including persons with disabilities and the nature of their unique capacities and vulnerabilities and (ii) sensitisation to their right to participate in DP exercises. Promoting and engaging the media to foster a culture of disaster resilience and strong community involvement is key. FM radio and TV programmes are only the easiest means of communication for mass sensitisation. Before messages were disseminated on a wide scale, listeners’ surveys were carried out to evaluate whether or not messages reached their target audiences clearly and which FM radio programmes should carry the messages in order to reach the greatest number in the community. FM radio is particularly useful in remote mountainous areas. It was able to involve people in DRR interactions through field testimonies, vox box calls, guest interviews, and recollections of disaster experiences. The radio programmes developed were interesting because the content incorporates local disaster contexts and addresses people’s daily concerns. Mission East supported the broadcast of a seven-month–long weekly DRR programme from Jumla to sensitise scattered mountain communities. Because its impact was extremely good, the same approach is being replicated in Kalikot District. Short radio jingles about community-based EWS and DP with practical, applicable messages on risks and how to reduce them helped change people’s behaviours of people. By delivering these messages in local languages, DIPECHO projects were really able to drive home their message. DDRC Saptari’s activities are typical: it broadcast a “janhitma suchana” (a message for the wellbeing of the people) over FM radio and disseminated IEC materials34 to promote public awareness. DIPECHO partners also disseminated DRR and DP messages and magazines through networks of community radio (ACORAB) which cover over 90 radio stations and all the DIPECHO programme districts. The ACORAB also prepared a DRR strategy for radio broadcasters with support from DIPECHO partners. Broadcasting case studies of DRR approaches and the voices of both local officials and programme staff helped to link local disaster scenarios with the key agendas of local governments. Interestingly, reporters and the people in charge of FM and community radio stations, including 32 journalists trained by ActionAid, attended trainings on how to analyse and interpret the flood forecasting data available on the DoHM’s

                                                            34 Eight different types of IEC materials (posters on floods and earthquake and the HFA, calendars, flip charts, a disaster knowledge series, etc.) were prepared and distributed to DMCs, REFLECT centers, and schools.

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website so that they would be able to provide relevant flood forecasting information. A mechanism for use in transmitting the information provided by gauge readers by telephone was developed. Four different films on flood preparedness, earthquake safety, fire preparedness and relief and rescue work were prepared and broadcast on national television. In addition, a participatory video on DRR and climate change adaption and a joint documentary focusing on the contributions of the projects of DIPECHO partners to the NSDRM and the HFA “Towards a Culture of Safety” were also televised. They provided information and served as an advocacy tool also. Video documentaries on the impacts of EWS and various coping mechanisms adopted by people in high-risk situations were shown to communities. Among other topics, videos conveyed message about disaster preparedness practices, the enforcement of rules like zero grazing along river banks, and techniques of soil conservation. In Sunsari District, television sets and DVDs containing information and knowledge about disaster preparedness and DRR were distributed to benefit illiterate communities which understand little of IEC materials. People have gained practical information and learned about the good practices adopted by people who live in similar socio-cultural contexts. Print media have been used to publish message-led information for DP and to bring attention to activities completed by various communities. Community meetings helped to disseminate the message about the need for DP and DRR. In Sunsari District, musibat bahas kendra managed by musibat bewasthapan samittee share information related to DRR to their members at bahas (discussions) held two or three times a week during the monsoon, if they are needed, but less frequently during the winter. Folk songs which have lyrics about DRR and DP have been written and sung to build awareness across communities. Street theatre is another powerful tool for sensitising and communicating key messages to the illiterate. A team of youth members trained to carry out joint actions in preparedness and DRR interventions in local languages wrote and acted in various dramas about DRR issues ranging from fire to floods to cold waves. Handicap International focused the content of its performances on the rights of persons with disabilities in disaster situations and on their proper evacuation. Street theatres performed at the community and district levels have increased awareness through entertainment. Plays have informed people about the nature and causes of disasters and what steps they can take to address them. Inspired by such performances, people have developed rules and regulations to protect riverbanks and control grazing and have improved sanitation, raised emergency funds, and claimed their rights from duty bearers. Ms Ushadevi Mahoto, Member, DMC, Babiya-8, Bardiya identifies what she believes are the benefits of street theatre:

Street theatre has taught us a lot of information, skills and knowledge which have been beneficial to us in evacuating and rescuing all community members. Street theatre has also debunked a number of myths. While people used to believe God cause disasters, the projects helped change the mindsets of communities and people no longer espouse such baseless beliefs. Because troupes of actors are developed locally, they are very effectiveness became high.

School-based DRR consisted of training DRR focal person in schools and providing technical and life- saving equipment, including first aid boxes. This initiative increased the confidence level of students and teachers in their ability to respond to disasters. The development and dissemination of posters, booklets, flip charts, calendars, games, and contests with a DRR-based focus contributed to information management and exchange among students and teachers and filled the gaps in their knowledge about DP and DRR. The fact that IEC materials were developed to address different themes suited to the local culture, context and in local dialects facilitated information management and exchange because each provided easily understandable information on disaster risks and protection options. Making sure that all IEC materials were gender- and culture-sensitive and field-tested ensured their value.

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The range of dissemination was enhanced by employing resource persons trained to act as local facilitators and change agents in door-to-door campaigns and by sharing IEC materials at the meetings of irrigation, community forest, and mothers groups. Media-led advocacy was carried out at the district and central level through rallies, symposiums, exhibition stalls, and creating banners and placards with AIN TGDM, DPNet and other forums. In this way, information was managed and exchanged at the district and national levels. 2.3.2 Formal education Because of the painstaking efforts of DIPECHO partners, college and school students have learnt how to prevent and dealing with disasters. Because youths and children are the key change agents in any society, DIPECHO partners trained and orientated them to DP initiatives and built their capacities in developing and implementing safety plans. Assigning one teacher at each educational institutional to serve as a DRR focal person and inviting him or her to many DRR-related programmes and trainings has resulted in the transfer of knowledge to youths and children and has had the expected spill-over effect on their families. To make sure that DRR education is properly disseminated, both child-to-child and child-to-parent approaches were promoted. Advocacy and campaigning have been promoted the inclusion of DRR knowledge in relevant sections of school curricula at all levels and the use of other formal and informal channels to reach youth and children with information. ActionAid supported to develop DRR Text Book for local curriculum endorsed by the District Education Office of Banke. Mr Ramkaran Mauriya, DMC Vice-Chairperson, Gangapur-9, Banke praised the use of local dialects in DRR education:

Pleasingly, we were able to successfully advocate the mainstreaming of DRR education in school curricula, and now, in coordination with the DRRR through School Project of ActionAid and the DIPECHO V Project, we have gotten support in producing DRR booklets in the local Abadhi language in Banke District. An Abadhi course book on DRR for grade 5 was prepared by the Resource Centre in Matehiya for use in eleven schools. We have heard that similar initiatives have been undertaken in Bardiya District, too. There, a DRR-related booklet was prepared for use in grades 5 to 8 and is currently used in eight schools.

Recognising that schools are an accepted platform for development and reform initiatives and that children will shape the future of society, DIPECHO partners incorporated disaster-risk resilient features35 in schools. Calendars, posters, diaries, audio CDs, wood-framed posters, handbooks, leaflets, visibility boards, and wall paintings have been prepared in order to promote DRR education. School intervention programmes have made students and teachers aware of the causes and effects of disasters and of the methods they can employ to prevent and mitigate their impacts. By imparting such knowledge and skills, schools have prepared children to cope with future disasters and helped communities to plan and implement DRR activities. Many DIPECHO partners have contributed a lot to incorporating DRR into formal education. Working with Nepal’s Curriculum Development Centre, they managed to formally include DRR as part of the school curriculum and to include it in the textbooks of grades 8 to10. ActionAid played a lead role in this initiative. Mission East has facilitated the mainstreaming of DRR into education in Karnali District via the KIRDARC education programme. Practical Action produced risk reduction practices to prevent epidemics and improve water and sanitation facilities and hygiene practices. Care Nepal organised trainings for teachers in community-based DRM and developed a training module for teachers and school action plans using a DRR lenses. Whether or not these good initiatives are continued depends upon the DEO's future role whether its future plans and programmes reinforce them.

                                                            35 The school DRR component includes co-curricular activities like quiz, poetry, art and singing competitions and debates to help children address the physical, social, and psychological risks of disasters as well as ways to mitigate them. 

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2.3.3 Public awareness and understanding The efforts of the DIPECHO partners in making schools safer from disaster impacts, creating awareness about disasters, and imparting life skills to students contributed to their right to education. As a result of various efforts in advocacy and campaigns, the project communities now know enough about the potential risks of hazards to be able to respond effectively. Communities have identified the major hazards in their vicinity and the risks posed by each hazard and have prioritised those risks and suitable response mechanism to lessen the impact of disasters by making DP plans. 2.3.4 Informal education Many public awareness campaigns were designed to teach people about the practical measures they can take to protect themselves from the impact of hazards. DIPECHO partners developed DRR training curricula for different target groups and implemented training programmes for all stakeholders. Besides training in DRR, the REFLECT36 classes run by ActionAid project and the SWOLID classes by Oxfam helped people explore DRR issues and strategies for coping with them in order to mitigate the impacts of disaster. While REFLECT classes are open for all (men, women, girls and boys), only women37 take part in SWOLID classes. Through these classes, communities found their own solutions to problems and the social transformation process was launched. The classes have helped increase social mobilisation and collective advocacy, empower participants, build relations, foster leadership, ignite creativity, and develop personal consciousness. Local facilitators regularly conducted REFLECT and SWOLID sessions with an average of 30 participants in order to disseminate information related to DRR and other significant issues38. As a result, local leaders have emerged. Women who were once confined to household work have now become outspoken. They even visited VDC and DDC offices to demand resources for mitigation works like graveling roads, constructing shelters, and elevating hand pumps. They have asked VDC and DDC officials to plan activities in their communities, participated in livelihood activities, and started saving programmes. There is almost no open air defecation in project communities; people have built and use toilets and wash their hands with soap. Some women hold key position in community-based organisations and local NGOs and speak out about specific needs and concerns during community planning meetings. In Matehiya of Banke District, women are particularly happy because the VDC and the project issued the letters in their names instead of their husbands because of the influence of REFLECT. Ms Ajita Godiya, REFLECT facilitator, Matehiya, Banke extolled the benefits of REFLECT:

The community-based informal education class was more beneficial to us than literacy programmes run in the past. They are based on what we need to know to cope with disaster and how to overcome other problems that the community faces. We know now who will suffer the most and the least from a disaster because we prepared and posted signs on the houses of persons with disabilities, pregnant women, infants, and the elderly so that the focus of response and rescue operations will be on them.

The formation of REFLECT circles and SWOLID classes promoted informal education through community mobilisation and information dissemination. SWOLID classes took place for two hours a day six days a week except during the peak agricultural season when women were too busy to participate while REFLECT circles met at least once or twice week. The informal education sessions both enhanced the social transformation process and created a demand for seeing women’s rights fulfilled. Whether the momentum behind these initiatives is sustained will depend upon the responses of local-level stakeholders and the resources allocated to REFLECT and SWOLID groups to execute their plans and programmes.                                                             36 REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques) is an approach to literacy and social change which fuses the political philosophy of Paolo Freire with the methodologies of participatory rural appraisal. Reflect centers are located in public places, shelters or schools where the members of DMCs and task forces as well as other men and women can easily access them. 37 The criteria for selecting participants is that they be poor, Dalit, illiterate, aged 15-49 (in their productive years), and willing to participate for the duration of the class. 38 These include health and sanitation, the support systems provided by the local government and other agencies during disasters, the concerns of women and other disadvantaged groups, women’s right and empowerment, VDC- and DDC-level planning procedures. 

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2.3.5 School safety DIPECHO partners helped projects communities become aware of how safe school buildings are and the practical steps to take to ensure that all new and existing schools are strong enough to provide protection from the impact of hazards. Participatory assessment processes were used at schools in order to identify the extent of physical vulnerabilities, emerging risks and the capacity to respond to those risks. As a result of increased awareness about earthquake preparedness, students have realised important concepts like it is best not to stay under big trees or to run outside of the house. They now know they should take cover under a table or in a doorway until the shaking stops and that they should keep essentials like first aid materials, food items and important documents in a safe place. Some schools that are particularly vulnerable have been retrofitted in order to uphold children's right to a safe school. In Banke District, Jai Kishan Madhyamik Vidhyalaya of Gangapur was retrofitted, as was Shree Nepal Pragi Lower Secondary School of Dhadawar, Bardiya District. A number of schools in Sunsari District were retrofitted to ensure they would withstand floods and earthquakes. Prevention activities like plantation have been initiated to control soil erosion and make the school vicinity green. School grounds have been levelled and tall trees next to schools have been pruned in order to reduce the risk of a lightning strike. In addition, community-owned ponds have been cleaned. Important papers and belongings are safeguarded. Hand pumps raised up to five feet have been installed and toilets renovated or installed.  With project SMC and parent-teacher associations have prepared comprehensive school earthquake safety plans. Drills and simulations were organised in selected schools to prepare students, parents and teachers for earthquakes and other hazards. All these initiatives have made a significant contribution toward creating safe environments at schools. 2.4 Priority action 4: Risk management and vulnerability reduction: Reduce underlying risk factors The achievements in risk management and vulnerability reduction are discussed in terms of nine areas: environment and natural resource management, adaptation to climate change, food security, social and economic protection, poverty reduction, land-use planning, building codes and standards and protection of public facilities. 2.4.1 Environment and natural resource management Project communities have adopted improved agricultural practices to protect the local environment. Mitigation works which conserve the local environment and protect cropland, thereby halting the decline in soil fertility and preventing the loss of standing crops have been carried out. DIPECHO projects have restored degraded lands along riverbanks, conserved forest, and rehabilitated water sources. The infrastructures constructed were small and simple. Their quality was top notch and no negative effects on the environment were observed. Flood-safe seed storage buildings were constructed to ensure that farmers would have the means to start up again after a disaster. Mercy Corps, for example, introduced the low-cost reinforcement of mud houses used for seed storage. The seed banks were large enough to preserve a variety of seeds, including maize, paddy, wheat and other agriculture products. They were stored in plastic bins with lids that float even if the building is flooded or even washed away. Issues that still need to be resolved include how to maintain a constant temperature, reduce dampness, and circulate fresh air.

24b. Adaptation to climate change Inspired by advocacy campaigns and capacity-building efforts, project communities have tried to increase their ability to adapt to future changes in climate and weather. The steps they took included the plantation

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of drought- and flood-resistant crops (singiya rice, for example, is flood-resistant, people say), plant off-seasonal and alternative crops instead of cereal crops, accommodate the changes in growing seasons, reclaim degraded land along riverbanks, rehabilitate traditional ponds and water bodies, promote afforestation and conservation, increase irrigation efficiency, promote alternative energy, and increase awareness about the conservation of biodiversity and wetlands. Practical Action, for example, has helped 725 families in Nawalparasi District to improve irrigation facilities using improved technologies so that they can increase production. DIPECHO partners supported the formulation of Nepal’s National Adaptation Plan for Action (NAPA), contributing especially to the theme of climate-induced disaster by offering continual feedback and suggestions. Practical Action’s study on the variability of climate change, which analysed people’s experiences and perceptions of climate change impacts in selected districts in Nepal, was very helpful. A national assessment of the variability of climate change has been made, data analysed, and the results published and disseminated widely. 2.4.3 Food security DIPECHO project communities have enough reserve food supplies for use during an emergency. ActionAid has intervened after floods and provided basic relief, both food and non-food items. It also provides the agriculture tools people need to resume lost livelihoods. “Fistful of rice” campaigns have been initiated in many disaster- affected communities to contribute to food security. Each household involved in such a campaign puts aside one fistful of rice each day. The rice which accumulated is then collected at regular time interval, like once a month as is done in Khikharipatti, Sunsari District or every six months as is done in Prataha of Udaypur District decided upon by the local DMC. It is stored in an agreed place to be used during emergencies. If no disaster strikes and no food aid is required, the rice is sold on the market in the following year, and the money is deposited in the emergency fund of the contributing community. Such campaigns have been conducted in all DIPECHO project communities but have found most favour in the Tarai. In addition to “fistful of rice” campaigns, emergency funds are managed by collecting a fixed amount of grain after each harvest. In this fashion, the process of using community savings to address the needs at the onset of any disaster rather than relying on external assistance has been instituted. Uttam Devi Mourey, the DMC vice-chairperson of Dondra, Gangapur, Banke, praised the “fistful of rice” mechanism for its ability to increase the self-reliance of a community:

We liked this approach very much. In the distant past, people used to set aside one fistful of rice before putting it in a pot to cook to later hand over to local temples to feed jogis (itinerant holy men). They believed that, in religious terms, they were earning ‘punya,’ or 'dharma'. Today, this practice has been completely abandoned. However, this project has remembered the traditional practice of working together, rising up together and enjoying life together. We have been collecting 2 kg of rice very month instead of collecting a small amount daily. Though people may wonder how much support such a small contribution could make, I think small is beautiful.

2.4.4 Social protection Vulnerable groups such as the poor, women, the elderly and persons with disabilities in DIPECHO project communities now have access to safety nets which provide basic social services during and after disasters. These safety nets have been cultivated through the parma system39, a traditional practice of providing seed support through a barter system (as determined ahead of time through verbal negotiation, the loan is reimbursed after the crop is harvested with exactly the same amount or slightly more than the seed provided), and offers of shelter and food support to families displaced by disasters. Though these practices

                                                            39 The mobilisation of a group of labourers on a voluntarily and rotational basis.

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are not new in the rural context, the advocacy of DIPECHO projects has increased awareness about the importance of providing social safety nets. Basic health facilities have been ensured by training volunteers in first aid and providing every DMC and every school with a first aid kit. People spoke very highly of this effort. Because shelters have been constructed either on school premises or within communities, it is easy for communities to provide basic arrangements to people in need. In the past, the lack of organised shelter facilities meant that some displaced women and girls were subjected to sexual harassment. “Fistful of rice” campaigns have ensured that the immediate food requirements of the disaster-affected can be met until relief materials from external agencies means like the DDRC or the NRCS arrive. Special DRR programmes to provide social protection to the most vulnerable segments of society40 have been developed and accorded priority in implementation. DMCs keep updated information on pregnant women, persons with disabilities and the elderly in their communities so that these people can receive immediate attention. Ms Tara Devi Chaudhary, a member of the DMC of Prata-5 of Udaypur District explained the priority given to the vulnerable:

We are very special because we have promoted affirmative action to provide more service to those who are really in need. It is not a matter of dividing resources equally. We have allocated extra budget for the relief packages of vulnerable group. For example if a disaster-affected person is old, disabled, or pregnant, he or she gets additional NRs 10; every child below the age of 5 gets an extra NRs. 20. We are very sensitive about providing social protection to vulnerable people. We hope that other people will learn from us why looking after the vulnerable is important.

2.4.5 Economic protection Even though DIPECHO partners did not have a mandate for working to improve the livelihoods of disaster- affected communities or to increase their economic wellbeing (their mandate was confined to humanitarian works), people, inspired by the power of collective initiatives, have begun to operate community-based savings and credit schemes to increase the size of their emergency funds. People save between NRs 20 and 50 per month. In some areas, people have taken loans from emergency funds to diversify their sources of income and thereby reduce their vulnerability to hazards. DMCs have laid out certain rules and regulations to govern this sort of micro-financing. Mr. Narsudhan Sharma, the chairperson of the DMC of Babiya-8, Bardiya, described the benefits of the revolving fund:

The success of the “fistful of rice” campaign of the DMC of Babiya-8, Sunsari District encouraged us, Babiya-1 and Babiya-6, to start a one-rupee-saving-campaign. Every day, we put aside one rupee each for and later collection at regular intervals. This we manage as an emergency fund. A large number of people have benefited from this fund as they are able to get loans at a nominal rate of interest under the mechanism for lending which we prepared.

2.4.6 Poverty reduction Because they are more confident and have been able to build networks, disaster-affected communities are more capable of tackling poverty. DIPECHO partners have linked disaster-affected communities with projects that focus on livelihoods using non-DIPECHO sources of funding. The selection of long-term partners like ActionAid and Oxfam as DIPECHO partners has helped build links to other projects which can improve livelihoods and reduce poverty. In many areas, project communities have been selected by NGOs for livelihood efforts because of their good social harmony and solidarity (which, it must be said, stem in part from DIPECHO efforts). Such projects benefits from the Poverty Alleviation Fund of the World Bank.

                                                            40 The marginalised, Dalits, women, the elderly, the poor, and persons with disabilities.

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Land reclamation focused on diversifying and enhancing sources of income. The poor were organised to use the degraded land along rivers and today, bagarkheti (the cultivation of riverbanks) has become a popular way of earning a good source of income among the resource-poor. Many cultivate a variety of cash crops, including watermelons, cucumbers, sweet potatoes, taros, peanuts, and off-seasonal vegetables. Local water bodies are also rehabilitated to generate income. Rampura Women Farmers Group of Nawalparasi promoted fishery in a local pond and earned NRs 50000-60000 annual basis. Mr Bhimsen Chaudhary, Project Coordinator of KVS, Saptari lauded the benefits of DIPECHO’s income-generating activities:

The people of Hunumannagar and Launiya of Saptari District have even stopped migrating seasonally now that income levels have increased. Ten households in Launiya have started cultivating potatoes on the riverbank. The establishment of nurseries, plantation and the introduction of cash crops have also brought in income. Degraded land that used to be neglected is now a good source of income. We are planning to cultivate more cash crops in the immediate future in the group approach.

2.4.7 Land-use planning Communities have been involved in local development planning, including land-use planning, in order to reduce disaster risks. Degraded land along riverbanks has been divided into different zones so that it can be properly used. In the majority of DIPECHO project areas, mostly those in the Tarai, riverbanks have been protected by constructing bio-dykes and planting fast-growing plants with the capacity to hold soil. In order to reduce the pressure of grazing livestock and to allow for the regeneration of grassland, especially in areas encroached upon by rivers, a separate area for grazing has been clearly demarcated. Some parts of flood-affected areas have been handed over to community forest user groups with the intention of improving conservation efforts. They often construct trenches to prevent livestock from entering the forest. 2.4.8 Building codes and standards Because communities have adhered to national building standards, all the buildings constructed under the project are resistant to disasters. In Makwanpur District, after seeing the retrofitting techniques used in earthquake-resistant designs demonstrated, some people adopted those very techniques to make their houses safer. The celebration of Earthquake Safety Day was a form of advocacy DIPECHO partners undertook in order to increase awareness about building codes and standards. Unfortunately, awareness is still limited. School safety campaigns were organised to pressure duty bearers into carrying out school retrofitting activities and thereby transfer risks from these essential public facilities. The new schools constructed under the project, including Shree Laxmipur Higher Secondary School of Prata-5, Udaypur Districts, have upheld national building codes and standards. ActionAid and Handicap International worked closely with Bheri Zonal Hospital in Banke District to retrofit the hospital service and to ensure that it can provide all critical health services even during an emergency. The operation ward, x-ray and pathology departments, and the electricity and water supply systems are all capable of functioning during and after a disaster. ActionAid also carried out a non-structural physical vulnerability assessment of its country office in Kathmandu and oriented its staff to building codes and standards in order to reduce the underlying risk factors from earthquake hazards. As the year 2009-10 is UNISDR year of hospital safety, the contribution made through non-structural assessment of the Hospital in Banke is also relevant.

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2.4.9 Protection of public facilities DIPECHO projects communities have built and maintained community facilities designed to reduce underlining risk factors. They have initiated small-scale structural support and mitigation works after conducting a thorough assessment of existing public facilities and determining what areas need more protection and which facilities need strengthening. DMCs have helped mobilise communities to identify construction sites, provide labour, and purchase construction materials. Before DIPECHO projects were introduced, people thought of mitigation solely in terms of gabion and stone machinery works and bulldozer mobilisation, all efforts involving extensive resources. Today, through advocacy, they understand that mitigative measures do not have to cost a lot of money. Emergency shelters safe exits, flood control structures, bio-dykes, bamboo spurs, culverts, wooden bridges, machan, electric fences41, drainage, school toilets, boats, and plantation are some of the infrastructural developments they have introduced in order to reduce disaster risks through the mobilisation of local skills and resources. In Doti District, people are happy about the bhalkulo (diversionary channels to handle water runoff from upstream area) constructed even though it was a very small scale initiative. Mr Dilli Ram Joshi, Bhajani-3, Kailali said:

Even though the structures are small, they are beneficial. Culverts have helped student go to and from school with ease. Boats have become a way of life; we use them to cross the river and monitor our crops. CFUGs have provided timber for the construction of boats at very low rates. In Bhajani of Kailali Districts, more than 1500 houses in four villages are protected by the bio-dyke constructed by Mercy Corps, and we heard that a machan constructed in Padnaha-9, Khairgahari, benefits 1288 people. These are just a few examples of the many benefits the project has had.

Shelters have been constructed in strategic locations, mostly within school premises. They are put to multiple uses during non-emergency periods. During emergencies, they provided shelter, served as a health facility for the injured, and were used to store the belongings of displaced families. In some instances, grains were also stored in shelters. The design of the shelters is well organised and instils a sense of security. Each shelter is linked to a safe evacuation route and has ramp access for persons with disabilities, a veranda surrounded by a railing, and hand rails in its toilets. Some schools have been modified to accommodate displaced people. They are equipped with raised hand pumps and toilets. Mr Gagansingh Thakulla, VDC Secretary, Narayanpur VDC, Kailali highlights a number of infrastructural developments:

In Dhansingpur, Lalbhoji and Narayanpur VDCs, the VDC offices themselves have contributed NRs 45,000, 50,000 and 35,000 respectively for riverbank protection. The development budget for road, culvert and drainage improvement is now calculated with DRR in mind. Darakh VDC of Kailali District provided NRs 150,000 to gravel roads. VDCs are now convinced that investing in disaster risk reduction is necessary.

Shelters have built within school premises to serve as relief centres during emergencies and as venues for health check-ups, community feasts, orientations, and other activities during non-emergency periods. To increase the sense of ownership, a cost-sharing mechanism has been adopted for the construction of shelters. In Banke and Bardiya districts, for example, community forest user groups (CFUGs) helped fund shelters, while in UNDP helped fund the shelter in Matehiya, Banke District42. In both Sunsari District and Kamdi, Banke District, a large shelter with a concrete roof capable of accommodating more than 100 people was constructed. Both facilities could be improved if they had a staircase to the roof and a railing around the roof. The shelter in Padnaha-8, Bardiya District, holds 100 people and was built for NRs 800,000--NRs                                                             41 In Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts, 2460 households are now protected from wildlife by electric fencing. The loss of crops and livestock and human lives has declined. 42 ActionAid mobilises Rs. 10 million from the UNDP directly for DIPECHO and other project areas. ActionAid provided techno-managerial support and supervised the efficiency and effectiveness of the interventions. DMCs directly implemented mitigation activities and set up EWSs. They constructed four shelters, rehabilitated one existing mothersha (traditional school of Muslim, where Kuran is taught) reform, installed 20 tube wells, and built three bio-dykes, two embankments, and two culverts. It is estimated that 16,000 people will benefit directly from the initiatives.  

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429,000 from the project, NRs 235,000 from the community forest and the rest from the community. Similar funding arrangements were made elsewhere. No shelters have been built in the hills though people do leave their houses when there is a heavy rain and sometimes spend days in the open in fear of a landslide. In Torakhet, Myagdi District, a remote hill village, the community built a retaining wall with gabion wire with ten days of free labour contributed by each household and wire provided by the Myagdi District Soil Conservation Office. In Tarai, the construction of bio-dyke in strategic locations reduced soil erosion and prevented the loss of cultivable lands, as did plantation work though the success of the latter is threatened by poor arrangements for controlling grazing. Nurseries have been established to upscale the practice of bio-dyke construction, which is always carried out with a view to avoiding harm to other river communities and avoiding the seeds of disputes. The more than 800 m of bio-dykes constructed at Inarwa-6, Khikharipatti VDC, protects 49 families. The DDC provided NRs 40,000 for its construction and the Armed Police Force and locals provided free labour. Tohir Miya, a local of Khikharipatti, alone contributed NRs. 100,000, and every household contributed 20 bamboo poles. To reduce the vulnerability of and threats to communities residing along riverbanks, plant species such as ashok, sisaw, narkat, bed, liptis, and gulmohar, have been planted. Ms Munna Marauni, Reflect member of Gangapur, Banke identified the benefits of bio-dykes in Banke District:

Highly vulnerable communities in Gangapur, Banke District are protected from floods by two bio-dykes about 1700 meters long. More than 300-400 households benefited. We never imagined that an outside organisation would come to our village and provide us with such support. Those who had thought about migrating from this place have changed their minds. The land value is increased after we carried out riverside protection work.

Raised hand pumps have been installed in schools, shelters and other few public places to ensure that there is a supply of safe drinking water during periods of inundation. These water sources are well protected, properly maintained, and sanitary. The construction of ramps has increased the access of persons with disabilities to water and toilets, but in the communities where there are no persons with physical impairment; raised hand pumps were not equipped with ramps. In order to improve sanitation and eliminate the practice of open air defecation, the project has supported the construction of toilets. Building a toilet cost Rs 11,000-14,000, a significant amount due, in part, to the fact that superstructures were made of brick masonry and CGI sheet roofing. Though the technology itself is good, to promote their replication the costs should be lowered. In many areas, like Rampura, Nawalparasi District, sanitation campaigns were initiated, most successfully. To institutionalise this initiative, some communities agreed on protocols, like fines of NRs 50 for anyone caught defecating in the open. It was said that the improvement in sanitation had drastically reduced the incidence of water-borne diseases. To maintain transparency, details about the costs of all projects are clearly displayed on notice boards at each mitigation site. In terms of decision-making as well as resource- and benefit-sharing, DIPHECHO projects are accountable to the DMCs and the DMCs are accountable to the community and vice versa. 2.5 Priority action 5: Disaster preparedness and response: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response The achievements in risk management and vulnerability reduction are discussed in terms of six areas: disaster preparedness and response, response skills, evacuation, training drills and simulations, emergency resources, and coordination and information exchange. 2.5.1Disaster preparedness and response Communities have clear emergency response plans governing how they will deal with the impacts of a disaster. Participatory tools and techniques like PVA and VCA were used to assess the extent of people's

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vulnerability as well as their capacity for coping in adverse situations, including disasters. Drawing upon these assessments and in line with the needs and desires of the people, community DP plans43 were formulated. These plans have increased people's self-reliance, enhanced community resilience and made disaster response more effective. DP and contingency plans are reviewed periodically to enable people to engage in consensus-based decision- making with respect to DRR and to make them aware of emerging concerns and issues. The DP plans are easy to understand and clear: they delineate the interventions required and the rationale behind them as well as the proposed locations, time frames, and responsible persons for their implementation, and their expected beneficiaries. They serve as tools of advocacy for lobbying with local and district governments to get resources. Because community-level DP and contingency plans are integrated into VDC DP plans, it is highly likely that they will be operationalised. Response plan have also been formulated to ensure that communities can respond to disaster-affected people timely, appropriately and adequately. In the formulation of response plans, the key provisions (see box 7) of the Natural Calamity Relief Act (NCRA) of 1982 are shared with communities.

There is plenty of evidence that DP plans are already in operation. Pre-monsoon workshops carried out in all district headquarters clearly spelled out what actions are to be implemented to lessen the impacts of disaster and mapped both the capacity of stakeholders and response capacity in terms of financial, human and other resources. DP plans have made it easier to address the key necessities of specific populations, including women, persons with disabilities44, children, lactating mothers, and pregnant women. Post-monsoon meetings are also held with district level stakeholders, including the DDRC, in attendance. Clearly, well-formulated DP plans have helped advocate and facilitation action. Household-level disaster preparedness is in place as a result of DP plans. People keep important documents like citizenship, land registration, and birth registration documents, and report cards in plastic folders, they get prepared as the seasons dictate, they keep a bucket of water in the kitchen at all the time in case of fire, they ensure fires are properly extinguished after cooking, and take other steps to stay safe. People claim that their valuables, including dry food items, no longer can be washed away by floods. With increased knowledge and information, people have started to make their houses safer through minor adjustments like

                                                            43 Some DIPECHO partners call DP plans”community disaster preparedness and response plans” (CDPRPs). 44 Persons with disabilities suffer particularly high rates of mortality during disasters. Persons with disabilities have not only specific needs but also specific abilities. Disability -inclusive DRR considers how the needs of persons with disabilities can be addressed and how they can contribute to DRR and disaster management.  

Box 7: Standards of relief • Rs. 25,000 shall be provided to the family of every person who dies. • Injured persons shall be treated and provided Rs. 1000 as a transportation allowance to return

home. • Seriously injured people will be airlifted and taken to a well-equipped hospital. • Anyone whose home is destroyed by a natural disaster will be provided with Rs. 10,000. • If there is a threat of a disaster or if a house is not safe to live in, then the residents shall be

provided up to Rs. 5000 so they can arrange temporary accommodations. • Seven kilos of rice or Rs. 125 shall be provided to every person made homeless by a disaster. He

shall also receive Rs. 500 to buy clothing and kitchenware. • Those who have lost all their land and their crops and have nothing to eat shall get Rs. 1000 each as

immediate relief assistance. • Those affected by natural disaster will get a concession on the price of timber to construct a new

home.

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raising plinths to keep out flood waters in the monsoon and ward off the extreme cold of the winter. Inspired by people in other areas and by the DIPECHO projects themselves, people have built taadi ghar (two-storey houses); they use the second floor for storing grain and as a safe haven during floods. They make bhakari45 and seed bins to store grains. People have also begun to move their houses towards safer places as a part of adaptation. As a result of community level DP plan, earthen dikes to hold back floodwaters have been constructed in the strategic locations, raised evacuation routes built and safe places have been identified to slim down the impacts of disaster. Response plans have been adjusted by communities to suit the resources available, the number of disaster-affected people and the most pressing needs. Mr Govinda Prasad Ghimire, DMC chairperson of Prata-5, Udaypur praised the effectiveness of response plans:

This year, for example in Prata-5, Udaypur District, the DMC provided relief materials to Kalpana Magar for snake bite, to Chandra Man Tamang for fire, and to Kailash Karki for an accident as per the standards set by the DMC and the resource available at the local level. It was possible to provide relief because rules and regulations had already been adopted. Interestingly, once a response plan was prepared, there were no serious disputes while distributing relief materials to the disaster-affected people. In the past, however, in the name of the affected, many non-affected people had benefited. Having a response plan has made it easier to respond to particular people or families because our response is based on our assessment of damage and need. We have also formed an emergency response team to systematise response work and have given it the mandate to use some amount from the emergency fund based on how urgent the work is.

In addition to DP and response plans, school improvement plans have been prepared side-by-side with the preparation of VDC-level DP Plan so that VDC resources can be used to implement them. Practical Action facilitated communities in preparing sanitation plans for post-flood conditions. All communities have prepared DRM plans and shared them with the concerned agencies in order to generate resources. Mission East facilitated the preparation of DP plans in Humla, Kalikot and Dopla districts to get duty bearers to work toward making mountain communities more resilient. Care Nepal has assisted in the preparation of both school and community contingency plans. 2.5.2 Response skills DIPECHO partners have carried out capacity-building initiatives to enhance people's response skills. People are now more skilled in first aid, search and rescue, radio communications, fire fighting, water purification, and the use of life-saving equipment. Because their response skills have improved, community resilience has grown. District-level preparedness allowed people to mobilise resources at a speed that proved essential during relief operations. The establishment of warehouses has increased the capacity of communities to store relief materials, including food, medicine, and rescue equipment in strategic locations. Mercy Corps, for example, has stocked non-food emergency relief items for 400 families in Kailali District and for 500 families in Kathmandu in ready position for the fiscal year 2009-2010. In Myagdi, the Danish Red Cross has stocked non-food relief items for 250 families, each of whom would receive a package of essential items that meet the Sphere standard. Handicap International has provided assistive devices to be stockpiled with other emergency items by DIPECHO partner's organizations, in 10 districts, that can be used by newly injured persons or by persons with disabilities who have lost their device during the emergency First aid trainings provided local communities with the skills they need to provide first-level medical help until professional support arrived. The provision of first aid kits ensures that they can put their skills to good

                                                            45 Wooden vessels used to store grains. They are more secure than earthen bhakari.

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use. In Sunsari District, a thela-ambulance46 has been introduced for use during the monsoon season when normal ambulances malfunction. The popularity of this low-cost local technology is increasing. It was initiated in Hanumannagar VDC of Saptari District by Oxfam but was later replicated in Launiya VDC of the same district and elsewhere by government authorities. Search and rescue training has increased people’s knowledge about how to search for missing people and how to carry out successful rescues. Trained volunteers equipped with different life-saving equipment, including life jackets and a rescue boat, were mobilised during big floods to offer their skills in life-saving missions. Search and rescue teams often made door-to-door visits to assess the support that families would need in case a disaster struck. In appreciation of this team, Luvraj Tharu, Secretary, DMC had this to say:

We have learnt new ideas about search and rescue from the team and from each other. We also learned to make rescue apparatus from bottles and jerry cans and to make safe boats from banana and lauka stems when inundation lasted many days. This is crucial because there aren’t enough boats to serve all the flood-affected people. You can imagine how interested we are in using local resources to reduce disaster risks. In the last monsoon, four shepherds and 34 buffalos were saved by search and rescue teams (in Padnaha). As we live with the probability of experiencing annual floods, search and rescue skills are among the most important skills, and we thank all the DIPECHO project staff for providing us with skills and equipment.

Trainings on disability have helped communities identify persons with disabilities and evacuate them to safety. Screening camps were organised to assess47 the persons with disabilities, identify their need and take measurements for assistive devices, including prostheses, and record their wishes with respect to participation in DRR activities. Handicap International distributed and fitted assistive devices in coordination with interested DIPECHO partners through mobile camps held one month after the initial evaluative one. These camps were also used to share information about DRR with persons with disabilities and others. 2.5.3 Evacuation Translating the skills and knowledge they acquired into action, DIPECHO project communities have created clearly marked and accessible evacuation routes from communities to shelters and schools outfitted with shelters. These places of refuge are all provisioned with ramps. Because they helped formulate DP plans, people are now aware of which places inside and outside their homes are safe. DP plans include provisions for the safe evacuation of the most vulnerable—persons with disabilities, the elderly and children. It is not simply the physical set up of evacuation that is in place. People have developed the skills they need to carry out the evacuation process systematically. They know who should be evacuated first, where they reside and where they should be taken. Because there are evacuation routes and agreed places to assemble, there is no confusion and therefore much less loss of life than there was three years ago. The systematicness of evacuations has enabled people to save their belongings, assets, and documents and even the lives of fam-ily members and neighbours during emergency situations. 2.5.4 Training drills and simulations Each community developed an emergency response plans. They put it to the test regularly with drills and simulations. These exercises are an important tool for mobilising communities and getting them to execute preparedness and contingency plans with new energy and hope.

                                                            46 A thela is a wooden vessel which is used to carry goods from one place to another, mostly to a local haat bazaar. 47 Often persons with disabilities are not visible, left behind or unable to participate in activities due to the lack of assistive devices. To overcome this hurdle to the participation of persons with disabilities in orientation sessions, trainings on EWS, and to ensure they could be evacuated successfully, the DIPECHO project provided appropriate devices, such as hearing and walking aids,  

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DP exercises have also been promoted along with evacuation drills for ensuring rapid and effective disaster response. As a result, access to essential food and non-food relief supplies appropriate for local needs has increased. The preparation of a roster of security personnel and other stakeholders has also increase levels of preparation. EWS drills and evacuation simulations have built the capacities of teachers, students and youths, precisely those who serve as agents of change. In order to put to the test and to hone the knowledge and information people acquired at trainings and orientations, drills and simulations in EWS, search and rescue, and first aid. All task force teams were mobilised in such exercises. Because EWS drills were so successful in Kailali District, a team of ActionAid India staff members replicated the same approach in Assam, India. 2.5.5 Emergency resources Emergency supplies have been managed by communities themselves or in partnership with local organisations. Through continual advocacy and campaigning, DIPECHO project communities have been able to mobilise in advance those emergency resources, like cash, grain, ready-to-eat food items, and non-food items, they need to respond immediately to a disaster. VDCs, DDCs, and CFUGs have contributed cash. Communities, too, have raised limited amounts of cash through savings-and-credit schemes and have accumulated grains through “fistful of rice” campaigns and post-harvest collections. To encourage the generation of resources for DMC emergency funds, each community received seed money, from NRs 5000 in the case of the Danish Red Cross to NRs 25,000 in the case of ActionAid. Udaypur District has begun to collect levies for its emergency fund because it feels so strongly about the need for such a fund. For example, at a joint meeting of all the district-level stakeholders, Udayapur decided to collect NRs. 15 from the sale of each cubic foot of wood that is exported from the district. Many VDCs in the DIPECHO project districts have also allocated an amount ranging from NRs 100,000 to 150,000) to the emergency fund. 2.5.6 Coordination and information exchange DIPECHO partners successfully contributed to enhancing coordination mechanisms from the local to the national level. Good coordination has resulted in good information exchange, which in turn has strengthening policy, technical and institutional capacities, technology, and human and material resources at the community, district and, national levels. Since, EWSs need to be established as a practice with social roots rather than as a mere technological activity if they are to reduce loss of life and property, policy-makers, along with other national-, district- and local-level stakeholders, have been advocating that EWSs be made a part of a long-term solution. At the national level, as a result of good coordination and information exchange, Practical Action and Mercy Corps, in alliance with other organisations, have been supporting that the government to draft a National Strategy for EWS in Nepal. National and regional level workshops were organised in Kathmandu to familiarise relevant stakeholders, including the representatives of the MoHA, NRCS and Social Welfare Council with DIPECHO project activities and their outcomes and impacts. Coordinated efforts to design community-based EWS developed a very good relationship among key DRR stakeholders including the UNDP and UNOCHA, AIN, DPNet, MoHA, MoLD, National Planning Commission, and DoHM and a very successful model. The community-based EWSs in West Rapti and Narayani rivers, for example, have successfully developed linkages between upstream flood forecasting stations and downstream communities. The efficient dissemination of information down along a fixed channel has increased the response time by several hours; the potential of these EWSs to reduce the impacts of flood is great. The decision in Kailali District to pool funds to establish an EWS proves the commitment of the DDC and flood-prone VDCs. Mercy Corps aims to put EWSs high on the national and district agendas through various initiatives it will carry out in collaboration with Practical Action and the DoHM.

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Coordinated efforts in advocacy and campaigning resulted in the drafting of a new Disaster Management Bill that incorporates DRR. The conduction of pre-monsoon workshops48 is also as result of coordinated efforts at the national, regional and district level. All five development regions have been covered and standard operating procedures (SOP) have been prepared for each region. DIPECHO partners also facilitated RDRC/DDRC for organizing Pre-monsoon preparedness planning, DRR mainstreaming and developing SOP. The regional SOP will feed into the national Emergency Operation Centre (EOC) at MoHA. The good coordination and exchange of information had many benefits. First, the generation of knowledge among DRR stakeholders complemented the ongoing policy works. Second, networking and linkages with government agencies, UN agencies, AIN, DPNet, and other DIPECHO partners has made for a coordinated effort that avoids duplication of works. Third, connecting people to grassroots leaders to district administrators and to national-level decision-makers is the key to supporting people-led policy advocacy. Last, government officers, political parties, decision-makers, and parliamentarians are informed about joint advocacy initiatives and feel the pressure to take positive steps to fulfil national commitments. District project advisory committees, especially the one in Kailali, provided resources and technical backstopping for DRR initiatives. Its strong district-level coordination has enhanced the second tier of impacts for leveraging the project results. For example, district soil conservation offices supported the construction of bio-dykes, district forest offices helped build mitigation structure through providing seedling and timber, district education offices assisted in school-led DRR activities and the water and sanitation unit of DDCs promoted the construction of raised hand pumps. Because VDC secretaries were ex-officio/advisory members of the DMCs (not in all cases), a functional linkage between and the two bodies was established. VDC secretaries oversee the formulation and execution of VDC-level DP plans, which are an amalgamation of community-level DP plans. Because collaboration and joint action has increased awareness about DP and because organisations function in coordination, it will be easy to formulate, activate and execute VDC-level DP plans in the future; promote sustainable support for DP activities; and raise DP awareness in and around the project communities. Communities have developed a culture of coordination, whether it be with neighbouring communities, local authorities, or NGOs, in times of emergency. Working in close collaboration with local actors, DIPECHO partners have helped to develop local action plans and to provide communities with important tools to prepare them. Because coordination is good, communities know other stakeholders well. Each DMC has a list of emergency phone numbers, contact persons, and other essential details. DMCs have built the capacity of local people and institutions, including local authorities by involving them actively in DRR, and, as a result have helped to coordinate DRR planning and resource mobilisation. VDC representatives have started to participate actively and give moral support to different activities such as workshops, mitigation works, school programmes, social audits, and review and reflection meetings. Highlighting the coordinated efforts at the local level, Mr Dilli Prasad Pandey, VDC level network, Narayanpur, Kailali said:

Because of the good coordination, project staff regularly participates in activities organised by VDCs, such as flood assessment and council meetings. They also get the opportunity to discuss budget allocations for DRR. This sort of close collaboration between the project team and VDC representatives has resulted in good understanding and management of DRR issues in the area. For instance, in Narayanpur VDC of Kailal District, two-thirds of the VDC budget was spent on DP. It was the

                                                            48 The main objective of pre-monsoon workshops is to identify the VDCs most vulnerable to floods and to prioritise them for assistance in the district’s response programme. District contingency plans or district disaster management plans are also prepared at these workshops. The DDRC then develops its own criteria to select flood-prone areas to respond. 

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harmonious relationship between project staff and the VDC and the trust that had developed that saw such a generous allocation forthcoming.

Chapter 3: Conclusion 3.1 The context: The fact that the project period of all DIPECHO projects was fixed at 15 months irrespective of the level of activity, the capacity of the implementing partners (partner NGOs) and communities, the geographic location and remoteness of the communities, and the types of hazards to be dealt put tremendous pressure on most of the communities and partner NGOs to complete the set project activities within the set timeframe. However, the quality of work carried out by each DIPECHO partner is praiseworthy. Their efforts are highly appreciated by the project communities and by DRR stakeholders at the local, district and national level. DIPECHO projects helped to achieve the five priority actions and the three strategic goals of the HFA. They facilitated the formation and strengthening of community-based disaster institutions, particularly DMCs and networks from the cluster to the national level, both of which worked to support disaster- affected people and to advocate and campaign to see them able to claim their rights. People have been empowered: they are aware of their rights and of the legal obligation of the government to protect them from disaster risks. Mechanisms that enable people to secure human and financial resources to deal with disaster and to increase their resiliency have been developed. Capacity-building initiatives have filled and continue to fill knowledge gaps in DP and DRR so that communities gradually develop the knowledge and skills they need to reduce their vulnerability. Schools and health facilities have been included in DRR initiatives; they have planned and carried out disaster prevention measures as well as prepared to respond to disasters. Community-based EWS have been modified in order to capitalise on people's indigenous knowledge; these EWS have helped identify, assess and monitor existing disaster risks and will help potential risks in the future. DIPECHO projects held dialogues and consultations to foster information sharing; technical backstopping; and resource, idea and experience sharing in order to encourage people to take immediate action in improving project initiatives. The DIPECHO projects successfully used knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels by managing information and exchange, imparting formal and informal education, raising public awareness, and making sure that safer schools play a greater role. Underlying risk factors have been identified so that their adverse impacts can be reduced. People are now more aware of what adaptation to changing climatic factors entails. They have undertaken initiatives that enhance food security, provide socio-economic protection nets, and reduce poverty. Land-use planning efforts have ensured that degraded land is put to better use and awareness about building codes and standards has been increased and, in consequence, safer infrastructures constructed. In order to reduce underlying risk factors, public facilities have been protected at the local level. DP has been strengthened and the response skills of communities have been enhanced and made more effective. The development of emergency response plans has made it easier to evacuate needy people to shelters (or schools serving as shelters) along clearly marked and accessible evacuation routes. Refresher trainings, drills and simulations have made sure that people retain the skills and knowledge they acquire, and good coordination has enable communities to get support. The various stakeholders concerned demonstrate a good understanding of DP and response. All the initiatives discussed above have made a significant contribution to the effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies and planning and programming at all levels. They

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have put special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction, thereby meeting strategic goal 1. Moreover, DIPECHO projects helped develop and strengthen the institutions, mechanisms and capacities of all levels, in particular those at the community level, which can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. In this contribution, they helped fulfil strategic goal 2. Strategic goal 3 was also fulfilled as continuous advocacy and campaigning resulted in the systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes during the reconstruction of disaster-affected communities. 3.2 The way forward Gaps and areas for improvement While the efforts made by all DIPECHO partners to support the HFA are commendable and much has been achieved, DIPECHO, their coverage, in terms of both area and people, is limited and the gaps, huge. If the current levels of prioritisation of and funding for DRR are not increased, Nepal will not achieve the HFA goals by 2015. In addition to DIPECHO partners, other stakeholders, including the government, are carrying out DRR initiatives that directly or indirectly contribute to the HFA. Unfortunately, the scale of action is simply too limited. So far, 67 districts have DP plans and district disaster relief committee (DDRCs) have been empowered to carry them out. The remaining eight districts also need to be mobilised. The extent of action at the village level is much less promotion. Only 66 VDCs in Banke, Bardia, Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of over 3000 in the country have prepared DM plans, and only four of 58 municipalities have started implementing safe building construction practices. There is more need for the government and non-government organisations to enforce the national seismic safety standards effectively across the country. While it is encouraging that disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaption (CCA) are being institutionalised in planning, the level of funding needed to carry out these plans has not been forthcoming. The current interim three-year plan (2010-2013) focuses on climate change and disaster resilient planning and each sectoral strategy integrates comprehensive DRR and emergency response preparedness. Other positive planning efforts include the development of risk-sensitive land-use planning for Kathmandu Metropolitan City and plan to extend it elsewhere Also promising is that the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) has set up an emergency operation centre at the national level and intends to set up regional centres too. In addition, standard operating procedures for hospitals, security forces and local communities are being developed and there are national programmes and policies to make schools and health facilities safe in emergencies. Contingency plans, procedures and resources and financial arrangements are in place to deal with major disasters, and methods and procedures to assess damage, loss and needs have been adopted. Money to fund these initiatives is inadequate. Neither the national budget nor district budget have specific allocations for DRR and although some VDCs have started allocating separate funds for DRR, guidelines are inadequate and the process has not yet been institutionalised. In addition, no initiatives have been undertaken to incorporate the costs and benefits of DRR into the planning of public investment or to invest in reducing the risks vulnerable urban settlements face. The sharing of information is also problematic. The national forum, with representatives from civil society organisations, national planning institutions, and key economic and development sector organisations use a national multi-hazard risk assessment to inform planning and development decisions, but since disaster losses are not systematically reported, monitored or analysed, it is not as effective as it could be. Nepal participates in regional and sub-regional DRR programmes to share its experiences, but ironically has no national disaster information system publicly available. DRR is included in the national educational curriculum

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and is a public education campaign issue but is not included in the national scientific applied-research agenda or budget. Environments and societies do not yet receive sufficient protection either. There is no mechanism in place to protect and restore regulatory ecosystem services and the social safety nets which do exist are inadequate to the challenge of increasing the resilience of risk-prone households and communities. Many initiatives have been taken up jointly by DRR stakeholders in Nepal, but most are not mature and some are still in their nascent stages. In particular, a multi-hazard, integrated approach to DRR and development which considers gender perspectives, human security and social equity has been adopted and institutionalised; capacities for DRR and recovery have been identified and strengthened; and the engagement of and partnerships with non-governmental actors, civil society, and the private sector have been fostered at all levels. Now Nepal must build on these initiatives. Recommendations Several key initiatives are needed in order to promote the HFA and to build the resilience of the Nepali people in the face of natural disaster:

• Whenever possible, large-scale, nationwide, long-term multi-sector initiatives involving a wide array of actors, including the DRR Consortium and Five Flagships, and reflecting the national strategy should be carried out whenever the specific mandates and timeframes of DRR stakeholders allow for it. Such linkages have to be considered carefully so that they will have a demonstrated impact within the project lifespan.

• Advocacy for gender inclusiveness and end to gender-based violence is urgent. • Global DRR global campaigns, particularly school and hospital safety, and safer cities, should be

promoted. • The impacts of CCA should be clearly demonstrated and quantified and steps to address them taken

up in improved DP and DRR strategies in a carefully considered fashion. • Disaster risk consideration, including relief and rehabilitation should to be effectively integrated in

policies, planning and programming for sustainable development at all levels, right from the proposal stage when their expected multiplier and long-term effects are considered.

• An exit strategy should be prepared and capacity-building support provided for its execution so that good initiatives are sustained.

• A DRR consortium which includes DIPECHO partners should be established in order to carry out policy advocacy at both the regional and national levels.

• Institutions, mechanisms and capacities that can build resilience to hazard should be developed and strengthened at all levels, in particular at the community level.

• Risk reduction approaches, including emergency preparedness, response and recovery, should be systematically incorporated into the design and implementation of reconstruction programmes for affected communities in order to increase their resilience and reduce their vulnerability.

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