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Dimensions of Learning

2 Edi

T r a i n e r ’s M A N U A L

Robert J. Marzano

and

Debra J. Pickering

with

Daisy E. Arredondo

Guy J. Blackburn

Ronald S. Brandt

Cerylle A. Moffett

Diane E. Paynter

Jane E. Pollock

Jo Sue Whisler




Robert J. Marzano

and

Debra J. Pickering

with

Daisy E. Arredondo

Guy J. Blackburn

Ronald S. Brandt

Cerylle A. Moffett

Diane E. Paynter

Jane E. Pollock

Jo Sue Whisler

2 nd Edition

T r a i n e r ’s M A N U A L

Alexandria, Virginia USA

Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory

Aurora, Colorado USA

http://www.ascd.org/



Copyright © 1997 McREL (Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory), 2550 S. Parker Road,

Suite 500, Aurora, Colorado 80014, (303) 337-0990, fax (303) 337-3005. All rights reserved. No part

of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or

mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without

permission in writing from McREL.

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Telephone: 1-800-933-2723 or 703-578-9600 • Fax: 703-575-5400

Web site: http://www.ascd.org • E-mail: [email protected]

Author guidelines: www.ascd.org/write

Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning

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Phone: 303-337-0990

Fax: 303-337-3005

Barbara B. Gaddy, Editor/Project Manager

Jeanne Deak, Desktop Publisher

Printed in the United States of America.

ASCD publications present a variety of viewpoints. The views expressed or implied

in this book should not be interpreted as official positions of the Association.

ASCD stock no.197134

197134

http://www.mcrel.org/

http://www.ascd.org/




Trainer’s Manual

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Introduction for Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

How Dimensions of Learning Was Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

How To Use This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Modeling the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Suggested Training Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Dimensions of Learning Study Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Tips for Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Dimension 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Dimension 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Wrap-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 1. DIMENSION 1: ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS

To the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Exploring Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Classroom Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Classroom Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Planning for Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68



CHAPTER 2. DIMENSION 2: ACQUIRE AND INTEGRATE KNOWLEDGE

To the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71


Declarative Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Construct Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Organize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Planning for Dimension 2, Declarative Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Procedural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Construct Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Internalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Planning for Dimension 2, Procedural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

CHAPTER 3. DIMENSION 3: EXTEND AND REFINE KNOWLEDGE

To the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111


Comparing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Classifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Abstracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Inductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Constructing Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Analyzing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Analyzing Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153


CHAPTER 4. DIMENSION 4: USE KNOWLEDGE MEANINGFULLY

To the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163


Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Experimental Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192




CHAPTER 5. DIMENSION 5: HABITS OF MIND

To the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203



CHAPTER 6. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Appendix A: Other Examples of Modeling the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Appendix B: Structured Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Overheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261



viii Trainer’s Manual

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere appreciation to those individuals from the following school

districts who contributed ideas and suggestions to this second edition of the Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual :

Ashwaubenon School District, Green Bay, Wisconsin

Berryessa Union School District, San Jose, California

Brisbane Grammar School, Queensland, Australia

Brockport Central School District, Brockport, New York

Brooklyn School District, Brooklyn, Ohio

Broome-Tioga Boces, Binghamton, New York

Cherry Creek Public Schools, Aurora, Colorado

Colegio International de Caracas, Caracas, VenezuelaDouglas County Schools, Douglas County, Colorado

George School District, George, Iowa

Green Bay Area Public Schools, Green Bay, Wisconsin

Ingham Intermediate School District, Mason, Michigan

Kenosha Unified School District #1, Kenosha, Wisconsin

Kingsport City Schools, Kingsport, Tennessee

Lakeland Area Education Agency #3, Cylinder, Iowa

Lakeview Public Schools, St. Clair Shores, Michigan

Loess Hills AEA #13, Council Bluffs, Iowa

Lonoke School District, Lonoke, ArkansasLove Elementary School, Houston, Texas

Maccray School, Clara City, Minnesota

Monroe County ISD, Monroe, Michigan

Nicolet Area Consortium, Glendale, Wisconsin

Northern Trails AEA #2, Clear Lake, Iowa

North Syracuse Central School District, North Syracuse, New York

Prince Alfred College, Kent Town, South Australia

Redwood Elementary School, Avon Lake, Ohio

Regional School District #13, Durham, Connecticut

Richland School District, Richland, Washington

St. Charles Parish Public Schools, Luling, Louisiana

School District of Howard-Suamico, Green Bay, Wisconsin

South Washington County Schools, Cottage Grove, Minnesota

Webster City Schools, Webster City, Iowa

West Morris Regional High School District, Chester, New Jersey



ixTrainer’s Manual

The following members of the Dimensions of Learning Research and Development Consortium worked

together from 1989 to 1991 to advise, consult, and pilot portions of the model as part of the

development of Dimensions of Learning.

ALABAMA Auburn University

Terrance Rucinski

CALIFORNIA

Los Angeles County Office of Education

Richard Sholseth

Diane Watanabe

Napa Valley Unified School District

Mary Ellen Boyet

Laurie Rucker

Daniel Wolter

COLORADO

Aurora Public Schools

Kent Epperson

Phyllis A. Henning

Lois Kellenbenz

Lindy Lindner

Rita Perron

Janie Pollock

Nora Redding

Cherry Creek Public Schools

Maria Foseid

Patricia Lozier

Nancy MacIsaacs

Mark Rietema

Deena Tarleton

ILLINOIS

Maine Township High School West

Betty Duffey

Mary GienkoBetty Heraty

Paul Leathem

Mary Kay Walsh

IOWA Dike Community Schools

Janice Albrecht

Roberta Bodensteiner

Ken Cutts

Jean Richardson

Stan Van Hauen

Mason City Community Schools

Dudley L. Humphrey

MASSACHUSETTS

Concord-Carlisle Regional School District Denis Cleary

Diana MacLean

Concord Public Schools

Virginia Barker

Laura Cooper

Stephen Greene

Joe Leone

Susan Whitten

MICHIGAN

Farmington Public Schools

Marilyn Carlsen

Katherine Nyberg

James Shaw

Joyce Tomlinson

Lakeview Public Schools

Joette Kunse

Oakland Schools

Roxanne Reschke

Waterford School District Linda Blust

Julie Casteel

Bill Gesaman

Mary Lynn Kraft

Al Monetta

Theodora M. Sailer

Dick Williams



x Trainer’s Manual

NEBRASKA

Fremont Public Schools, District 001

Mike Aerni

Trudy Jo Kluver

Fred Robertson

NEW MEXICO

Gallup-McKinley County Schools

Clara Esparza

Ethyl Fox

Martyn Stowe

Linda Valentine

Chantal Irvin

NEW YORK

Frontier Central Schools

Janet BrooksBarbara Broomell

PENNSYLVANIA

Central Bucks School District

Jeanann Kahley

N. Robert Laws

Holly Lomas

Rosemarie Montgomery

Cheryl Winn Royer

Jim Williams

Philadelphia School District

Paul Adorno

Shelly Berman

Ronald Jenkins

John Krause

Judy Lechner

Betty Richardson

SOUTH CAROLINA

School District of Greenville County

Sharon Benston

Dale Dicks

Keith Russell

Jane Satterfield

Ellen Weinberg

Mildred Young

State Department of Education

Susan Smith White

TEXAS

Fort Worth Independent School District

Carolyne Creel

Sherry Harris

Midge Rach

Nancy Timmons

UTAH

Salt Lake City Schools

Corrine Hill

MEXICO

ITESO University

Ana Christina Amante

Laura Figueroa Barba

Antonio Ray Bazan

Luis Felipe GomezPatricia Rios de Lopez

PROGRAM EVALUATOR

Charles Fisher



I n t r o d u c t i o n f o r T r a i n e r s



1Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

Introduction for Trainers

When the first edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual was

published in 1991, the authors, led by Dr. Robert Marzano of the Mid-

continent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL), hoped that it wouldprovide a tool that educators could use as they pursued restructuring and

reform efforts in their schools and districts. Specifically, the Dimensions of

Learning model was offered as a tool to help educators focus their efforts

more on student learning than on the implementation of specific programs

and strategies. Since 1991, Dimensions has been used by teachers and

administrators in this way. The model has helped them to maintain this

focus on learning both as they plan curriculum, instruction, and assessment

and as they evaluate the impact of their efforts on student learning.

One of the reasons that the vision for Dimensions is being realized is that

districts and schools have taken ownership of the model by developing thecapacity to offer training and support within their own systems. We hope

that the Trainer’s Manual that accompanied the first edition contributed to

this local approach to implementation. In order to continue to support this

trend, we have revised and updated the Trainer’s Manual so that it is now

aligned with the second edition of the Teacher’s Manual . The training scripts

and overheads have been significantly modified, and new training activities

and overheads have been added. We have maintained elements from the first

edition that have been used successfully but also have enhanced the training

with additions and modifications. This manual should continue to be a

valuable resource for trainers and for other district and school leaders as theywork with people who are interested in using the Dimensions of Learning

model.

Before you read the remainder of this section, we recommend that you turn

to the Teacher’s Manual and read (or reread) the Introduction on pages 1-12.

Reading this chapter should help to refresh your memory about some

important points related to the assumptions from which the Dimensions of



2 Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

Learning model was developed, the resources available to you as you study

the model, and the ways in which the model has been used in districts,

schools, and classrooms.

The second edition of the Teacher’s Manual incorporates much of what was

contained in the first edition, but those familiar with the first edition willnotice significant revisions, deletions, and additions that have been made. If

you are providing training for people who are familiar with the first edition,

you might want to review these changes with them, which are described

briefly below.

1. “Systems analysis” has been added to the list of reasoning processes

in Dimension 4. This addition provides a way of helping students

use their understanding of systems (e.g., ecosystems, systems of

government, and number systems) to engage in tasks that require

them to analyze the interactions among parts of a system or to

predict what might happen when the parts of a system are altered in

some way. Like the other reasoning processes in Dimension 4 (i.e.,

decision making, problem solving, invention, investigation, and

experimental inquiry), systems analysis can be applied across content

areas and at any developmental level.

2. There is an increased emphasis on the importance of clearly

identifying declarative and procedural knowledge during unit

planning. The chapter covering Dimension 2, “Acquire and Integrate

Knowledge,” provides direction for identifying and organizing

declarative knowledge using common organizational patterns:descriptions (organizing very specific facts and organizing

information important to identified vocabulary terms), time

sequences, process/cause-effect relationships, episodes,

generalizations/principles, and concepts. Although most of these

patterns were identified in the first edition of the manual, in the

second edition they are used to organize declarative knowledge in the

unit planning process.

In the planning section for procedural knowledge, we recommend

that attention be given to making sure that knowledge is identified

clearly during planning and that if very general processes (ormacroprocesses) are targeted, that the specific skills that are

components of that process be articulated.

3. In addition to the increased emphasis on clearly identifying and

organizing knowledge, the planning process for Dimension 2

includes examples of planning both with and without standards and

benchmarks. These examples are offered because most states and



3Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

many districts are actively engaged in identifying standards and

benchmarks, that is, the knowledge that all students should have an

opportunity to learn. Thus, teachers should use these standards and

benchmarks as they identify the declarative and procedural

knowledge that students should be acquiring and integrating,

extending and refining, and using meaningfully.

4. Those educators who have used Dimensions of Learning to plan

curriculum have been fairly consistent in their feedback about the

need for additional suggestions and recommendations for addressing

Dimension 5, habits of mind. In the second edition, the chapter on

this dimension has been reorganized and expanded. We offer very

specific recommendations for

• helping students understand the habits of mind,

• helping students identify and develop strategies related to

the habits of mind,

• creating a culture in the classroom and school that encourages

the development and use of the habits of mind, and

• providing positive reinforcement to students who exhibit the

habits of mind.

An additional section has been added that serves as a resource for

teachers who are using the specific habits of mind included in the

Dimensions of Learning model. For each of the 15 habits, there is a

brief explanation, examples of situations in which the habit could beimportant, and sample strategies used by people who exemplify the

habit.

5. Those who use the Dimensions of Learning model have consistently

requested additional resources for the reasoning processes in

Dimensions 3 and 4. To this end, the new manual includes, for each

reasoning process, an expanded explanation, key points to keep in

mind when using the process in the classroom, and sample tasks that

could be used in K-12 classrooms.

6. At the end of the manual, a chapter entitled “Putting It All

Together” (similar to the section in the first edition bearing thistitle) reviews planning questions for each dimension, explains models

for different planning sequences, and reviews the entire sample unit.

In this edition there also is an additional assessment section in the

chapter, which provides explanations and recommendations related to

assessment.




Introduction

Instead of adding assessment forms at the end of each dimension, as

was done in the first edition, this assessment section walks the reader

through the decisions that need to be made about assessment during

the planning process. Issues are discussed that are related to the use

of conventional and performance assessments, and recommendations

for the use of rubrics are provided. Also included is a sample page

from a grade book, which has been filled in with grades for

hypothetical students in a classroom implementing the sample unit

that is developed throughout the manual. This assessment section

should be more useful to the reader than the forms provided in the

first edition. It synthesizes many of the issues related to assessment

and provides a more comprehensive approach to assessment.

7. Although anyone familiar with the first edition of the Teacher’s

Manual will notice a number of changes in the format of the second

edition, the most obvious is the addition of marginalia, informationprovided in the outside margins of each page. When appropriate, the

text of the manual is supplemented with various types of information

in the margins, including

• references for books, articles, additional readings, or

classroom materials relevant to the topic;

• quotes from teachers who have been using Dimensions of

Learning in their classrooms;

• brief descriptions of school-wide or district-wide efforts to

implement various aspects of the model;• relevant “quotable quotes” from well-known people; and

• visual representations of important information explained in

the text.

The second edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual attempts to

preserve everything that made the first edition useful and to provide

additional strategies, ideas, and examples that will help the experienced user

as well as the novice. As always, we appreciate feedback from educators in

the field and look forward to hearing from those who are using this second

generation of Dimensions of Learning materials to enhance student learning.



5Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

How Dimensions of Learning Was Developed

As stated in the Teacher’s Manual , Dimensions of Learning is an extension of

the comprehensive research-based framework on cognition and learning

described in Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Marzano et al., 1988), published by the Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Following the

publication of Dimensions of Thinking , an initial team of Dimensions of

Learning project developers (Robert J. Marzano, Daisy E. Arredondo, Guy J.

Blackburn, Robert Ewy, Debra J. Pickering, and Deena Tarleton) began

identifying and developing teaching and learning strategies based on the

conceptual framework presented in that publication. As that team

consciously used the thinking skills, processes, and dispositions described in

Dimensions of Thinking in their work with teachers and students, they began

to see how a focus on the overall learning process could provide a powerful,integrative model.

An underlying premise of this early work was that all learning is thinking . For

example, as students first read over a writing assignment or a list of

vocabulary words, certain cognitive processes are called into play. The

writing assignment may be similar to one that students completed last week

or last year, and its similarity may prompt them to immediately begin

recalling the procedures they used to generate ideas, find new information,

or organize their ideas for that previous assignment. They may focus on

planning, generating interest in the task, or even coming up with reasons to

delay their work—all of which are types of thinking. This perspective of

learning as thinking allowed the initial development team to operationally

define the conceptual model first presented in Dimensions of Thinking so that

it rigorously described the different types of thinking involved in the

learning process and to then categorize the many research-based teaching

strategies that foster these types of thinking.

Willow Creek Elementary School in Englewood, Colorado, under the

leadership of Principal Deena Tarleton agreed to begin developmental testing

of the Dimensions of Learning model and strategies. At the same time, ASCD

and McREL cosponsored a Dimensions of Learning Research and DevelopmentConsortium composed of nearly 90 members representing various schools,

districts, institutions of higher education, and state departments of education

across the United States and Mexico. (See pages ix-x for a complete list of

consortium members.) During 1989 and 1990, consortium members learned

the Dimensions of Learning strategies, field-tested them in classrooms,

reported results, and suggested revisions to the author team.




Introduction

Charles Fisher, the project evaluator, then examined sample uses of the

model and compiled formative evaluation data for the first year of the

project. The descriptive data in his assessment report include general

comments on the model as well as information about the effects of the

strategies on teachers and students. Participants’ comments were

overwhelmingly positive, with reports of improved student performance,

motivation, interest in class work, social behavior, and use of thinking

processes. Teacher participants reported that they noticed improvement in

their own thinking, a need to slow down and teach “more in-depth,” a

rebirth of excitement about teaching, improved interactions with students,

and a shift in their role as teachers toward that of “facilitators of learning”

and away from “transmitters of information.”

During 1990 and 1991, consortium members continued to use the

Dimensions of Learning strategies and met in subgroups to assist the author

team with the final development of training materials by responding toproposed text, developing examples, writing vignettes, and suggesting

various revisions. Dimensions of Learning is undoubtedly stronger and more

“classroom friendly” because of the three years of intensive work with the

many talented educators involved in the project.

Since the introduction of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual , the

original authors plus the other members of the McREL training team—

Diane Paynter, Janie Pollock, and Jo Sue Whisler—have worked with

teachers and in classrooms using the Dimensions of Learning model and

collecting feedback on ways to update and strengthen the materials. The

result is this revision of the original manual. Again, its strength is the result

of the contributions of the many dedicated and talented educators who have

worked with the model.

How To Use This Manual

This Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual contains very detailed resources

for anyone who is conducting training in the Dimensions of Learning model.

Following this introduction you will find these resources:

• seven, separate, detailed scripts, one containing a script for theOverview of the entire model plus six scripts that are aligned with

the six chapters of the Teacher’s Manual for the training;

• handouts to be used during the training (included in this section are

blank planning guides for each dimension as well as a two-page

Planning Reference Guide, which summarizes the key strategies and

planning questions related to each dimension);



7Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

• appendices that supplement information presented in this

introduction;

• bibliographic references; and

• overhead transparency masters to use with each of the seven scripts.

A brief explanation of certain aspects of the numbering of the overheads is in

order. First, each of the chapters that cover Dimensions 1 through 5 has a

section that deals with unit planning. The overheads for these sections are

keyed with the letter P (e.g., the first planning overhead for Dimension 3 is

3.P1 (see page 158, where the trainer is cued to put up this overhead).

Second, in Dimensions 3 and 4, the overheads are numbered to correspond

to the order of the reasoning processes in each dimension; each overhead is

then followed by a letter. For example, the first overhead introduced in the

section on classifying (the second reasoning process covered in Dimension 3)

is 3.2A. Similarly, the first overhead introduced in the section oninvestigation (the fifth reasoning process covered in Dimension 4) is 4.5A.

The section of the manual that contains the training scripts has a number of

characteristics that also might need some explanation. Before reading about

these characteristics, keep in mind the following recommendations:

• The training scripts are meant to provide a clear idea of what should

take place in the training session. They are not meant to be read

aloud word for word. We encourage you to assimilate the substance

of the information and create personal scripts that maintain the

integrity of the model.• Because the best trainers are those who have used the model, we

encourage you to include your own examples and anecdotes so that

workshop participants will understand that you have used the parts

of the model in the classroom.

• It should be noted that the scripts include suggestions for training

for virtually all parts of the Teacher’s Manual , more than can be

covered in an initial training. You will need to determine which

sections of the manual to cover explicitly and which to simply

mention during any specific training session. This is especially true

for Dimensions 3 and 4. Some subset of the 14 complex reasoning

processes should be selected to cover in-depth. We elected to provide

in-depth scripts for all of the material in order to allow you to make

your own decisions about what to include.

With these suggestions in mind, turn to the scripts and leaf through a few

pages to get a sense of the content and format. You will notice the following:




Introduction

Italicized Text. Interspersed throughout the script are notes to the trainer

that are set in italicized type and enclosed in brackets like these: < >. These

notes include cues, directions, and suggestions for activities. For instance,

they may cue the trainer to use an overhead or explain how to set up a specific

small group activity. Other cues appear in the outside margins of the script.

These are explained below under “Sidebars.”

Sidebars. The main body of the Trainer’s Manual is supported by cues to the

trainer in the margin, or sidebar. These cues are designed to alert the trainer

to a variety of important elements of the training. One primary sidebar is an

icon (e.g., ) that alerts the trainer to the use of a particular overhead.

Specific cues for various training activities are explained below. We suggest

that you become very familiar with them as you prepare to train.

Individual Task. This cue indicates a brief assignment, such as a

reading or writing task, at a strategic point in the training. Individual

tasks can be used to set up a paired or small group activity or a large

group discussion.

Think/Pair/Share. This cue signals a quick technique designed to help

participants reflect on the information they are receiving by thinking

about various issues and then talking through their thoughts. The

trainer first asks participants to think about a specified issue and then

to share their thoughts on the issue with a partner. He or she might

then ask participants to share with the entire group.

Small Group Activity. This cue indicates a small group assignment inwhich two or more participants work together to discuss or clarify an

issue or to engage in a structured or unstructured task. Often the results

are shared in a large group discussion.

Jigsaw. This is a specific type of small group technique borrowed from

cooperative learning. Each group member is assigned a section of

material and asked to be responsible for teaching it to the small group.

The strategy can be strengthened by having participants from the

different small groups who are responsible for the same section of

material meet together to talk over the material and then go back to

their original small groups. This is an efficient and effective way forparticipants to learn substantial amounts of material that cannot be

covered in detail by the trainer.

Large Group Discussion. This cue indicates a discussion that is led by

the trainer, which is commonly preceded by a question posed by the

trainer. You will notice that sometimes these questions are followed by

5.3Overhead



9Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

notes to the trainer that either provide examples of answers that

participants often give to this question or that include a “target

answer.” This target answer cues the trainer to an important point that

needs to be made during the discussion.

Planning Activity. This cue appears at the end of the section on eachdimension and signals an activity in which participants practice planning

a unit. This activity can be done individually or in small groups.

Closure. At the end of major training segments, the trainer is cued to

select a method of closure for that segment. Closure gives participants

an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned during the training

activities. You will notice that in the script we suggest that the trainer

select from three different styles of closure: table talk, pause and reflect,

or learning logs. However, as with any portion of this training, we

encourage the trainer to develop his or her own style. Each of the

suggested styles of closure might be structured (by providing a specific

question or assignment for participants) or unstructured (by giving

participants the freedom to talk, think, or write about what they wish).

Briefly, the three suggested styles are

Table Talk. Encourage participants to verbalize to a partner, or

within a small group, specific things that they have learned

during the training segment and what those things mean to them.

Pause and Reflect. Ask participants to sit quietly for a few

minutes to reflect on their experiences in the training. They maywant to skim over their notes, review pages of the Teacher’s

Manual , or simply sit and think.

Learning Logs. Ask participants to dedicate several pages of their

notes to a learning log (or provide them with prepared forms).

Provide time for them to write down their thoughts about the

ideas in the training or about possible uses of the material.

Trainers and other decision makers who are planning training should

remember an important principle of staff development: Training should be

delivered and supported over an extended period of time and not be treated asa one-shot workshop. There are unlimited variations to offering this training.

We have provided a brief description of one format: the four-day initial

training followed by study team support. Study teams will be explained

further in the next section, but we want to highlight that even a four-day

training is not sufficient for full implementation of the ideas in this model.




Introduction

Modeling the Model

During training, it is important that the trainer’s behavior reflect the

assumptions about learning and the instructional processes presented in the

Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual and in A Different Kind of Classroom:Teaching with Dimensions of Learning (Marzano, 1992). There are at least three

reasons that modeling the model is important. First, by “practicing what

they preach,” trainers demonstrate the very teaching techniques that they

advocate. Teachers frequently report that they become disenchanted when

trainers propose innovative teaching methods and then violate these methods

by spending the majority of their time lecturing. In addition to avoiding

negative participant attitudes, modeling the model provides participants

with first-hand experiences that give them insight into using Dimensions

of Learning strategies in the classroom. Dimensions of Learning is as valid

a model for adult learning as it is for student learning. Thus, it follows thatan effective adult learning experience must be structured around the five

types of thinking inherent in the model.

Although the scripts in this manual are designed to help the trainer model the

model throughout the training, a number of experiences and practices that we

recommend are not described in the scripts. We describe these below as

options the trainer might consider while planning the training. (For additional

examples of modeling the model, see Appendix A.) These experiences and

practices should not be considered inclusive; there are many other things that

can be included in a training that will model what is recommended. Of course,

the sequencing, timing, and emphasis placed on these experiences may vary

according to the disposition and preferences of the trainer.

1. Participants might be encouraged to reflect on their learning

by keeping learning logs.

Throughout the training, not just during closure, participants might

periodically be asked to make entries in personal learning logs to

encourage them to reflect on what they are learning. These entries

might be both free responses and structured responses.

Free responses are unrestricted and unguided comments related toany aspect of the training or the model. A trainer might cue a free

response in the learning log by simply saying to participants, “Take a

few moments now and write in your learning logs your reactions to

what we just did or anything we have done.” Or she might ask,

“What insights have you had so far that you would like to record in

your learning logs?” Participants can be asked to generate free



11Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

responses at any time during the training. Immediately before lunch

or at the end of the day are good times for such summary activities.

Structured responses are cued by probes, which are specific questions

the trainer asks participants to answer in their learning logs.

Throughout the training, the trainer might present at least threetypes of probes.

Probes about content: These probes ask participants to

comment on some aspect of the content they are currently

experiencing or have experienced, for example, “What interests

you most about what we just covered?” or “How could you use

what we just did?” Content probes can be used after participants

have completed any module.

Probes about habits of mind: These probes ask participants

to reflect on the extent to which they are using the 15 habitsof mind as they learn the Dimensions of Learning model, for

example, “What have you noticed about your ability to stay

engaged in this training as you experience things that are

difficult or as you experience things for which answers and

solutions are not immediately apparent?” or “During this

training, how have you tried to be accurate and seek accuracy?”

Probes about habits of mind are best used after participants have

experienced particularly difficult content. They also are fitting or

appropriate when participants are solving structured problems

(see suggestion 2 below).

Probes about tasks requiring the meaningful use of

knowledge (projects): These probes ask participants to reflect

on the processes involved in the Dimension 4 tasks or the

content used in those tasks, for example, “What makes the tasks

here different from those in Dimension 2?” or “Which

Dimension 4 processes would facilitate students’ meaningful use

of the identified important knowledge?” Probes related to the

meaningful use of knowledge might be used as participants

engage in planning activities. They can also be used after

participants have participated in one of the small group activities

for Dimension 4.

2. Participants might engage in structured problem-solving

activities periodically throughout the training.

Throughout the training, participants could be given structured

problems (e.g., after returning from a break or whenever participants’



energy starts to wane). These activities can then be pointed to as

models of how structured problem solving can be used to help

develop the habits of creative thinking. (See Appendix B for samples

of structured problems.) As participants work on these problems,

notice and explicitly reinforce any demonstration of the habits of

mind, such as persevering or generating new ways of viewing a

situation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions.

3. Participants should be acknowledged for their use of the habits

of mind.

Any time participants discuss difficult or complex issues, the trainer

should note specific examples of participants’ use of the habits of

mind. These illustrations can then be used as a practical

demonstration of the many classroom situations that lend themselves

to reinforcing these same mental habits in students.

4. Process observers could be appointed.

When participants are engaged in any long-term small group activity,

a process observer could be appointed for each group and directed to

look for and report on examples of participants exhibiting habits of

mind or any of the strategies from the model. The mental habits

described in Dimension 5 might be explicitly targeted; for example,

the trainer might say, “While working in your groups, I’d like you to

look for examples of people trying to be accurate or seek accuracy, and

then be prepared to share these examples with the large group.”

Suggested Training Formats

Although there are several ways to organize the training for the Dimensions

of Learning model, we strongly recommend that the initial training be

intensive. We realize that local conditions and resources play an important

part in decisions about scheduling. However, we urge those in charge of

implementing Dimensions of Learning to carefully consider the long-range

potential effects of the model and then to organize training to increase thelikelihood that those effects will be realized.

The Four-Day-Plus-Study-Teams Format

This format requires an initial four-day immersion training with extended

follow-up in study team meetings and periodic reinforcement training


Introduction



sessions. The recommended sequence for the four-day training is described

below. Ideally, these four days should be split into two 2-day segments. This

provides opportunities for participants to reflect on the ideas presented and

to try some things in their classrooms. Keep in mind that you may need to

modify this recommended sequence, depending on the level of skill and

experience present in your training groups and on your participants’ unique

learning needs.

Day 1

Participants are presented with an overview of the Dimensions of Learning

model. Note that the script included in the Overview can be used either as a

stand-alone one- to two-hour presentation or as a shorter introduction to

extended training.

Participants gain an understanding of and practice using

• theoretical foundations for the entire Dimensions model,

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 1, and

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 5.

Day 2


• important information in the introduction to Dimension 2, and

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 2.

Day 3


• several of the reasoning processes from Dimension 3 (processes

selected will vary depending on the grade levels and content areas

represented by participants), and

• the planning guidelines for Dimension 3.

Day 4

Participants gain an understanding of and/or practice using

• several of the reasoning processes for Dimension 4 (processes selected

will vary depending on the grade levels and content areas represented

by participants),

• the planning guidelines for Dimension 4, and

• the information in Chapter 6, “Putting It All Together” (e.g.,

conferencing, assessment, record keeping, sequencing instruction).


Introduction



By this point, participants will have walked through the planning of a

hypothetical unit on Colorado. They might, at this point, be ready to plan

another unit on a topic they select. The trainer might model planning a unit

with the participants’ input on a topic selected by the group.

Four One-Day Sessions

In some situations, it is not possible to conduct an initial immersion

training. In such cases, four full days of training spaced at fairly equal

intervals might be used if participants have the teaching skills and

experience to master the concepts and to practice unit planning

independently between training sessions.

No matter what format is used, the initial training is only the beginning.

The following section discusses one way of providing follow-up experiences

for participants in the training.

Dimensions of Learning Study Teams

Research on staff development, reinforced by our experience in schools that

are using Dimensions of Learning, tells us that the use of study teams is one

of the most promising ways for teachers to assimilate Dimensions of

Learning into their own practice. Dimensions of Learning study teams

provide essential follow-up activities to Dimensions of Learning workshop

training: collaborative planning of instructional units with peers,experimentation with new teaching strategies, feedback on teaching, and

continued study and discussion of the Teacher’s Manual . Participation in

study teams can provide the following benefits:

• A place for teachers to assess the extent to which they are already

addressing the five dimensions of learning in lesson and unit

planning.

• An opportunity for teachers to use the Dimensions of Learning

model and unit planning guides to design new units of study or

refine existing ones.

• Structured peer support for teachers as they develop new

instructional units and methods of assessment.

• An opportunity to explore additional teaching strategies in the

Teacher’s Manual and examine learning concepts in A Different Kind of

Classroom.


Introduction



Educators often ask whether study teams are possible within the present

structure of schools. They also wonder how study teams can possibly engage

in substantive work, given the present structure of the school day. Although

it’s true that in many schools the notion of study teams will run counter to

the traditional norm of teachers working alone, in others this picture is

slowly changing. The experiences of several schools reveal that the use of

study teams can lead to mastery of skills learned in training, the

development of a common professional language, the birth of norms of

professional interaction, experimentation with new practices, reflection on

classroom decisions, and creative problem solving about instruction. In

addition, the collaborative work among teachers encouraged by study teams

contributes to improved student performance.

To help you visualize what a study team structure might look like in a

Dimensions of Learning school, we have created a scenario drawn from

experiences in several districts that have used study teams.

A Study Team Scenario

The faculty of Hillsdale Elementary School participated in four days of intensive

training. During the training, they explored the Dimensions of Learning model,

looked at how to plan using unit planning guides, and reviewed guidelines for

organizing study teams.

Following the training, teachers volunteered to work in study teams of four to six

individuals to extend and refine their understanding and use of the Dimensions of

Learning model. They decided to meet for three hours once every other week during

both semesters of the year. Some teams met during the school day on released time, and

others met after contract hours.

The principal became a member of one of the study teams and participated actively as

a learner. He also arranged the school schedule to allow teachers with similar interests

to meet during their planning periods. In addition, the district arranged for team

members to receive recertification credit upon each member’s successful completion of a

paper outlining what he or she had learned by the end of the semester.

Team OrganizationTopics, meeting dates, times, and locations were selected in advance. A team leader

was chosen to make sure the meetings began and ended on time; to arrange for meeting

rooms, refreshments, and materials; and to complete a summary sheet at the end of

each meeting outlining what had been discussed, the goals for the next meeting, and a

roster of attendees. This summary sheet was given to the principal and forwarded to

the district staff development office. The team leaders from each study group in the


Introduction



building had monthly meetings with the principal to exchange information and

resources and to coordinate their efforts.

The team leaders were teachers who had volunteered or had been selected by the group

to handle logistical arrangements and accountability procedures. They were viewed

first and foremost as peers, learning together with the team. The district paid the teamleaders a stipend in return for the additional responsibilities they assumed. Although

team leaders were responsible for logistics and for liaison work between the team and

the district, they did not always act as individual meeting facilitators. The group

decided in the beginning that the roles of facilitator, recorder, and timekeeper should

rotate each meeting. All members received training in meeting management skills from

the district staff developer, who had also been trained and done advanced work in the

Dimensions of Learning model.

The district staff developer analyzed each summary sheet that the team leaders

produced, looking for common themes. She provided technical assistance and resource

materials, and she sometimes taught demonstration lessons based on the information

she read in the summary sheets regarding team members’ questions and concerns. In

addition, she periodically met with the teams to present additional concepts from the

Dimensions of Learning model and to facilitate the process of teachers’ becoming more

familiar with all five dimensions and creating instructional units.

Team Focus and Norms

Most of the teams selected one or two of the dimensions for in-depth study over several

sessions. One team spent four sessions looking at the habits of mind and then

integrated the concepts into unit plans. Each team established a set of norms for itsmeetings that incorporated the habits of mind. For instance, the team members asked

themselves, “Are we being clear and seeking clarity? Are we open-minded when

considering new ideas? Are we responding appropriately to the feelings and level of

knowledge of others?” Other team norms focused on active listening, open and

supportive communication, beginning and ending meetings on time, staying focused on

each meeting’s objectives, and completing assignments on schedule.

Team Activities

Teams were encouraged to begin experimenting with the unit planning guides

immediately following the initial workshop. Members first tried developing a mock unit together and then began to work in smaller teams and individually following the steps

outlined in the planning sections of each dimension. The process they followed included

• writing a new curriculum unit or revising an existing one using the

Dimensions of Learning unit planning guides;

• implementing the unit plans in their classrooms;


Introduction



• evaluating as a team how each plan was working and identifying where

changes were needed to meet students’ needs;

• revising plans, or expanding them, using additional instructional strategies

from the Teacher’s Manual;

• implementing, reflecting on, evaluating, and revising lessons on a continuing

basis;

• assessing the effect of their work on students; and

• celebrating successes.

As the interest and need for a broader repertoire arose, teams also opted to learn

additional teaching strategies from the Teacher’s Manual and A Different Kind of

Classroom. As trust and rapport developed among the members of each study team,

they invited one another to observe their classes. At the suggestion of the Dimensions of

Learning trainers and the district staff developer, peer observations were not mandated

by the district nor forced on team members by administrators or team leaders.

Progress Evaluation

Periodically and at the end of the year, each study team evaluated its progress in

implementing various aspects of the Dimensions of Learning model. Benefits cited

included the opportunity to learn and interact with peers, time to address common

instructional problems, and the chance to identify common learning objectives and

students’ needs across disciplines. A number of teachers said that their students were

more engaged in learning and that discipline problems seemed to be decreasing. They

also noted that having the principal involved in the learning process with the teams gave them the sense that their work had high priority and was valued.

There were also comments about the downside of the experience. Teachers mentioned the

frustration involved in “not being able to learn the Dimensions of Learning

framework fast enough,” the extra time it took to consciously plan using the five

dimensions, the competing demands on their time, the pressure to “cover the

curriculum,” the sense of awkwardness they still felt with various parts of the

Dimensions of Learning model, and a general feeling of frustration at “how long it

takes to learn something new.”

Despite these factors, most teachers believed the benefits of the experience outweighed thecosts, and a sense of commitment to the process prevailed. Ten of the twelve teachers

involved in study teams volunteered to continue in their study teams the next year.

During the summer, they had an opportunity for three days of review and follow-up

training that focused on clearing up confusions they had encountered during their

study sessions, refining units of study, and developing classroom-based assessment tasks

using the Dimensions of Learning model. The district staff developer also addressed


Introduction



the teams’ concerns about managing change. She provided time for teams to explore

common instructional problems and offered strategies for overcoming some of the

difficulties that they faced as they worked to integrate the dimensions of learning into

their instructional practices.

Guidelines for Study Team Success

In analyzing the experience of the study teams in the pilot school above, we

have identified a set of guidelines that can help you form study teams. To

function effectively, study teams need

• autonomy and accountability;

• attention to relationships and attention to task;

• designated leadership and shared leadership;

• a focus on the joint analysis by study team members of the effects of

instructional decisions on students’ work;

• group norms;

• administrative support;

• communication mechanisms within the group and between the

group, the school, and the district at large; and

• a way to transfer their learning to the classroom.

Many staff developers responsible for working with study teams emphasize

the importance of bringing classroom “artifacts” to study group meetings.

They view artifacts as any form of data that captures the immediacy of the

classroom moment—for instance, samples of student work, teacher journal

entries describing actual classroom events, observation notes, case studies of

individual students or critical incidents, and lesson plans. Artifacts help

study team discussions stay focused on real events, rather than on vague

generalizations or unsupported inferences about the effect of a planned lesson

on students. Barrie Bennett and associates (Bennett, Rolheiser-Bennett, and

Stevahn, 1991) have constructed a form that teachers can use to document

and analyze the relationship between intended and actual effects of lesson

plans on students (see Figure 1). By examining classroom artifacts and

discussing the results of lesson plans, participants can turn study team

meetings into a valuable forum for structured problem solving and what

noted educators Art Costa and Robert Garmston (1991) call “cognitive

coaching”—that is, enhancing metacognition and promoting the Dimension

of Learning habits of mind.


Introduction



FIGURE 1

TEACHING FOLLOW-UP ANALYSIS


Introduction

Name: ____________________________ School: ______________________

Lesson/Subject: ______________________ Date: ______________________

1. Successes experienced 2. Problems encountered

3. Possible revisions

4. Critical or interesting incidents

5. I shared this lesson with . . .

Source: Bennett, Rolheiser-Bennett, and Stevahn (1991)



Why Are Study Teams Essential?

Research on training, as well as plain common sense, suggests that to fully

master the information and skills learned in training, individuals must see

how the information relates to real-life situations and must use the skills

immediately in the workplace—with ongoing support and coaching—or theskills will be lost. Additional support for this perspective can be found in

Chapter 2 of the Teacher’s Manual , which discusses Dimension 2 and

describes how declarative knowledge is stored (see pages 73-80) and how

procedural knowledge is internalized (see pages 101-103).

We believe that the best way for teachers initially to practice the skills in the

Dimensions of Learning model is to use them to develop instructional units

in planning sessions with peers. Through interaction with peers in study

teams, participants can extend and refine their declarative knowledge about

Dimensions of Learning; construct models for, shape, and practice their skill

of writing units; and use all of this knowledge in meaningful, self-directed

ways, while further developing their skills in critical, creative, and self-

regulated thinking.

We recommend that school districts consider the guidelines for study team

organization we have offered above and then adapt them to the general needs

of their setting and to their specific objectives. We strongly believe that a

study team structure bridges the gap between learning skills in the training

session and actually implementing and integrating those skills into the

classroom.

It is also our conviction that any long-term staff development effort

involving Dimensions of Learning must model the model; that is, if we want

our students to become self-directed learners and critical, creative, and self-

regulated thinkers and if we believe that the learning process is most

powerful when learners are engaged in using knowledge meaningfully, then

it is only reasonable to assume that teachers who are learning the

Dimensions of Learning model should structure their own learning as they

would their students’. Collegial, professional study teams provide the setting

in which this type of adult learning can take place. In using study teams to

extend and refine their knowledge of the Dimensions of Learning model and

to create integrated units of instruction that stimulate students to use

knowledge actively and meaningfully, educators can internalize for

themselves the skills they hope will one day transform classrooms.


Introduction



Tips for Trainers

The following suggestions are presented in the spirit of an ongoing dialogue

among trainers. Although there is certainly no list of sure-fire or fail-safe

tips or techniques to guarantee success in training, the following practiceshave been found to be successful in a variety of training situations.

Dealing with Compulsory vs. Volunteer Groups

The attitude of participants is often affected by how they were selected to

participate in the training. If a group is made up largely of teachers and

administrators who are required to attend, there is often a high degree of

skepticism about the value of what is being offered in the training. This is

best dealt with in a nondefensive manner. We suggest that a trainer note the

attitude of the group, perhaps by using humor (e.g., by lightly asking how

many people are excited to be in the workshop and how many would ratherbe anywhere but in the workshop). Be sure to then move quickly into the

substance of the training.

We have found that the Dimensions of Learning model is sufficiently

powerful and engaging to overcome mild skepticism and resistance. If a

large segment of the group seems unyielding, however, we suggest that after

the introduction to Dimension 1, the trainer use an activity that requires

participants to examine their own and the group’s attitude toward the

training. Candor and adult-to-adult discussions usually go over better than

defensive or power-based statements. There is a delicate balance betweenoverreacting and ignoring an attitude that might be a serious obstacle in a

training session. Skilled Dimensions of Learning trainers artfully use the

model to help participants overcome such obstacles.

Preparing for Training Sessions

1. Suggest to hosts of the training that they communicate pertinent

information about the training in writing to each participant. Each

participant should feel respected and welcome. The nature and details of

the training times, dates, and places should be explained as should

expectations of punctuality and participation. Possible workshopactivities also should be communicated.

2. Plan activities to ensure variety. Trainer talk should be balanced with

tasks for participants and opportunities for small group activities and

large group discussions.

3. Content should be carefully selected and logically organized, and

practical application activities should be structured into the training.


Introduction



Handling Logistics

1. Have starting times posted or communicated. If coffee or refreshments

are to be served, have notice given that this occurs before the starting

time. Model punctuality by starting on time.

2. Make sure you have sufficient materials available for participants.

Whenever you conduct a training, participants should receive name tags

and an agenda for the training sessions. If you are doing more than a

brief overview of the model, participants might also need the following:

• The second edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual.

• Handouts. In addition to the handouts provided in the back of

this manual, these might include copies of selected overheads, at

your discretion, and, if participants are going to engage in

planning activities, a copy of selected pages from the Colorado

Unit, which can be found in the back of the Teacher’s Manual .

Collating materials beforehand saves time and models good materials

management. You may want to color-code handouts to help people locate

specific items more quickly.

At various points in a training session that includes all dimensions,

participants might also need the following:

• 8 1/2” x 11” paper

• Paper clips

• Rubber bands

• Transparent tape

• Markers

• Notepads or notebooks

In addition to the Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual and Teacher’s

Manual , the trainer will need the following:

• Overhead transparencies

• Markers for overheads

• A large flipchart

• Copies of any handouts that will be given to participants (e.g.,

blank unit planning guides)

3. Carefully plan table and seating arrangements. If tables are long, seven or

eight participants can be seated at each. If round tables are used, remove

any chairs that are not facing the screen. The seating arrangement should

make it possible for everyone to see the screen and the trainer.

4. Place paper and extra pencils for taking notes in the center of each table.


Introduction



5. Post a schedule of starting times, ending times, breaks, and lunch. Also

list the agenda items, either on the schedule or separately. Many trainers

have found that listing agenda items separately allows them to respond

more flexibly to participants’ interests.

6. Check the overhead projector for clarity and intensity, and have materialsorganized for each segment of the presentation.

7. Large wall charts showing the major components of the training are

helpful and provide a visual framework for the conceptual structure of

the workshop.

Managing the Minutes Before Training Begins

1. Greet and chat with as many people as possible. Strive to establish

interpersonal rapport and to associate names with faces.

2. Mentally take note of people’s attitudes toward being at the training

session, but do not act prematurely on your inferences about individuals;

some people appear negative early on and later become enthusiastic—or

at least more open-minded. Having a sense of the group will help you

determine the pace to set and which areas to emphasize first.

Creating a Professional Appearance

1. Clothing should be clean and attractive but not distractingly flashy. Of

course, some trainers can get away with more extravagant styles because

they feel most comfortable dressed that way. Don’t risk it unless it trulyreflects your style. Even in informal settings, it is more effective for the

trainer to be dressed professionally. A professional appearance sets the

trainer a bit apart and subtly communicates that he or she is in charge.

2. Knowing your emotional tendencies and level of anxiety is the key to

effectively controlling your behavior. Some important elements to

monitor include tone of voice, pace of speech, eye contact, smoothness of

hand gestures, and overall variety of presentation. The appropriate

amount of anxiety will help keep you moving and energized. Too much

will cause you to block your thoughts. Shaking hands and a trembling

voice reduce participants’ confidence in the trainer.

Talking to yourself and doing silent or oral cognitive rehearsals will help

you control your behavior. If you are in the midst of a presentation and

feel you are “losing it,” think of a question or a quick discussion activity

that will engage the group and give you time to recoup.


Introduction



It is generally not a good idea to share your feelings of anxiety or

nervousness with the group. Some groups may be very sympathetic, but

if participants focus on concern for the trainer (either positively or

negatively), they often will miss the point of the training segment. At

times trainers just have to take a deep breath and go on.

3. It pays to help every person believe that he or she is an important part of

the training. The trainer can accomplish this through informal personal

contact, eye contact, use of names, references to participants’ ideas and

comments, and by allowing time for verbal participation by everyone.

4. As a trainer, you should give yourself credit when you deserve it. If you

have prepared and delivered a training segment to the best of your

ability, you can leave the session with your integrity intact. Negative

participants have the right to disagree with or reject the content, but

they do not have the right to impugn your personal or professional

integrity.

5. At the same time, you should engage in constructive self-criticism based

on your sense of the effectiveness of a presentation, combined with

formal and informal feedback from participants.

6. General deportment of oneself as a trainer is difficult to assess, but

holding yourself up against the following list of descriptors of successful

trainers may provide some insight. Successful trainers

• are generally positive about and supportive of participants

without being gushy;

• are enthusiastic and energetic without being hyperactive;

• are reasonably assertive without being overbearing or hostile;

• acknowledge when they are expressing beliefs or biases as

opposed to when they are communicating information;

• use humor as an instrument, not as a detractor or filler; are able

to laugh at themselves; avoid sarcasm and put-downs;

• are genuine;

• are well prepared;• listen to participants;

• make eye contact with all participants; and

• frequently assess participants’ nonverbal cues.


Introduction



7. Occasionally viewing your performance on videotape will help provide

substantive feedback on your presence as a trainer. Most people’s first

reaction to video playback is so overwhelming that they must view the

tape several times before they can really see pertinent information. A

note of caution, then, is not to overreact to the first self-viewing. Spend

time analyzing not just how you looked and sounded but how the group

responded and how effectively the content was presented.

8. Model the teaching skills you are presenting. Nothing is more

disturbing to participants than watching trainers violate the very

concepts they are advocating.

Dealing with Difficult Participant Behavior

We preface this section with the statement that we have the highest regard

for the thousands of teachers with whom we have worked over the years and

that our goal is to have all participants leave Dimensions of Learningtraining sessions feeling renewed, refreshed, and respected. From time to

time, however, a participant will exhibit untoward behavior, and you will

have to find a way to deal with that behavior. Here are a few of the “problem

participants” you may encounter and some solutions for dealing with them.

The passive-aggressive resister is clearly not involved in the training. He

is usually engaged in silent nontask behavior, such as reading outside

material, checking papers, or writing for other purposes (doodling may or

may not be an example). The message being sent is, “I’m not going to do

this ‘stuff’, but you can’t ‘get’ me because I’m not doing anything wrong.”

The solution? First, don’t overreact. Give the person a chance to get

involved. This can be facilitated by a small group activity or discussion. If

the passive resistance persists, you might try moving in the participant’s

direction. At times, close proximity is enough to trigger attention and

engagement. If the problem persists, a quick and quiet counseling session

may be necessary and useful. For example, during a break you might say, “I

noticed that you don’t seem involved in what we are doing. Is there a

problem I should know about?” Conversely, it sometimes may be expedient,

for the sake of the group, to ignore the passive-aggressive participant. Adults

are responsible for their own behavior, and we do not encourage the trainerto take on the role of enforcer.

The hostile resister is rare but is immediately recognizable when she is

present. She usually translates her hostility into verbal challenges or overt

refusals to participate in specific tasks. Sometimes there is more than one

hostile participant, and they join together and conspire to undermine the

training. Dealing with active aggression and hostility requires an ability to


Introduction



remain detached from the apparent attacks directed toward you and react to

the situation in a reasonable manner. Often the simple act of not getting

“hooked” by the hostile resister gradually defuses the situation.

The dominator talks incessantly to the whole group. He often wants

attention and has little sense of himself in a group context. If the dominatoris impulsive and not mean spirited, a trainer can allow for the needed

attention until it distracts from the presentation or overwhelms others in the

group. Some techniques for dealing with the dominator include not calling

on him or saying quickly after an assertion he has made, “Good point, but I

have to move on,” or “Thank you. Now let’s hear from someone else.” If these

suggestions don’t work, it may be time for quick counseling at the break.

The I-know-more-than-you-do participant seems to want to take over

the group. Actually, she is a type of dominator who needs recognition for

what she knows. Giving a reasonable amount of recognition may be

effective, but at times trainers must use some of the techniques suggested for

dealing with dominators. Small group discussion is one way to let people

have their say and get recognition without taking over the group.

The I-gotcha questioner asks rhetorical questions or questions designed to

“trap” the trainer. This participant often simply transforms statements into

questions in an effort to undermine a point in the training. Obviously,

genuine questions should be encouraged, but when someone asks, “Isn’t it

true that. . . ?” he is actually saying, “I believe it is true that. . . .” One of

the quickest ways to handle such challenges is to say, “It sounds like your

question is really a statement of ______. Let’s talk about the issue youraised.” This response is effective because the trainer remains in control and

demonstrates careful listening and responding.

The bulldog with a tiny bone focuses on a minute point and won’t let go.

A trainer can easily be drawn into a tedious debate with this one participant,

while most of the group mentally withdraws. It is best to say something

like, “I can see this is important to you, so perhaps we can discuss it during

the break. Right now we really must move on.” Of course, be sure to follow

up during the break.

The joker uses wit or sarcasm to interrupt and to draw attention to herself.A playful joker can sometimes be a delightful addition to a group, even if

she pokes fun at the trainer. Here again, it’s a matter of balance; it’s only a

problem if the joking gets out of hand. Moving on quickly and ignoring

jokes will often extinguish the behavior. If not, catch the person at break and

ask her to restrain herself a bit.


Introduction



On the other hand, a sarcastic joker who throws many hurtful comments at

either the trainer or others in the group should not be ignored. The trainer

should either publicly or privately tell this person that her comments are not

helpful and that she should keep her sarcasm to herself and let the group

proceed. The trainer should be careful not to engage in sarcastic repartee in

front of the whole group. Such behavior merely reinforces the participant’s

sarcastic behavior.

The chatterbox just can’t stop talking to his neighbors. All trainers have at

times ignored such behavior, thinking it will go away, only to have other

participants request that something be done. If moving closer to the talker

doesn’t succeed in stopping the chatter, falling silent and looking in the

direction of the talker usually will. If that doesn’t work, talk to the person

during the break. Try to avoid a public reprimand, if possible.

The I’m-with-you-200-percent participant is overly enthusiastic and

distracts the trainer and the group with an excessive number of commentsand examples. Obviously, it is not desirable to thwart genuine enthusiasm.

Accepting such support and moving on is usually sufficient, but a trainer

must be careful not to continually play to the one or two visibly supportive

participants. Participants who support the concepts less obviously can be put

off by what appears to be trainer favoritism.

The late arriver-early leaver has so many “important” issues to deal with

outside of the training that she is distracted and often distracts others with

her comings and goings. Commonly, the late arriver-early leaver does not

realize that her actions are disruptive. Again, the best way to handle this

problem is one-to-one. The trainer’s first action should be to find out thefacts. There may be a health problem or some other emergency for which

allowances should be made. At other times, the trainer may need to insist

that the person either go or stay but not continue the in-and-out behavior.

Remember that administrators are frequently called out of sessions. The best

way to solve this problem is to acknowledge to the group that some people

may be called out of the session periodically and to request that this be done

as unobtrusively as possible.

There are no sure-fire or pat solutions that will take care of all of the

difficulties listed above. One very general way of avoiding problems is to

avoid compulsory participation. When compulsory participation is a

problem, however, it should be dealt with in a direct manner. This can be

done by announcing, “We are aware that all or some of you feel

uncomfortable or upset about being required to be here. We are not

responsible for the decisions that led to this workshop, but we are

responsible for doing the best we can as we work with you. If anyone wishes

to express feelings about this at this time, please do so; then we will move

on.” Allow some discussion, and then move on to the next topic.


Introduction



Setting Up Groups

Grouping for activities in Dimensions of Learning training sessions should

be driven by the training objectives. Both quickly formed unstructured

groups for brief discussions and carefully structured groups for more

complex tasks should be used. The following advice is offered to assisttrainers in forming groups.

Unstructured Groups

We suggest that the trainer periodically pause during the presentation of

information to allow time for reflection and discussion. Discussion can be

triggered by asking participants to simply turn to a neighbor and talk about

a particular point or issue.

Structured Groups

Two types of relatively formal, structured groups are useful. The first is a

group or team of people who came to the session together and who will be

working together to implement Dimensions of Learning. The training

experience can be seen as a team-building experience for them. Sometimes

these groups are referred to as “home teams.”

The second structured type of group is the “training task group,” which is

formed to work on a specific small group activity. These groups encourage

participants to share with others who are not part of their home team. By

randomly selecting members for these groups, diversity is increased. Below

are some suggestions for putting people into training task groups.

Count off: Determine the size of the groups you want, and divide that

number into the number of participants. Then count off repeatedly using

that number. For instance, if there are 32 people in the large group and you

want 4 people in each small group, start at one side of the room and number

off through 8 until everyone has a number. Next, designate a spot for each

numbered group to meet and work. This can also be done with letters.

Another approach is to number name tags or handouts. The advantage to

this approach is that the trainer can structure the composition of each group

to represent a cross section of the workshop. The trainer can ensure gender,

ethnic, and racial balance or even make sure there is a mix of administratorsand teachers in each group, if that is desired.

Self-selection: Another less-structured approach is to ask participants to

find three or four people with whom they have not worked and form a small

group. This takes a little more time but varies the forming of groups.


Introduction



O v e r v i e w



Overview


Overview

This section of the training is an overview of the Dimensions of Learning

model. This Overview can be a stand-alone presentation or an introduction

to an extended training. In either case, participants are gaining a familiarity

with each of the five dimensions as they develop an initial understanding of

the theoretical foundations of the model, examine sample classroom

activities, and consider potential uses of Dimensions of Learning.

< As explained in the introduction to this Trainer’s Manual, throughout the training

session, every effort should be made to “model the model.” In other words, it is

important to attend to each dimension as you plan and present the training. For

example, try to encourage positive attitudes from participants by establishing a positive

social and psychological climate. This might be done, for example, by making personal

contact with as many participants as possible before the training begins, helping

participants get to know one another, and demonstrating respect for participants by acknowledging that they already know a great deal about the learning process as a

result of their experiences in the classroom. You can refer to these behaviors later as

examples of attending to Dimension 1.>

<After formal introductions, start with a warm-up activity like the one below.>

Before we get started on the specifics of the Dimensions of Learning model,

let’s try a little warm-up activity.

<Write the following question on a blank overhead: “If the day before the day before

yesterday was Tuesday, what is the day after the day after tomorrow?” Or, you may

use another problem or puzzle.>

Take a minute to see if you can come up with the answer to this puzzle.

<Allow a couple of minutes for participants to work on their solutions. Walk around

and find someone who has come up with the correct answer (Monday), and ask if he

or she is willing to share his or her thinking in coming up with the answer. A

diagram such as the following might be shared by one of the participants.>

Individual Task



Overview


DB = day before

DA = day after

Given that Dimensions of Learning is about thinking, I wanted you to get

into the proper mode for this workshop by engaging in a specific type of

thinking that was needed to solve this little problem. Notice that as people

shared how they got their answers, they used strategies. Some drew

diagrams, some talked through their answers, some simply thought about

their answers for a couple of minutes. The point is that when we engage in

any particular type of thinking—problem solving, decision making,

comprehending, etc.—we commonly use strategies. The ability to engage in

such thinking is not magical or doled out randomly to people at birth. This

ability results from developing strategies, some of which we are unaware that

we use. As we explore the Dimensions of Learning model, you should gain

an understanding of the type of thinking represented in each dimension and

become familiar with strategies that people use who have developed the

ability to engage in that type of thinking.

How does Dimensions of Learning relate to thinking? Dimensions of

Learning is a comprehensive model of learning, based on research in

cognitive psychology, that identifies the kinds of thinking involved in thelearning process. People sometimes ask if Dimensions is another thinking

skills model. The answer is that any time we discuss learning, we must

discuss thinking. All aspects of learning involve thinking. In this way, I

suppose the answer to the question is that because Dimensions is about

learning, it certainly is a thinking skills model.

Before we look at the model, think for a minute about your students. Form

groups of three or four with those immediately around you. In your groups,

discuss these questions: What kind of thinking do you wish you would see

evidence of more frequently in students? In other words, what thinking

abilities do your students lack, and why does this concern you? Be ready toreport back on some of the things that you have identified.

< Allow time for participants to discuss these questions, and then ask the small groups

to report to the large group. Listen carefully to participants’ concerns. You will be able

to refer to them later when you discuss each dimension. Frequently, participants give

ideas that you can use while presenting each of the dimensions.>

Small Group Activity

Tuesday

DB DBYesterday

Wednesday

DBYesterday

Thursday

Yesterday

Friday

Today

Saturday

Tomorrow

Sunday

DATomorrow

Monday

DA DATomorrow



Overview


We are going to be talking about teaching students strategies for the different

types of thinking represented in the dimensions. Before we do, in your small

groups consider another question that looks at the issue from the other side:

“What are some good reasons for not teaching thinking?” After all, some

would argue, “Nobody taught us how to think when we were in school, and

we did just fine.” Consider for a few moments why we should not teach

students various types of thinking. Be ready to report back to the large group.

< Participants’ answers usually include, “There really isn’t time to teach thinking,”

“Standardized tests don’t evaluate thinking,” “Our job is not to teach students to

think,” and “We need to teach content.”>

The reason I asked you to discuss the first question—“What kind of

thinking do you wish you would see evidence of more frequently in

students?”—is to emphasize the broad range of needs in any student

population. One motivation for the development of Dimensions of Learning

was to help people clarify what they mean when they say, “We want our

students to improve their thinking skills.” The diversity in your answers to

the first question highlights the fact that when discussing “thinking skills,”

different people refer to very different behaviors. Dimensions of Learning

clearly puts the emphasis on thinking that facilitates learning. As we begin

to better understand the relationship between thinking and learning, we can

set clearer goals for improving both.

The second question—“What are some good reasons for not teaching

thinking?”—was designed to emphasize some important issues that will

naturally arise as we get further into the model. The Dimensions of Learningmodel has strong implications for curriculum planning, instruction, teacher-

student interactions, classroom structures, and assessment. Many educators

would agree that these areas can always be improved. Change comes with a

price, however. Improving how we teach the types of thinking that are

identified in this model might require changing how we use resources such

as time, money, and people. If it becomes necessary to significantly change

how we are presently using these resources, the challenges that come with

trying to effect these changes will quickly provide us with additional reasons

for not teaching these types of thinking. We have to ask ourselves if we are

ready to commit to overcoming these challenges.

Actually, it is an exciting time to be in education because there are many

effective and useful innovations available to us. Some of these innovations are

a result of using the research in cognition and learning and translating it

into practical classroom strategies.




Overview


In your small groups, identify some of the programs, techniques, and

strategies that you have experienced as participants in training sessions or as

workshop leaders. See how many innovations you can list in the next few

minutes.

< Allow time for participants to make their lists, and then have several groups share.>

Innovations like those you have listed make it exciting to be in education.

But what is the downside of having so much available?

<Elicit answers. Some common answers include, “There is too much to choose from” and

“People jump on bandwagons; that is, they embrace an innovation, but before they

implement that idea they are attracted to the next innovation that becomes available.”>

The many diverse innovations and programs you have listed are often

perceived as being quite separate and sometimes even pitted against one

another. For example, teachers might say that they can’t implementcooperative learning because their schools are focused on standards. Or,

teachers sometimes feel pressured to use specific strategies, even when those

strategies do not fit well with their style of teaching or with what they are

trying to accomplish.

Although it is probably an unintentional outcome, sometimes teaching is

evaluated as to whether particular instructional strategies and programs

exist, rather than on the effect that these strategies and programs have on

students’ thinking and learning. If we were to graphically depict education

when it has this emphasis, it might look like this.

< Put up Overhead O.1. As you talk, use a marker to turn each spoke into an arrow

that points to the Students’ Thinking and Learning circles, as shown below.>


Large Group Discussion

O.1Overhead

Students’Thinking and Learning


S

t u d e n t s ’

T h i n k i n

g

a n d

L e a r n i n g

S t u d e nt s ’

T h i nk i n g an d L

e ar ni n g

InstructionalStrategies

andPrograms




Overview

In the center, or the target, of this graphic are instructional strategies and

programs. Students’ thinking and learning sometimes gets lost or exists only

on the periphery. Of course, the goal of the strategies and programs is to

influence students’ thinking and learning, but sometimes students get lost

or deemphasized.

Ideally, instructional strategies and programs should not be in the center.

They are not the end; they are the means to the end. The success of any

strategy or program should be measured only in terms of the effect it has on

students’ thinking and learning. When education is focused on students, we

might depict it like this.

< Put up Overhead O.2. As you talk, use a marker to turn each spoke into an arrow

that points to the center.>

As stated earlier, the success of any innovation in education should be

measured in terms of its influence on students’ learning. When a newinnovation is explored, this should not mean that a successful technique is

dropped. For example, teachers should not stop using cooperative learning

when a district pursues the implementation of standards. In fact, many

believe that using cooperative learning in the classroom will enhance

students’ attitudes and, therefore, help more students achieve high standards.

In order to achieve the goal of maintaining an emphasis on students’

learning, we recommend that educators in a school or district share a

common understanding and language related to learning. As you will see,

Dimensions of Learning is a model that can help provide this commonunderstanding and language.

Dimensions is a model of learning that identifies five interrelated types of

thinking. As we examine this model, keep in mind that it is a model that

was invented, not discovered. It is offered not as truth, but as a useful tool.

Models are valuable because they help us to organize and study complex

topics. Dimensions of Learning is way of organizing and studying the vast

amount of information related to human learning.

< Put up Overhead O.3.>

The five types of thinking—the five dimensions—identified in theDimensions of Learning model are

• Attitudes and Perceptions

• Acquire and Integrate Knowledge

• Extend and Refine Knowledge

• Use Knowledge Meaningfully

• Habits of Mind

O.2Overhead

O.3Overhead



Overview


Thus, if we are interested in promoting successful learning on the part of our

students, it makes good sense to elicit, address, and teach to the thinking

related to each of these five dimensions.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, play the Introductory tape,

which lasts about eight minutes. Afterwards, briefly review the five dimensions onOverhead O.3.>

The relationship among these five dimensions of learning is not linear and

sequential. This is illustrated in the graphic representation shown on this

overhead. As we discuss each of the dimensions, it should become clear that

they interact and overlap. This model does not set up a hierarchy.

Specifically, there is no implication that one dimension is on a higher level

than another. It is also not a taxonomy, creating neat categories into which

each part of the learning process fits. It is a model that represents the

learning process. As we examine the dimensions, you will see that each of

them has distinctive characteristics but that the boundaries among the

dimensions are blurred.

Again, although there really is not a sequence to the dimensions, they are

numbered, primarily because it makes it easier to discuss them. Let’s begin

our exploration, then, with Dimension 1, Attitudes and Perceptions.

Dimension 1


Dimension 1 is based on the principle that students’ attitudes and

perceptions influence learning. This is not a surprise to anyone. What are

some of the attitudes that affect students’ thinking and learning? In other

words, what might students be saying to themselves that will influence how

much they learn?

<Elicit a few responses.>

When you think about some of these attitudes, you might say that in any

learning situation, learners are asking themselves a number of questions:


• Do I feel accepted?

• Am I comfortable?

• Am I safe?


O.4Overhead

O.3Overhead

O.5Overhead



Overview


• Is this information useful or interesting to me?

• Can I do this?

• Do I know what is expected?

If the answer to any of these questions is “no,” students probably will turn

much of their attention to the issue implied by the question. As a result,

learning is interrupted because learners are now expending much of their

mental energy trying to resolve the issue.

Try to think of a situation when you were a learner and your attitudes and

perceptions influenced your learning, either positively or negatively. Share

your experience with a partner.

<Give participants time to discuss their experiences, and then ask a couple of people to

share their experiences. Then put up Overhead O.6, and categorize some of their

experiences as examples of parts of the outline. For example, if someone shares an

anecdote about a teacher who was rude to him or her, point out that it is an example

of not feeling accepted by teachers.>

Notice that this dimension has been divided into two general categories:

attitudes and perceptions about classroom climate and attitudes and

perceptions about classroom tasks. As we have seen, your personal anecdotes

exemplify parts of this outline. If you were given enough time, you probably

could think of personal anecdotes for each part of this outline. In other

words, you could think of times that your learning was influenced by your

positive or negative attitudes and perceptions related to teachers, peers,

comfort and order, your interest in the topic, your belief in your ability, andhow clear you were about what you were learning.

Given that these attitudes and perceptions influence learning, what does this

imply about instruction?

<Target answer: Teachers who want to enhance learning need to use strategies that

help students develop positive attitudes and perceptions in these areas. Participants

might also mention the point that students must also take some responsibility for their

own attitudes.>

Although teachers should help students to develop positive attitudes andperceptions, it is also important for students to take responsibility for their

own attitudes and perceptions. The Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual

includes many strategies that will help teachers influence students’ thinking

related to attitudes and perception. It also includes strategies to share with

students so that they can increasingly take responsibility for their own

attitudes and perceptions.

Think/Pair/Share


O.6Overhead



Overview


You will notice as you explore the model that whenever possible and

appropriate, there is an emphasis on students increasingly taking

responsibility for the types of thinking related to each of the dimensions.

< Put up Overhead O.5 again.>

Before we move on, stop for a few moments and think about how you, as a

participant in this training, would answer one or more of the questions related

to Dimension 1. Then turn to someone near you and share your thoughts.

<If time permits, elicit large-group responses.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, go on to the discussion of

Dimension 2.>

<If you are doing a stand-alone overview, create a unit planning handout by

copying the Colorado Unit from the back of the Teacher’s Manual. It is not necessary

to include all of the pages related to planning for declarative knowledge. Emphasize

that Dimensions of Learning is designed to be a curriculum planning model. If the

types of thinking specified in the Dimensions of Learning model are not attended to

during planning, they are not very likely to occur in the classroom.

Refer participants to the handout, specifically to the page showing the Dimension 1

Planning Guide, and ask them to read the decisions a hypothetical teacher made for a

unit on Colorado. Point out that teachers do not have to plan activities for every

dimension in every unit but that they should consider each area during planning.

Explain that for purposes of this presentation, the sample planning guides include

activities in all five dimensions.

Then go on to the discussion of Dimension 2.>

Some people would say that the best way to influence attitudes and

perceptions is to work on helping students acquire knowledge. Students

become more confident and interested learners, these people would argue, if

they are actually gaining knowledge. Although the Dimensions of Learning

model does not contradict this perspective, it does imply that sometimes you

have to do things that directly influence attitudes and perceptions. Other

times, however, attitudes are dramatically affected by what happens in

Dimension 2, Acquire and Integrate Knowledge.

O.5Overhead

Think/Pair/Share




Overview

Dimension 2


Dimension 2 focuses on the thinking needed to acquire and integrateknowledge. Before considering the processes involved in acquiring and

integrating new knowledge, it is necessary to make an important distinction

between the two primary types of knowledge.

How many of you drive a car? < Ask for a show of hands.>

How many of you hold a valid driver’s license? < Ask for a show of hands.>

How many of you have never had a traffic ticket? Never mind. Just joking

(although I have decided who I’m going to ask for a ride).

What specific knowledge did you need in order to get your driver’s license?

<Have participants call out examples as you write them on a blank overhead. As you

write, create two columns: one for declarative knowledge and one for procedural

knowledge. Typically, in the declarative column you will have things like “laws,”

“rules of the road,” “braking distances,” and “the shapes of signs.” On the procedural

side, you probably will have “parallel parking,” “turning,” “backing up,” and

“starting the car.” As soon as you have several examples, ask the following question.>

What are the attributes of the kinds of knowledge in each of the two

columns that I created?

<As participants generate attributes, write them at the bottom of the appropriate

column. They should see that one list contains facts, or discrete pieces of information;

the other contains processes, or things you have to know how to do.>

You have identified the attributes of the two basic types of knowledge that

we teach every day: declarative and procedural knowledge. Declarative

knowledge includes what we want students to know or understand : facts,

concepts, and principles. Procedural knowledge is what we want students to

be able to do: processes and skills.


It is important to understand these two types of knowledge because we learn

them differently. The process of acquiring and integrating declarative

knowledge involves constructing meaning for, organizing, and storing the

facts, concepts, and principles. Acquiring procedural knowledge requires

learners to construct models for, shape, and internalize the skills and

processes. Because we learn these two types of knowledge differently,


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Overview


educators should select different instructional strategies for each. Let’s look

at these two types of knowledge a little more closely.

As stated earlier, acquiring declarative knowledge involves constructing

meaning, organizing, and storing. Although there is much more to each

phase, briefly, constructing meaning involves linking new informationwith prior knowledge; organizing is seeing the patterns of relationships

within information; and storing is a process of consciously and deliberately

placing information into memory.

<If time is limited, you may want to skip the details related to acquiring and

integrating declarative knowledge and go on to the discussion of procedural knowledge

on page 42.>

The first phase highlights the fact that learning declarative knowledge is a

constructive process in that learners must “make meaning” from the

information they are receiving. This is what you quite naturally do when youreceive information—when you pick up the newspaper in the morning or

even as you sit and attend to what I am saying right now. To illustrate, read

this passage, and be ready to summarize it for your partner. Be aware of what

you are doing to construct meaning.

< Put up Overhead O.9 (“Doing Laundry” passage with no title). Give participants

enough time to discover that they are having trouble constructing meaning.>

You probably notice that you are having trouble. Before you discuss the

passage, I want you to read it again. This time, however, I am going to give

it a title. Notice what is happening inside your head as you read this time.

<Write “Doing Laundry” at the top of the passage, and allow time for participants

to read it again. Ask a couple of people to describe the difference between reading it the

first time and reading it the second time. Have them identify what exactly was going

on inside their head each time.>

This passage was written to highlight what happens when the process of

constructing meaning breaks down. You could decode the passage—that is,

you could read the words—but it was difficult for you to elicit any prior

knowledge, and, therefore, it was difficult for you to understand. By

providing a title for the passage, I was able to help you elicit the appropriateprior knowledge. As a result, you could understand the information.

Good teachers, even if they are not familiar with this process of constructing

meaning, use strategies to help students understand the information they are

receiving. They know that if students don’t make connections in the

information, they will not understand what they are reading or hearing. If

Think/Pair/Share


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Overview


students are reading a chapter in a biology book, for example, and they have

an experience like the one you had as you read the “Doing Laundry” passage

without the title, they might become frustrated and confused and might

even give up trying to understand the information. Although textbooks are

not written to intentionally break down the process of constructing

meaning, students still might only decode the words and fail to construct

meaning. Therefore, we should consciously and intentionally use strategies

that help students to construct meaning.

Has anyone used or seen someone use the strategy called K-W-L or a

technique that requires students to create mental images? These are

strategies that are particularly powerful in helping students to construct

meaning. The Teacher’s Manual includes these strategies as well as a number

of other suggested strategies for helping students to construct meaning for

declarative knowledge.


Another important phase in acquiring and integrating declarative knowledge

is organizing information. This is the phase in which learners see patterns of

relationships among pieces of information. It is critical that students see

information in patterns, as opposed to seeing pieces of information in

isolation, sometimes referred to as “infobits.” If students see the information

in patterns, they are more likely to retain and use that information.

Keep in mind, however, that different learners working with the same piece

of information will organize or put ideas together very differently. Thispicture may help you better understand this idea.

< Put up Overhead O.10. Ask participants if they can see the old lady and the young

lady.>

Some of you probably can see the old lady very easily but have trouble seeing

the young lady; others probably have the opposite problem. The same is true

when learning information: Some students can clearly see certain key ideas

and will therefore see different patterns of relationships than others will. It

can be frustrating when students don’t see patterns that you think are

obvious. For example, students might read a passage that you believe clearlyexplains the causes of the American Revolution. Some students however, do

not see a cause-effect pattern at all. To your dismay, they simply see facts

about Paul Revere.

However, it does no good to become dismayed when students don’t see

patterns that are clear to you. Remember, some of you can see the pattern of

the old lady and the pattern of the young lady in this picture; some of you

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Overview

cannot see either of them. The message is that if we want students to see

patterns in information, we should use strategies that help them. Many of

you are familiar with strategies that help students organize information,

strategies like graphic organizers or graphs and charts. Again, the Teacher’s

Manual offers explanations of these and other strategies to help students in

this critical phase of acquiring declarative knowledge.


Once you have constructed meaning for and organized your knowledge, you

still have one more step to consider. Do you need to use storing strategies to

ensure that you will remember any specific pieces of knowledge?

Some educators become uncomfortable when this topic is raised. They might

be thinking, “Surely, you are not emphasizing memorizing in this model. It

is important for students to learn to access information, not memorize it.”

The Dimensions of Learning model highlights the importance of

remembering what you have learned. Certainly, accessing information is

critical, but in classrooms and in the workplace it is also important to have a

great deal of information “in your head” ready to use at any time. The good

news is that by attending to constructing meaning for and organizing

information, you have already influenced what will be remembered.

However, there are times when there is a need to commit to memory very

specific pieces of information. This is when storing strategies should be used.

Prior to the invention of the printing press, the mark of scholars was their

ability to recall information by chapter and verse (e.g., from The Iliad , TheOdyssey, or the Bible). Current education practice sometimes does not make

use of strategies that have been around for hundreds of years. As with the

other phases, you can provide students with strategies that, when used

efficiently, can reduce the amount of time needed for storing information.

Let’s try one strategy right now.

Create a picture in your head of a Jersey cow (which is brown). Name this

Jersey cow “Georgette.” See her standing up on one hind leg, balancing on

top of the Empire State Building. She is wearing yellow underwear. She is

singing Christmas carols. Hear them.<Go back and review. Ask, “What kind of cow?”, “What was she wearing?”,

“What’s her name?”, etc.>

Under what is now her right arm is a Virginia ham. Smell and taste it. In

her left hand is a pen. With this pen she is connecting dots in the air.


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<Go back and review again.>

Now the picture formed by the dots is becoming clear. It’s a long winding

road. On the road is Marilyn Monroe going to Mass, so see a big cathedral at

the end of the road.

<Go back and quickly review once more.>

Here is the situation. You are my fifth graders. We are studying the 13

original colonies. I want you to be able to list them, but I don’t want you to

spend a lot of time memorizing them. What we just did was use a memory

strategy to achieve this goal. Remember that with actual fifth graders, they

would know what they are memorizing. I didn’t tell you at the beginning

because it is kind of fun to find out after you have done it. The strategy I used

is called the link strategy. You simply generate a symbol or substitute (a word

that sounds like the target word) for each item you are memorizing and then

link them together. Let’s check to see what symbols and substitutes I used.

< Provide the first few colonies for participants so that they understand how symbols,

substitutes, and the link strategy work. Then ask them to identify the rest of the

states. Jersey cow=New Jersey; Georgette=Georgia; Empire State Building=New

York; Christmas carols=North and South Carolina; yellow underwear=Delaware;

Virginia ham=Virginia and New Hampshire; pen=Pennsylvania; connecting

dots=Connecticut; road=Rhode Island; Marilyn=Maryland; and

Mass=Massachusetts.>

Some people might say that this is just a gimmick or a trick. Actually it is a

very powerful strategy that is used effectively by students to remember lists.Because memory strategies are highly engaging, they can convince students

that other kinds of thinking—such as comprehension and problem

solving—also involve strategies that they can use.

To see if I have been clear, before we move on, take a few minutes to jot

down the key ideas we just covered in our discussion of acquiring and

integrating declarative knowledge.

< Allow time for participants to write.>

Based on what you wrote down, are there any questions you would like toask? Is there any information that needs to be clarified before we move on?

< Allow several seconds of “wait time.” Respond to questions. Then, if it is not

already up, put up Overhead O.8 again.>

To review, acquiring and integrating declarative knowledge involves three

phases: constructing meaning, organizing, and storing. Acquiring and


Individual Task

Overview

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Overview

integrating procedural knowledge also involves three phases: constructing

models, shaping, and internalizing. Constructing a model means

identifying the steps involved in the procedure. The learner should have a

sense of each step and actually be able to perform each step, although the

performance will be rough at this point. Shaping means identifying

problem areas, changing steps to improve them, or analyzing how the steps

are affected when the procedure is used in different contexts. This all helps

to make the procedure more “your own.” Internalizing is achieved through

practice. When the learner has internalized a skill or process, he or she is

able to perform the procedure fluently and automatically.

In order to begin to understand these three phases, let’s apply them to a

learning experience we all have had. Try to recall learning the procedures

involved in driving. How did you learn the steps? (Did your dad patiently

give you instructions?) How did you shape the procedures? (Do you still

drive with your hands at 10 o’clock and 2 o’clock or drive only in thatparking lot where you learned?) When did you know that you had

internalized it? (When you were driving with your arm around your

girlfriend?) Discuss your experiences with a partner.

<Allow time for participants to think and share.>

We are not going to review strategies at this time for each of these phases of

acquiring procedural knowledge, but it is important to note that they are

quite different from those used to help students acquire declarative

knowledge. One of the purposes of the Dimensions training is to understand

each type of knowledge well enough to select appropriate strategies for thetype of knowledge students are acquiring. Further, as teachers understand

these two types of knowledge, they are more likely to evaluate the success of

any strategy by determining if, in fact, it enhanced students’ acquisition of

the targeted knowledge. For example, the fact that K-W-L is a powerful,

research-based strategy does not imply that teachers who use it are doing a

good job. It should be used if the goal is to help students construct meaning

for declarative knowledge, and its success should be measured in terms of the

extent to which students construct meaning.

Another reason for understanding the distinction between the process of

learning declarative knowledge and the process of learning procedural

knowledge is that classrooms focused on content areas containing a great deal

of declarative knowledge will look very different from those focused on

content areas containing a great deal of procedural knowledge. In classes in

which declarative knowledge is emphasized, the greatest amount of time is

spent constructing meaning, then organizing it; the least amount of time is

spent storing it. In classes in which procedural knowledge dominates, even if


Think/Pair/Share



Overview

just for a particular unit, the majority of time is spent practicing and shaping;

the time required for the learner to construct models is relatively short. This

illustrates that not all classrooms will look—nor should look—the same.

In general, which subject areas are heavy in procedural knowledge? Which

are heavy in declarative knowledge?

<The general opinion is that industrial arts is an area that consists largely of

procedural knowledge, that social studies consists mostly of declarative knowledge, and

that mathematics seems split. Keep in mind that not everyone will agree with this

categorization; other positions certainly are defensible.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, go to the discussion of

Dimension 3.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview , ask participants to read the unit planning

guides for Dimension 2, which are part of the handout you created. Acknowledge that they may not be familiar with all of the strategies included in the planning guides. The

main point is that planning for the acquisition and integration of knowledge requires

careful consideration of the processes involved in learning both types of knowledge.

Then go on to the discussion of Dimension 3.>

Dimension 3

< Put up Overhead O.11.>Learning, of course, involves more than just acquiring and integrating

declarative and procedural knowledge. In truly effective situations, learners

engage in mental processes that help them gain new insights about

information, see new connections, and make new discoveries. In short,

learners extend and refine their knowledge. Few would deny that teaching

students to use processes that help them to extend and refine knowledge is a

desirable educational goal. That goal, however, sometimes gets lost.


Consider the list on this overhead for a moment. Students need instruction inhow to perform these processes, as well as specific opportunities to apply

them to content. Keep in mind that the goal is not just to “do” these

processes periodically or on a particular day of the week. (One school

designated a thinking day, which was called “Thinking Thursdays.”) The goal

is for students to use the processes to extend and refine their knowledge.


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Overview

To illustrate what is meant by using these processes to extend and refine

knowledge, let’s use one of the processes: comparing. At your tables, I want

you to compare two words that you know fairly well, that is, that you have

already “acquired”: fun and enjoyment .

<Write the following on a blank overhead.

Fun and enjoyment are similar because they both ________________________.

Fun and enjoyment are different because fun is _________ but enjoyment is

_______.

Ask participants to use these sentence stems to try to generate three similarities and

three differences for the words “fun” and “enjoyment.” Give them time to work, and

then elicit several examples from the groups.>

As I walked around while you were working, I was trying to determine if this

activity helped you to extend and refine your knowledge. I was looking to see

if anyone seemed to be thinking hard in order to come up with examples of

things that they enjoy and things that are fun. I was looking to see if anyone

was saying anything like, “Hmm. Is everything that is fun also enjoyable?” or

“That’s a good idea. I’ve never thought about it like that.” These are signs

that tell a teacher that students are making connections, seeing new

distinctions, experiencing an “aha.” These are signs that by using the process

of comparing, students are extending and refining their understanding of the

targeted knowledge. Each of the extending and refining processes can be used

to achieve this goal with targeted content knowledge.

<Examples of each extending and refining process are provided below. In general, it is

not a good idea to cover all eight processes. If time permits, go over four or five. If time

is short, go over two or three.>

In a moment, I will briefly go over the extending and refining processes

identified in Dimension 3 and give you an example of how each process can

be used by students to extend and refine knowledge. As I do, rate each

process in terms of how frequently you use it. If you use the process a great

deal, assign a 3 to it. If you use it very little, assign a 1. Assign a 2 if your

use of the process is somewhere between a 1 and a 3.

Comparing is the process of identifying and articulating similarities and

differences among items. For example, during a vocabulary lesson, students

compare words that they think they know well (e.g., invention and discovery;

fun and enjoyment ) and, as a result, discover connotations and distinctions that

they had not previously considered.






Overview

Classifying is the process of grouping things into definable categories on the

basis of their attributes. For example, during a history unit, students classify

all of the 20th-century wars by cause: (1) economics, (2) human rights issues,

(3) expansionist motivations, and (4) other causes. Students often find that

they had never considered how many wars were economically motivated.

Abstracting is the process of identifying and articulating the underlying

theme or general pattern of information. For example, during a unit on

Romeo and Juliet, students abstract the general theme of forbidden love and

teenage rebellion. They suddenly see Shakespeare as “a pretty cool guy.”

Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring unknown generalizations or

principles from information or observations. For example, after reading part

of a story, students describe the physical appearance of the characters, even

though the characters have not been described in the story. They then

identify the specific information or observations they used to help them

decide what the characters looked like. The students quickly realize how an

author can develop characters through dialogue and events in the story.

Deductive reasoning is the process of using generalizations and principles

to infer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations. For

example, students have previously learned that hot air rises. During a new

experiment involving this concept, they successfully predict what must occur

versus what might occur. They also explain the deductive reasoning that led

them to conclude what must occur.

Constructing support is the process of building systems of support forassertions. For example, during a unit on civil disobedience, students try to

construct support for or against the claim that flag burning should be

protected under the free speech clause of the First Amendment. As a result,

they discover how complex many free speech issues can be.

Analyzing errors is the process of identifying and articulating errors in

thinking. For example, during a science unit, students analyze a proposal for

establishing a nuclear power plant near a city. They discover errors in the

logic supporting the proposal. They begin to rethink their own positions on

the issue.

Analyzing perspectives is the process of identifying multiple perspectives

on an issue and examining the reasons or logic behind each. For example,

during a unit on types of government, students identify reasons behind the

perspective that democracy is the best form of government and reasons

behind the perspective held by people in certain other countries that

socialism is the best type of government. Students still think that democracy

is better but understand why others sometimes choose socialism.




Which of the complex reasoning processes do you use a lot in the classroom?

Which do you use sometimes? Which do you rarely, if ever, use? Which

might you consider using, and how?

<Elicit responses.>


Dimension 4.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to look over the activities

listed on the Dimension 3 Planning Guide, which is part of the handout you created.

You may ask them to generate examples of insights, discoveries, or ideas that might

result when students do the specific activities described for the Colorado unit. Then go

on to the discussion of Dimension 4.>

Dimension 4


We are now going to shift our attention to Dimension 4. As we explore

Dimension 4, you will see that Dimensions 3 and 4 have similarities and

differences.


Now, look at the processes included in Dimension 4. How do you think they

are similar to and different from the processes in Dimension 3?

<Target answers: Dimension 4 processes tend to be used in more authentic contexts;

that is, it is easy to generate real-life situations in which we must make decisions or

solve problems. The Dimension 4 processes also are more complex in that they tend to

involve more steps than those in Dimension 3. Finally, while doing many of the

Dimension 4 processes, we also may be engaged in one of the Dimension 3 processes.

For example, we sometimes compare when we are making decisions, and we sometimes

use deductive reasoning while we are engaged in experimental inquiry.>

If learning stopped at Dimension 3 (extending and refining knowledge),

students might not get the opportunity to apply what they have learned inways and contexts that are meaningful to them. When they have to use, or

apply, knowledge, they not only demonstrate what they know but increase

their knowledge as they are in the process of using it.

For example, you use and increase your knowledge about stereos when you

are making a decision about buying an expensive system; you learn a great


Overview



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Overview

deal about solar energy when you are inventing an energy-efficient house;

you use and increase your knowledge about discipline when you are solving a

problem like trying to raise your children without spanking them.

As I go over the processes in this dimension, identify those that are most

applicable to your class or classes, and be ready to explain why.

< Again, examples are provided for each process, as they were provided in the section on

Dimension 3. You should decide how many and which ones to include in your

overview.>

Decision making is the process of generating and applying criteria to select

from among seemingly equal alternatives. For example, several students are

in the process of selecting a musical to be produced by the drama

department. They are using knowledge about all of the things they know

must be considered: audience, resources, personnel, production capabilities,

specific knowledge of each play being considered, and so on.

Problem solving is the process of overcoming constraints or limiting

conditions that are in the way of pursuing goals. For example, students

decide to produce a play using only lighting effects for scenery.

Invention is the process of developing unique products or processes that

fulfill perceived needs. For example, students in a physical education class

decide they are going to invent a new form of baseball that depends less on

the skills of the pitcher.

Experimental inquiry is the process of generating and testing explanationsof observed phenomena. For example, a student studying the effects of

exercise on health hypothesizes that many people do not exercise regularly

because they do not understand its effects. He constructs a quiz and a survey

to test his hypothesis.

Investigation is the process of identifying and resolving issues about which

there are confusions or contradictions. For example, a student is trying to

explore all of the theories about where Columbus actually landed when he

discovered the New World. She hopes to use what she is learning in order to

construct the most likely scenario.

Systems analysis is the process of analyzing the parts of a system and the

manner in which they interact. For example, students studying ecosystems

might select several specific ecosystems and try to determine what would

happen if particular parts of each ecosystem were altered in some way as a

result of human activity.


Individual Task



Overview

< Ask participants which of the processes are most applicable to their classes and why.>

In the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual it is explained that the

processes in Dimension 4 are used to design meaningful, long-term tasks

that require students to use what they have learned. The reason for this

emphasis on the reasoning processes is to ensure that students are focused onusing their knowledge rather than on producing an attractive product. Too

often students (or their parents!) spend a great deal of time making

something that is bigger or prettier or that uses more technology than

anyone else’s. Of course, using technology and making a quality product are

positive goals, but the emphasis in this dimension is on the use of

knowledge. Students who have limited access to art materials or technology

might be able to show that they, in fact, did think rigorously about the

knowledge as they completed their task. We must be careful not to let

impressive products overshadow impressive thinking. In addition, many

projects and products require students simply to reproduce knowledge. Bystructuring projects around Dimension 4 reasoning processes, we are

requiring students to generate knowledge. In other words, we are requiring

them to make decisions, to find solutions, and to offer clarifications.

Tasks that involve using knowledge meaningfully frequently are long term

in nature. It is unlikely that students could complete any of these tasks in

one or two class periods. It might take days (or, for older students, weeks) to

complete these complex tasks. This means that students must be provided

with class time for these long-term projects and that the teacher’s role in the

classroom must support these projects.

< Put up Overhead O.12 and then Overhead O.14 again.>

Take a look again at the list of reasoning processes in Dimensions 3 and 4.

Remember that attending to these two dimensions means directly teaching

these processes and holding students accountable for extending and refining

knowledge or using knowledge meaningfully. Think about the extent to

which processes like these are directly taught now in your classrooms. Turn

to a partner and discuss the following questions: Should they be taught more

frequently? When? By whom?

<Allow time for participants to share.>


Dimension 5.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to review the planning guide

for Dimension 4, which is part of the handout you created. Then move on to

Dimension 5.>



Think/Pair/Share

O.14O.12Overheads



Dimension 5


We have discussed the types of thinking required for establishing positiveattitudes and perceptions (Dimension 1), for acquiring and integrating

knowledge (Dimension 2), for extending and refining knowledge

(Dimension 3), and for using knowledge meaningfully (Dimension 4). Now

we’re going to discuss Dimension 5, Habits of Mind.

The most effective learning is done when the learner is operating at a higher

level of thinking. But what is “higher level thinking”? Some researchers

assert that thinking and learning is “higher level” when learners are

exhibiting certain habits of mind. This suggests that the phrase “higher level

thinking” is not something that is demanded from specific types of tasks; it

is a phrase that describes what a learner exhibits, or does not exhibit, whenengaged in any type of task. For example, from a Dimensions of Learning

perspective, it is not accurate to say that someone who is solving a problem

is engaged in thinking that is “higher level” than a person who is trying to

comprehend something; problem solving can be done rather mindlessly,

whereas comprehending can demand rigorous concentration. Again, as

defined in Dimensions of Learning, higher level thinking does not describe

what a task demands; it describes what the learner brings to the task.


In the Dimensions of Learning model, the fifth dimension, Habits of Mind,offers a list of specific mental habits that characterize higher level thinking.

Let’s examine this list with a technique frequently used by teachers to

encourage students to self-assess their own use of these mental habits.

Imagine a classroom of students working hard on a long-term Dimension 4

task. Periodically, the teacher asks them to stop their work and respond to

one or more of the following questions. Consider what effect being presented

with these questions might have on students.

<Put up Overhead O.17, then O.18, then O.19. Allow time for participants to read

each set of questions. Participants commonly like these questions. You might includethem in a handout.>

Then put up Overhead O.16 again.>

The sets of questions you just saw are simply these productive habits of

mind turned into questions with a rating scale. No matter what the task,

learners are engaged in higher level thinking to the extent to which they are


Overview

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O.16Overhead

O.17

O.19

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exhibiting appropriate mental habits like those listed here under the three

categories of habits of mind: critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-

regulated thinking.

Some would argue that these habits, sometimes referred to as dispositions,

are what students need to succeed in the 21st century. Assume that youagree. How can we communicate to students that these habits of mind are

important?

<Elicit responses. Examples: We help students learn how to develop the habits; we

model them; we tell students that the habits of mind are important; we point out

instances that demonstrate that such habits are integral to the success of some of their

heroes.>

Some would argue that although there are many ways of communicating the

importance of mental habits, the message we give students is that what is

graded is what’s important. I’m going to paint a scenario that asks you toexplore this assertion and that also asks you to generate a new way of

viewing a situation that is outside the boundaries of standard conventions.

Suppose there is a school in which the report card students take home

includes only these 15 habits of mind. These are the only things for which

students receive actual grades; the curriculum stays the same. Students are

given assignments and feedback on how well they are doing, but grades are

limited to these 15 habits of mind. Would you want to work at this school?

Why or why not? Think about this, and then buddy up with someone and

share your thoughts.< Allow time for participants to think and then to pair up. Then ask several

participants to share their conclusions. You will probably get people who would like to

work there because these habits are so important. Many, however, will say that they

would not like to work there because assessing these habits would be difficult and the

assessments would be so subjective.>

You are highlighting the issues that consistently surround the habits of mind.

Most people believe they are important. But they disagree about the role of

the school and the possibility of assessing them. We are not suggesting that

schools grade these habits. This activity simply highlights the issues thatsometimes surface. It is important to not let disagreements related to these

issues distract from addressing this dimension in the classroom.

Remember that in the Dimensions of Learning model this dimension, habits

of mind, is part of the backdrop of the graphic representation of the model.

This implies that these habits influence the learning of the knowledge that

is the focus in Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. These habits of mind are important


Overview


Think/Pair/Share




because they can dramatically influence learning. Even if a school has a very

“back-to-basics” curriculum, if students are also developing these mental

habits, their learning will be enhanced. How, then, might you communicate

to students that these habits are important, and how might you help

students develop them?

The Teacher’s Manual suggests a number of ways to do this, including

suggestions for assessing these habits. However, the manual defines

assessment very broadly. Student self-assessment, as modeled with the self-

assessment questions we examined a few minutes ago on the overhead, is a

useful and effective method for maintaining students’ awareness of the

importance of mental habits.

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, move on to the Wrap-Up

Section.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to read over the Dimension 5 Planning Guide, which is part of the handout you created. Point out that the teacher

has decided how to reinforce or introduce various habits within the unit. Then move

on to the Wrap-Up Section below.>

Wrap-Up

We have now examined all five of the dimensions of learning. Each

represents a type of thinking distinct from the others, and yet, as the graphic

implies, each interacts and overlaps with the others. For example, when

students engage in activities that are designed to extend and refine their

knowledge, they have not stopped acquiring and integrating knowledge. In

fact, they continue to acquire and integrate knowledge as they work on tasks

in which they use knowledge meaningfully.

The Dimensions of Learning model can be used in a number of ways. There

are four major ways described in the introduction to the Teacher’s Manual ,

pages 8-11. Turn to those pages now.

<If this is a stand-alone presentation and participants do not have the manual, you

could either omit the directions in this section that ask them to read, or you might

provide them with a handout of these pages from the manual.>

<Put up Overhead O.20.>

First, it has been used as a resource for instructional strategies that are keyed

to the effect that those strategies should have on the learning process. Take a

minute to read the section on page 8 that describes this use.


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< Allow time for participants to read.>

Second, Dimensions of Learning is used to plan staff development. No one

wants staff development opportunities to be perceived as one-shot inservice

workshops focused on “hot topics” that are here today and gone tomorrow.

The reason that schools and districts plan staff development opportunities isto help teachers learn so that they can help students learn. The Dimensions

model can provide a way to focus staff development efforts so that it is clear

how selected programs and strategies will affect students’ learning. Take a

look at the matrix on page 10.

< Again, if participants do not have the Teacher’s Manual or a handout, you can use

the overhead of the matrix to make the following points.>

<Put up Overhead O.21.>

Down the left-hand side of the matrix is an outline of the Dimensions of Learning model. This indicates that the person using this matrix has decided

that Dimensions represents what he or she believes to be important in the

learning process. The first step in using this matrix to plan staff

development is to determine what part of the learning process you are trying

to improve. This means that you should first identify your “learning goals.”

Do you, for instance, want to improve students’ acquisition of procedural

knowledge? Do you want to improve students’ attitudes toward learning?

Perhaps you want to help students extend and refine knowledge through the

use of specific reasoning processes. You might decide that you have several of

these goals in mind.Once you have decided what part or parts of the learning process you would

like to affect, you would move to the top of the matrix and begin to identify

“resources for improvement,” that is, programs, strategies, techniques,

experts, or any other type of resource that would help you to achieve the

learning goal you have set. Notice that you do not have to identify only one

resource; there are multiple resources that can help you to achieve your goals.

As you identify resources, you also will discover that a resource identified for

one specific learning goal will influence other parts of the learning process as

well. Cooperative learning approaches, for example, might be selected as aresource for enhancing students’ attitudes toward each other. However,

depending on how these approaches are used in the classroom, they also can

potentially influence many aspects of the learning process.

< As you make these points, you might demonstrate the use of the matrix by filling in

a couple of resources at the top and then putting a mark in the appropriate square

across from the aspect of learning that the resources influence. This will show


Overview

O.21Overhead



Overview

participants how one resource can influence multiple parts of the learning process and

how a single part of the learning process can be influenced by multiple resources.>

Of course, you do not have to use a matrix like this to use the Dimensions

model as a framework for planning staff development. The point is that staff

development opportunities should always be focused on a clear learning goaland that Dimensions provides a framework for setting these goals.


The third use of the model is as a structure for planning curriculum and

assessment. The planning guide that accompanies each dimension provides a

structure that encourages teachers to ask themselves key questions related to

each dimension as they plan curriculum units. The practice of asking

questions in each dimension is more important than filling out the planning

guide itself. However, the guide provides a place for teachers to answer each

of the questions. Using a model of learning to plan curriculum unitscommunicates that students’ thinking and learning is more important than

the activities that students experience or the strategies and techniques that

will be used.

As people use the model to plan curriculum, they also realize that their

planning for assessment is influenced. They discover, for example, that the

tasks generated in Dimensions 3 and 4 can be used for assessment as well as

for instruction. Further, because the planning in Dimension 2 encourages

them to clearly identify the declarative and procedural knowledge that

students will be learning, teachers have found that it is easier to designconventional forced-choice assessments that clearly assess the knowledge that

is important in the unit.

<If it is not already up, put up Overhead O.20 again.>

Finally, the most ambitious use of the model is as a focus for systemic

reform. Some district administrators have concluded that so much is going

on in schools and classrooms that at times the focus on students’ learning

gets lost. They do not want to stop people from using diverse resources or

stifle the enthusiasm people have for what they are doing, but they believe

they must focus efforts and energies on ensuring that enhancing students’learning is always the goal. As stated in the Teacher’s Manual (page 11), “Just

as curriculum planners ask questions in reference to each dimension during

planning, people in every part of the school system ask similar questions as

they create schedules, select textbooks, create job descriptions, and evaluate

the effectiveness of programs.”


O.20Overhead

O.20Overhead



To conclude this overview, I’d like to see if you can briefly summarize some

of the main points. Here’s how we will do it. Get a partner. One of you will

be A, and one of you will be B. After you have had a little time to reflect,

A’s, see if you can identify and briefly describe each of the five dimensions

of learning. After each dimension, B’s, identify one thing that was clear, or

validating, and one thing that was perhaps confusing, or of concern. I will

ask several pairs to share to the whole group when you are finished.

< Allow time for participants to interact, and then have several people share aloud.

Try to clear up any confusions that can be clarified quickly. If there is a major area

of confusion or concern, explain how the complete training will provide clarifications

and explanations.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, emphasize the fact that

when used to plan curriculum, the model can increase the likelihood that students

will be engaged in increasingly complex thinking as they learn content knowledge.

Additionally, it can help teachers and students become more aware of what is

necessary for efficient and effective learning. Explain that during this training,

each dimension will be explored in some depth. This will include brief summaries

of theoretical foundations, demonstrations, and examples of content and planning

units that address the five dimensions of learning.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, reemphasize the fact that this model

was developed to help clarify the types of thinking involved in learning. When

the Dimensions of Learning model is used to plan curriculum, it can increase the

likelihood that students will be engaged in increasingly complex thinking as they

learn content knowledge. Additionally, the instructional activities and strategies inthe Teacher’s Manual can help teachers and students become more aware of what is

necessary for efficient and effective learning. Review the resources available to those

who are interested in learning more about Dimensions of Learning. These are listed

in the Introduction to the Teacher’s Manual.>


Overview

Think/Pair/Share



D i m e n s i o n 1




1

Dimension 1

Attitudes and Perceptions

To The Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 1 of the Dimensions of Learning

Teacher’s Manual . The goal is to help participants understand the importance

of attitudes and perceptions to the learning process, to reinforce what they

already are doing in the classroom, and to introduce some strategies that can

help teachers and students enhance attitudes and perceptions. Dimension 1

is divided into two major areas:

I. Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Climate

• Feel accepted by teachers and peers

• Experience a sense of comfort and order

II. Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Tasks

• Perceive tasks as valuable and interesting

• Believe they have the ability and resources to complete tasks

• Understand and be clear about tasks




Attitudes & Perceptions

Dimension 1

During this training, participants will be in the process of learning

• that attitudes and perceptions influence learning,

• that teachers can foster positive attitudes and perceptions through

their own everyday behavior and through specific activities,

• that students can learn how to take responsibility for establishing

and maintaining positive attitudes and perceptions about learning,

• how to use various strategies and techniques to help students establish

and maintain positive attitudes and perceptions,

• how to teach students to establish and maintain positive attitudes and

perceptions, and

• how to plan for this dimension of learning.

Exploring Dimension 1

<Put up Overhead O.4 (from the Overview section).>

As we discussed in the Overview, attitudes and perceptions affect learning.

In fact, they influence everything the learner does. Effective teachers are

aware of how dramatically attitudes and perceptions affect learning and,

therefore, continually monitor the class and use strategies to help themselves

and students establish and maintain positive attitudes and perceptions.

Consciously attending to attitudes and perceptions has positive effects on

students’ learning of content as addressed in Dimensions 2, 3, and 4.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, show the tape for Dimension

1, which runs eight minutes. Introduce the tape by explaining that it depicts how

teachers deal with the various aspects of Dimension 1. When the tape is over, have

participants briefly discuss what they observed on the tape.>

Dimension 1 focuses on the specific things that effective teachers do to

influence students’ attitudes and perceptions related to classroom climate

and to classroom tasks.


Recall a time you were a student, and identify a teacher who you knew

accepted and respected you. After you have that person in mind, identify

how you knew he or she accepted and respected you and what difference that

made in your learning. Then recall a time you were a student and a teacher

did not accept or respect you. What effect did his or her feelings have on you

as a learner? Share your examples with a neighbor.

Think/Pair/Share

O.6Overhead

O.4Overhead




Think/Pair/Share


Dimension 1

<Allow a few minutes for discussion, and then ask for several examples.>

Now, recall a time you were a student and you consciously did something to

improve your attitude in some way. For example, you may have done

something to improve your relationship with your instructor or with your

peers or to improve your attitude about your abilities. Determine how takingthis action enhanced your learning. Share this example with a neighbor.

<Again, allow a few minutes for discussion, and then ask for several examples.>

Both of these experiences illustrate that many teachers and students are aware

of the influence that attitudes and perceptions have on the learning process.

However, although a number of examples were just generated in this group,

we also know that many times teachers, even master teachers, may be

unaware of specific strategies that help students enhance or maintain positive

attitudes and perceptions or may forget to use what they know works.

Even when teachers use a variety of strategies, they cannot always meet the

needs of all students. Therefore, the responsibility for establishing positive

attitudes and perceptions should be shared; that is, students should be

taught strategies to cultivate their own positive attitudes and perceptions

about learning. Successful students may consciously or unconsciously use

strategies to establish and maintain positive attitudes and perceptions, but

too many students are not knowledgeable about how to take responsibility

for this type of thinking.

Although the role of positive attitudes and perceptions is widely known and

acknowledged, viewing attitudes and perceptions as a type of thinking—infact, a thinking skill —may be a different perspective for some people. This is

a useful perspective because it emphasizes that we can have an impact on our

own attitudes and perceptions; that is, we can change negative ones and

cultivate positive ones. In addition, understanding that people can become

skilled at enhancing and maintaining positive attitudes means that we as

teachers can teach students how to develop this skill. This skill helps

empower students as they learn important content knowledge.

For example, a middle school student might learn to say to herself, “One of

the reasons that I have been doing poorly in one class is that I know theteacher does not like me. That affects how well I do in her class. I don’t try

as hard in that class as I do in others. I’ve decided to consciously go out of

my way to interact with the teacher in a positive way and put forth the

same—if not more—effort in her class as I do in others.” Many students do

not realize that they can take responsibility for their thinking. However, as

they begin to do so, they often discover just how strongly they can motivate

themselves.





Dimension 1

Working with one or two other people, look again at the two basic

categories of attitudes and perceptions on page 14 of your Teacher’s Manual :

those related to classroom climate and those related to classroom tasks.

<Put up Overhead 1.1.>

On this overhead is a list of teacher and student behaviors. For each

behavior, try to determine if the goal is to affect attitudes and perceptions

about classroom climate or about classroom tasks. Then go a little further,

and identify the specific aspect of classroom climate or tasks that the

behavior affects. For example, if you think a behavior affects students’

attitudes and perceptions about classroom tasks, determine if it influences

their perceptions of the value and interest of the tasks, their attitudes and

perceptions about their ability to complete the tasks, and/or their

understanding of and clarity about the tasks.

<Allow time for participants to do the matching, and then review the list together as a group. To facilitate this activity, it is useful to write the two general categories of

Dimension 1 and the subcategories (see Overhead O.6) on a piece of chart paper or on

a board. You might also want to briefly explain each of the subcategories within the

two general categories of attitudes and perceptions. Note that some of the behaviors

may impact several aspects of classroom climate or tasks and that different people

might see different benefits for the same behavior.>

An activity like this illustrates how a simple behavior can influence students’

attitudes and perceptions about multiple aspects of climate and tasks. There

are many strategies and activities that have been specifically designed foreach part of Dimension 1. The Teacher’s Manual describes a number of these

in some detail on pages 40-41.

<Put up Overheads 1.2 and 1.3.>


1.1Overhead

1.2 1.3Overheads





Dimension 1

Classroom Climate

Classroom Climate

Let’s spend some time now looking at a few of these more closely. Turn to

page 15 in the Teacher’s Manual . Note that the first strategy describes how to

help students understand that attitudes and perceptions related to classroom

climate influence learning. Take a couple of minutes to read over this

strategy and to think about why it might be important.

<Allow time for participants to read and reflect.>

Let’s address the second point under this strategy and create a hypothetical

situation right now. How many of you had a negative experience today? Did

anyone oversleep? Did anyone wake up to a car that would not start? Did

anyone not want to come to the training this morning? Any of these

situations could lead to someone in this workshop having a negative

attitude. Working with one or two other people, create a hypothetical

situation in which a participant could have a negative attitude. Then

identify several things that he or she could do, given this hypothetical

situation, to create a more positive attitude. Then, using the same situation,

identify some things that an instructor could do to help this participant have

a more positive attitude about the workshop.

<Allow time for participants to think of a situation. Ask them to share ideas with

the large group. Take the opportunity to share a real story of your own, that is, to

share things that have happened to you that could potentially influence your attitudes

and perceptions, such as having difficulty travelling to a location, experiencing arough morning with your children, etc. Usually this section is one in which you can

joke about a few of the mishaps of the day so far.>

The next section includes strategies (2-10, pages 16-22) for helping students

feel accepted by teachers and peers. Let’s look at strategy 2: Establish a

relationship with each student in the class. Please read this.

<Allow time for participants to read.>

The suggestions under strategy 2 are similar to the things you mentioned

when you described the teacher from your past who you knew accepted and

respected you. Think about how you feel when someone remembers your

name. All of us perhaps would agree that when someone makes an effort to

get to know us, it has a positive effect. For example, I might be so impressed

that the manager at the dry cleaner calls me by name that I am motivated to

keep giving him my business. Now remember, if you go out to lunch today

and someone calls you by name, it is because you forgot to take off your

nametag. <Just a joke.>




Classroom Climate60 Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 1

For the next few minutes, try to remember a number of situations in which

someone paid particular attention to you and it made a difference in your

attitudes and perceptions. Then transfer that to your classroom or school.

What could you do to make the same difference for your students? Share

with a neighbor the situations that you remembered and your thoughts

about how you might make this same difference with your students.

<Allow time for participants to share in pairs and in the large group.>

Now let’s read strategy 3 about monitoring and attending to your own

attitudes. A famous teacher/writer, Wallace Fowlie, wrote a book entitled

Journal of Rehearsals: A Memoir in which he shares his strategy of “rehearsing”

much of what he does as a teacher. He imagines his class, the discussions that

he will engage in, and even how he will respond if he finds himself in certain

situations. This is a powerful strategy for educators to use. Considering how

you might respond to potentially negative situations before they happen can

keep you from having a knee-jerk reaction that might damage your

relationship with a student or create a negative classroom environment. With

a partner, share a past experience in which you reacted too hastily, one that

would have had an entirely different outcome had you rehearsed the situation.

<Alternative activity: You might instead suggest that participants identify a

situation in which it might help to use an “as if ” strategy. This could be an effective

strategy to use if a teacher has a negative judgment about a student (e.g., “Matt has

no interest in school.”). Using this strategy, the teacher would interact with the

student as if he or she has positive attitudes about learning (e.g., “Matt is motivated

and interested in learning.”).>

The next two strategies, 4 and 5, both deal with different aspects of

personalizing instruction. Take a few minutes to read them before we discuss

them.


For strategy 4, I’d like you to work with one or two other people to consider

a real-life situation in which the extent to which someone exhibits

“equitable and positive” behavior can have an effect on those involved. Think

about a waiter in an expensive restaurant, for example. Describe twodifferent scenarios to your partner or partners. In one, the waiter is very

attentive to each person at your table. In the second, he is attentive and

interacts positively with everyone at the table except you. What kinds of

specific behaviors might you see in each scenario? Discuss how you might

feel as the patron. How might you react? Would you simply not go back to

the restaurant, or would you react in a different way? Or, think of your own

Think/Pair/Share






Dimension 1

example in which “equitable and positive behavior” might have an effect on

the people involved.

<Allow time for sharing.>

Just like a waiter who attends personally to each of his customers, beingaware of our attitudes and trying to engage in “equitable and positive

behaviors” in a classroom is important. We probably all agree about that, but

it’s easy to forget. None of these strategies in Dimension 1 is new. The

challenge is to regularly use what we know to be effective instructional

practices. The references in the margin next to strategy 4 are good resources

for suggestions on meeting this challenge. They can be particularly useful on

those frustrating days when you walk into the building and go straight to the

calendar on the wall to count the number of days until your next vacation.

Strategy 5 is similar to 4 because of the nature of individualizing or

personalizing behaviors. This strategy addresses the multicultural andmultifaceted nature of our society.

There was a story in a newspaper about an international summit being

conducted in a particular city. The article was a “how-to” on etiquette for

“summit behavior.” Many of you have travelled widely and have had

experiences with students from diverse cultures. Find a partner, and pretend

for a moment that you are volunteering to host an international group of

teachers this summer as part of a government summit. The two of you are in

charge of part of the orientation. Make a list of five do’s and five don’ts that

would help people to show respect for and sensitivity to people’s diversecustoms, perspectives, and backgrounds. Then share your ideas with another

pair.

Have you ever been in a situation in which someone did not recognize your

individual or cultural needs? How did that feel to you? How might you

transfer these ideas to your classroom teaching and learning? Every day,

teachers host students from all kinds of backgrounds. What are some of the

strategies that teachers might use in addition to those listed on page 18?

<Allow a few minutes for participants to reflect on these questions and to make any

notes.>

Strategy 6, “Respond positively to students’ incorrect responses or lack of

response,” also emphasizes the importance of exhibiting respect for students.

It takes time and practice to learn how to respond to students’ incorrect

answers in a way that maintains the dignity of the students yet holds them

accountable for correct responses. Even when the teacher tries to be kind—

“Can someone help Johnny?”—students very quickly pick up on subtle cues


Individual Task

Classroom Climate





Dimension 1

from the teacher that their answers were wrong. They often react by giving

up, tuning out, or acting out.

There are, of course, many effective ways of responding to incorrect responses

that communicate respect and help maintain students’ dignity. It is useful to

build a repertoire of responses. A few are offered in the bulleted items onpage 19. Take a minute to skim these.

<Allow time for reading.>

However, simply knowing these approaches is not enough. It takes practice

to make sure that your body language and tone of voice communicate that

you believe that students can correct or improve their responses. Let’s

practice.

Get a partner. One of you turn your back to the screen. The person facing

the screen is the “teacher.” The teacher is to begin asking the “student” someof the questions from the list on the screen. Think of it as playing “Trivial

Pursuit” without the competition. The teacher should try to use a number of

different ways of responding when the student fails to provide the correct

answer.

<Put up Overhead 1.4 only when the participants who are “the students” have turned

so they cannot see the screen. Expose only the first half of the questions. Let

participants know that the questions were selected to elicit incorrect responses or no

responses by intelligent adults so that they could practice the strategy.

Allow time for this activity. Then, if you have time, you might want to ask participants to trade places and do this activity again with Overhead 1.5

(the second half of the questions).>

Did you notice that in general you were consciously looking for positive

ways to help each other give the correct answer? What is difficult about

responding positively to incorrect responses in the classroom? How do

students react to different kinds of responses?

<Target answer: Participants will probably report that different students like

different kinds of responses. Some like to have help. Some prefer cues from the teacher.>

There is nothing new about these strategies. The difficult part is to

remember to use them, especially on a day when you are frustrated by

students’ answers. Some faculties have made a commitment to play this little

“Trivial Pursuit” game periodically at faculty meetings just to remind

themselves to use these strategies.

1.4Overhead

1.5Overhead







Dimension 1

Classroom Climate

Now let’s look together at strategy 7, which recommends varying the

positive reinforcement offered when students give a correct response.

Sometimes certain types of positive reinforcement, such as praise, can have

little or no effect on particular students. Take a couple of minutes to read

through the bulleted items on page 20.

<Give participants time to read.>

Now let’s practice using these different ways of responding. Keep your

partner from the last activity. Again, one of you be the “teacher,” and one be

the “student.” I will put another set of questions on the overhead for the

teacher to ask. These are more open ended and allow for many types of

correct responses. The teacher in your pair should ask several of these

questions to the student. The teacher should try to use a number of these

different ways of responding to the student’s correct answer.

<Put up Overhead 1.6. Allow time for pairs to use several of the questions.>

Which ways of responding were comfortable and natural for you as the

“teacher”? Which did you like as the “student”?

<Try to emphasize that different kinds of responses are comfortable for different

teachers, depending on style. Also emphasize that, likewise, different students react in

different ways to a teacher’s attempts to reinforce a correct response. There is no one best

way to respond. What is important is for teachers to have a fairly extensive repertoire

of responses.>

The next two sections directly address how students can work with theirpeers in appropriate ways. Anyone who has taught knows that students love

to work together; they just don’t always do it in appropriate ways! Also,

some teachers have had the experience of assigning “group work” and

afterwards vowing never to do it again. In fact, one teacher remarked that

she loves to have her students use cooperative learning techniques but her

only rule is NO TALKING! <Just a joke.>

On a piece of paper, make a list of things you like to do.

<Allow time for participants to generate ideas.>

Next to each example, indicate whether you like to do those things alone or

with others. For several items that you enjoy doing alone, list next to them

why you prefer doing them alone. Likewise, for some of the items that you

enjoy doing with others, list some of the reasons that you prefer doing the

activity with others.

<Allow time for this task.>


Individual Task

1.6Overhead





Dimension 1

Now compare your list with several other people. Pay attention to the

reasons given for liking to do things alone and with others.

<Allow time for sharing in small groups.>

You probably discovered that people have different preferences in terms of thedegree to which they like to do things alone or with others. You probably

also discovered that people have different reasons for their preferences. Notice

that strategy 8 suggests that teachers structure opportunities for students to

work with peers. Keep in mind that this is suggested as a way of enhancing

positive attitudes among peers. Just as participants in this workshop vary in

the degree to which they like to interact with others, remember that students

in your classroom will also differ greatly. To ensure that working together

enhances attitudes towards peers, you need to make sure you understand how

to make cooperation and collaboration work.

Although some teachers feel less in control when students are working ingroups, students can benefit from experiences that help them get along and

work with others. There are some valuable suggestions offered in the

bulleted items on page 20, but much more is needed to become skilled in

this area. Many teachers have received extensive training in cooperative

learning models and strategies. For those of you who would like to learn

more about this area, some of the notable authors and researchers are listed

in the margins of your Teacher’s Manual .

Although students work, play, and interact with their peers, they may not

have had opportunities to learn to work well together. For some of your

students, it will come naturally, just as it does for some of you. For others, it

will be important for you to be experienced at setting up and facilitating

group interactions. One way of preparing students to work together is to use

the suggestions listed under strategy 9 to help them get to know and accept

each other. Take a couple of minutes to review these suggestions.

<Allow time for participants to read and reflect.>

The last strategy in this section—strategy 10, “Help students to develop

their ability to use their own strategies for gaining acceptance”—highlights

an important issue about students taking control of their own thinking and

learning. An underlying theme throughout this manual is the importance of

students taking more responsibility for the thinking addressed in each

dimension. This means that students must increasingly use many of these

strategies on their own and that they must develop their own strategies as

they become independent learners. Strategy 10 describes how you can help

students learn to accept increasing responsibility for gaining acceptance from

teachers and peers.




Classroom Climate 65Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 1

Read the suggested strategies for students to use in gaining acceptance from

teachers and peers. Then make two lists. Entitle one, “What positive things do

I do to be accepted by others?” Entitle the other, “What positive things do I

see other people do to gain acceptance from others?” Tailor the lists to your

particular grade level. Then try to create an activity that you might use in

your classroom to help students generate their own lists of strategies for

gaining acceptance. You might start with an event or a piece of literature to

prompt the activity. How would you follow through and monitor whether

students actually used one of their strategies in an attempt to gain acceptance?

<Put up Overhead O.6 again.>

The second main subsection under classroom climate refers to attitudes and

perceptions related to experiencing a sense of comfort and order. If students

perceive the classroom as comfortable and orderly, they learn more efficiently

because they do not have to put much effort into thinking about their

discomfort or about creating a sense of order for themselves in what they

perceive as a chaotic situation. The challenge is that different people have

different criteria for what is comfortable and orderly. Therefore, it is

important for teachers and students to work together to achieve positive

results for everyone.

You probably have noticed that we take regular breaks during this

workshop. Why do you think we do that? Actually this is a rhetorical

“why?”. We all know that it can be difficult to sit still for long periods of

time. The first strategy on page 23—”Frequently and systematically use

activities that involve physical movement”—addresses this reality.

Many educators have noticed that the higher the grade level, the less

physical movement there is in the classroom. What has been your

experience? If you agree that there is less physical movement in classrooms

as students get older and older, discuss why this is the case and whether you

believe this is appropriate. Be ready to share aloud after you have discussed

this with your partner.

<It is not important to come to a conclusion about this. You will probably hear

differing opinions. Typically, it is mentioned that students move from class to class every

40 to 50 minutes in middle school and high school and that this is where physical movement is allowed. It is sometimes worth mentioning that if high schools use a block

schedule, administrators may need to think about the issue of physical comfort.>

The second strategy is pulled directly from the Tactics for Thinking program,

which is referenced in the margin on page 24. Bracketing is a term used to

describe what people do to help them focus their thinking on the task at

O.6Overhead

Think/Pair/Share

Individual Task



Classroom Climate

hand, even when multiple things are going on in their mind. Take a minute

to read the description of the strategy and the suggestions for introducing

this to students.


One suggestion is to identify for students examples of people who use

bracketing successfully or who could benefit by using it. Let’s see if we can

generate some examples together. Name some people or some fictional

characters—people students relate to or admire—who are probably good at

bracketing and have been successful, at least in part, because of this ability.

<Be ready with some examples from current events, perhaps an athlete, a business

tycoon, or an astronaut. Then have participants suggest some names.> The point is

that if students understand that the uses of bracketing go far beyond paying

attention in the classroom, they might be more interested in using it.

The next two strategies for helping students to experience a sense of comfortand order are fairly common. Establishing rules and attending to malicious

teasing are topics with which you are probably familiar.

Just as in the previous section on helping students to feel accepted,

suggestions are offered under strategy 15—“Have students develop their

own standards for comfort and order”—for helping students take more

responsibility for this aspect of classroom climate. Take a couple of minutes

to read the first classroom example on page 27 in which Mrs. Frost is

reminded of the benefits of involving students in establishing order.


Share with a partner experiences in which, either as a learner or a teacher,

you experienced the teacher and students working together to set and

achieve standards of comfort and order.



Dimension 1

Think/Pair/Share



Classroom Tasks

The next major section of Dimension 1 in the Teacher’s Manual offers

powerful strategies for developing positive attitudes and perceptions toward

classroom tasks.

<Put up Overhead O.6 again.>

Notice that, as with each section of the manual, the first strategy (on page

29) suggests ways of helping students to understand the importance of

maintaining positive attitudes toward classroom tasks. The remaining

strategies address the goal of helping students to perceive tasks as valuable

and interesting, to believe that they have the ability and resources to

complete tasks, and to understand and be clear about tasks. To become more

familiar with these strategies, as well as with the classroom examples

provided at the end of this section, we’re going to use a jigsaw activity.

Get into groups of three, and assign an A, a B, and a C. Each person will be

assigned several strategies and a classroom example to read. That person will

then share the key ideas with the other two members of the group. That way

everyone does not need to read every section. The assignments are as follows:


A. Under the heading “Perceive Tasks as Valuable and Interesting,” read

strategies 2-5 on pages 30-32. Then read the first classroom example

on page 37 (the Mr. Snow example).

B. Under the heading “Believe They Have the Ability and Resources to

Complete Tasks,” read strategies 6-9 on pages 33-34. Then read the

second classroom example on page 37 (the Mrs. Fitzsimmons example).

C. Under the heading “Understand and Be Clear About Tasks,” read

strategies 10-12 on pages 35-36. Then read the third classroom

example on pages 37 and 38 (the Mr. Young example).

As you read, highlight what you consider to be the most important

suggestions. Be ready to share those ideas with the other members of your

group. You do not need to discuss the strategies in detail when sharing. Yourgoal is to familiarize other participants with the strategies they may want to

look at in greater depth at another time.

<Optional, if there’s time.> To prepare for this sharing, after you finish

reading, find another person with the same assignment and discuss your

reactions.


Jigsaw


Dimension 1

Classroom Tasks

O.6Overhead

1.7Overhead



Planning

<Allow time for this activity.>

You are now familiar with the strategies included in the Teacher’s Manual and

with the classroom examples that are offered to stimulate reflection on how

to apply the ideas highlighted in Dimension 1 in your classroom. I’d like

each of you to pick one of the classroom examples and identify the strategythat the teacher used to improve the learning situation. What other

solutions might the teacher have tried? Share with your partner examples

from your experiences of the ways that teachers help students improve their

attitudes and perceptions about learning.

<Allow time for sharing in large group.>

Clearly, many of the strategies described in the manual are used regularly by

classroom teachers. However, the suggestion here and throughout this

training is to consciously plan which strategies, if any, you are going to use,

considering each of the five dimensions of learning as you do so.

Before we go on to planning for Dimension 1, does anyone have any

questions, need anything clarified, or want to share an idea?

Planning for Dimension 1

< Participants should have a blank planning guide for Dimension 1 in the packet

that we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in which

planning is being addressed. See Handouts section.>

In the Teacher’s Manual , the discussion of each dimension concludes with a

section on planning for that dimension. Included in these sections are

specific suggestions that facilitate effective planning. By the end of this

training, you will be familiar with the essential elements of planning for the

inclusion of the five dimensions of learning in a unit of study.

Let’s turn to pages 39-42 in the Teacher’s Manual . This section, which is

called “Unit Planning: Dimension 1,” contains an example of a completed

planning guide for Dimension 1.

Planning may be something that you typically do “in your head” or, as some

teachers have said, in a planning book that has a place to make notes about

the activities for each day. Whether you do most of your planning in your

head or write out your plans, the planning process recommended with

Dimensions of Learning emphasizes the importance of asking yourself

powerful questions as you plan. This process also emphasizes the importance

of planning overtly for each of the dimensions of learning that the teacher



Dimension 1

Think/Pair/Share




determines is important to address in any particular unit of study.

Predictably, there are planning questions associated with each dimension.

The planning section at the end of each chapter is designed to walk you

through each of these questions. The planning guide is offered as a place to

write down your answers to these questions.

Some people prefer not to write down as much detail as that shown on the

sample in the Teacher’s Manual . However, we recommend that each step of

the planning process be addressed. Further, our experience shows that when

teachers write down their goals for student learning, it increases the

likelihood that those goals will be achieved.

<Put up Overhead 1.P1.>

Planning for Dimension 1 requires asking and answering the following

question:

What will be done to help students develop positive attitudes and

perceptions?

There are two steps in the process of answering this question. The first step

(see page 39) is to identify general or specific goals or concerns related to

students’ attitudes and perceptions about learning. The second step is to

identify the particular things that you plan to do to address these goals or

concerns. There are two parts to this second step: (a) specifying what aspect

of Dimension 1 will be used to address the goals and concerns and (b)

describing, in a brief narrative, what exactly will be done. As an aid to

completing this step, the strategies suggested earlier in the chapter aresummarized on pages 40 and 41.

<Put up Overhead 1.P2 (the filled-in planning guide from page 42).>

As you examine the sample planning guide on page 42, keep in mind that

your responses to the key questions in this dimension will vary greatly as a

function of a number of things including the specific unit you are planning,

the time of year, and your own observations in the classroom. You may

decide, for example, to try a new strategy, to simply remind yourself to do

things you have been forgetting, or even to do nothing specific in the unit

you are planning.

Look at the planner that is completed (see page 42). Share your observations

with a partner.

<Allow time for review and sharing.>


Think/Pair/Share


Dimension 1

Planning

1.P1Overhead

1.P2Overhead



Planning

Although some people might infer that they should begin their planning

with Dimension 1 because it is the first dimension, remember that there is

no sequence implied by the numbers of the dimensions. Many people plan

for Dimension 1 after they have planned for Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. Why

do you suppose they do this?

<Target answer: The content and activities identified in the other dimensions—

particularly 2, 3, and 4, which address academic content—might influence what you

need to plan in Dimension 1. For example, if I am planning a challenging, complex

Dimension 4 task, I might decide that it would be wise to focus on the clarity of the

task.>

Now I want you to operate as if you are planning a unit of study, perhaps

one you have taught recently. Consider your students (real or hypothetical)

and decide what you might plan to do for Dimension 1. You might just

want to jot down a reminder to do something on a more regular basis (e.g.,

“Greet students at the door.”) or to engage in a specific activity (e.g., “When

introducing this unit, spend time explaining the value of the content.”).

<Allow a few minutes for participants to plan. You may have them use their own

paper or provide them with a blank planning guide found in the Handout Section of

the manual.>

<Ask several participants to share their plans.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learning

logs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has been

presented about Dimension 1. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>



Dimension 1


Planning Activity

Closure



D i m e n s i o n 2




Acquire & Integrate Knowledge

Dimension 2

2

Dimension 2

Acquire and Integrate Knowledge

To the Trainer


Teacher’s Manual , “Acquire and Integrate Knowledge,” pages 43 to 112. The

goal is to help participants understand declarative and procedural knowledge

and the three phases involved in acquiring and integrating each type of

knowledge. Participants should recognize that they already use many

effective strategies but that an increased understanding of how knowledge is

acquired and integrated will help them to make more conscious, informeddecisions about what to continue using and what kinds of additional

strategies might be used to improve students’ learning.


• that students acquire and integrate two types of knowledge:

declarative and procedural;

• that declarative knowledge refers to the information that students

know or understand, and procedural knowledge refers to the skills

and processes that students know how to use;

• that declarative and procedural knowledge each have distinctive

characteristics yet are interdependent;

• that acquiring declarative knowledge requires students to construct

meaning for, organize, and store information, whereas procedural

knowledge requires students to construct models for, shape, and

internalize the skills and processes;





Dimension 2

• how to help students acquire and integrate both declarative and

procedural knowledge; and

• how to plan a unit by clearly identifying and organizing the

declarative and procedural knowledge and by specifying strategies for

ensuring that students acquire and integrate this identifiedknowledge.


<It is important for participants to understand the information in the introduction to

Dimension 2 in the Teacher’s Manual (pages 43-50) because it lays the foundation

for the remainder of the chapter on acquiring and integrating knowledge. Whenever

possible, have participants read over this introduction before coming to the training

session.>


A key word in the title of this dimension, as well as in the titles of

Dimensions 3 and 4, is knowledge. It is important, as we proceed with this

training, to share an understanding of the characteristics of two types of

knowledge: declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Understanding

these types of knowledge will influence the decisions you make related to

Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. The introduction to Dimension 2 (beginning on

page 43 of your manual) provides an explanation of some of the

characteristics of these two types of knowledge.

< Put up Overhead O.8 (from the Overview section).>

Take a look at the two lists on page 43. In the paragraphs following the lists

are definitions of procedural and declarative knowledge. Take a couple of

minutes to read these definitions.


Here’s a test that will require you to use what you just read. Many learning

situations necessitate the acquisition of both declarative and procedural

knowledge. For example, any time you are learning something related totechnology—how to use a new software program, how to use your new lawn

mower, or how to access the Internet—you must acquire both declarative

and procedural knowledge. You must develop an understanding of information,

such as terms, names of pieces of equipment, and uses of the technology; and

you probably need to learn a skill , such as turning on a machine, activating a

program, and searching for information. At your tables, identify a learning


O.7Overhead

O.8Overhead





Dimension 2

situation related to the use of technology, either in the home or on the job.

Then generate a list of declarative knowledge (what you must know or

understand) and procedural knowledge (what skills or abilities you must

develop). Be ready to share your lists.

<Allow time for groups to work, then ask several groups to share. Listen carefully tomake sure that participants accurately identify examples of both declarative and

procedural knowledge.>

In many learning situations you could do this same thing, that is, you could

identify what you need to know or understand and what skills you need to

develop. We will soon see that people learn these two types of knowledge

differently and, therefore, that we must teach them differently. However,

first let’s look in more depth at declarative and procedural knowledge. Please

read about the relationships between declarative and procedural knowledge

on page 45.


Now, here’s a mini-quiz I’d like you to take. With a partner, answer the

following questions.

<Put up Overhead 2.1. Allow time for this activity, and then ask several people to

respond to each question.

Target answers:

1. Think about the field of science. If you listed the declarative knowledge and

the procedural knowledge in science, which list would be longer?

Answer : The list of declarative knowledge would be longer. There are many

concepts and principles in all of the fields of science. Almost all of the

procedural knowledge is related to skills required to engage in scientific

inquiry. This procedural knowledge might be very important, and it might be

used every day in the science lab, but the quantity of declarative knowledge

is greater.

2. If you were trying to determine how well I understand music, why might I

justifiably object to your assessing my understanding by asking me to sing?

Answer : If you ask me to sing, you are also assessing my procedural

knowledge related to being able to sing. I might not want you to draw

conclusions about my understanding of music from your assessment of my

singing ability. If I sing well, you might correctly conclude that I

understand music. However, if I can’t sing, I would not want you to

conclude that I don’t understand music. I may understand a great deal.


2.1Overhead





Dimension 2

3. A graduate student complained, “I received an A in my statistics course. In

fact, I think I could pass some of those same tests right now. However, when I

started to plan the data analysis for my dissertation, I had no idea how to

set up my statistical study; that is, I didn’t know which of the formulas to

use.” What type of knowledge did the student lack? How could this happen,

given that the student received an A in the course?

Answer : The student must have taken a course in which procedural

knowledge related to formulas was emphasized. It is possible that all of the

tests assessed this procedural knowledge; thus, the student scored well. If,

however, the student did not understand the concepts related to the formula

(the declarative knowledge), then that would explain why he or she did not

know when to use the formulas.>

Hopefully, it is evident that both declarative knowledge and procedural

knowledge are important. We are now going to look at each type of

knowledge in more depth.

Declarative knowledge, as we have seen, includes the information that we

want students to know or understand. This does not imply that students

simply should know long lists of facts. Declarative knowledge includes facts,

but it also refers to concepts, generalizations, and principles. It might be

useful at this point to understand how to organize information in ways that

highlight the distinctions among facts, concepts, and generalizations and

principles. Turn to page 46 in your manual.

<Put up Overhead 2.2.>This section, entitled “Levels of Generality and the Organization of

Knowledge,” identifies and describes six common organizational patterns.

Take a few minutes to read the descriptions. If you are more of a visual

learner, after reading these descriptions turn to pages 63-65 and examine the

graphic organizer associated with each pattern.

<Allow time for reading. Put up Overheads 2.3 and 2.4.>

These common organizational patterns help us to make sense of large

amounts of information. For example, think of something about which you

know a great deal: something you enjoy doing, such as cooking, sewing, orplaying golf; or a topic you love to learn about, such as stamps or birds.

Now, pretend that you are selecting some information about this topic to

teach to students. In a few minutes, I am going to ask you to use the

organizational patterns to help you decide which information to include and

which patterns you would want your students to see. But first, I will model

this for you. Suppose I want to teach students information about quilting.

2.2Overhead

2.3 2.4Overheads




Dimension 2


<You should select a topic with which you feel comfortable. Using Overhead 2.2, go

down the list of patterns, and, in a think-aloud fashion, ask yourself if there is

important information in each pattern that you might want to include. You will be

writing on the right-hand side of the overhead as you do this think-aloud.>

I might start by asking myself if there are any terms or descriptions of specific things related to quilting that might be important for students to

know. I might decide that there are several names of quilting patterns that I

want them to know, such as the “double wedding ring” and the “log cabin”

design. Would there be any time sequences? Probably not. How about

process/cause-effect relationships? Yes. I might want them to be familiar

with the major steps of the process of making a patchwork quilt, from

designing the pattern to finishing the edges. My list might end up looking

something like this.

<Write these examples, or the examples from your selected topic, on Overhead 2.2.

Notice the examples of concepts and generalizations/principles on my list.

Sometimes people are somewhat confused about the difference between a

concept and a generalization/principle. This is because the word concept is

often used loosely in everyday language to refer to any general idea. Here

you can see, however, that we are referring to a concept as a word (or

sometimes two words like artificial intelligence) that represents a general class

or category of things or ideas. A generalization or principle is a statement

about a general class or category.

1. Descriptions

Vocabulary Terms

Facts

2. Time Sequences

3. Process/Cause-Effect

Relationships

4. Episodes

5. Generalizations/Principles

6. Concepts

Patterns: Double Wedding Ring,

Log Cabin

Process of making a patchwork quilt

Many crafts developed as a result of

scarcity.

The arts and crafts of an era reflect

the culture of the time.

Scarcity, arts, crafts>

2.2Overhead




Dimension 2


Now I’d like you to try using these organizational patterns to plan for

teaching information to someone. At first, I’d like you to work alone on this

assignment. You will be sharing your work later.

Select a topic that is of interest to you, and use these organizational patterns

to identify and organize the information that you might teach to someone.Keep in mind that you are using the patterns to organize a list of

information—declarative knowledge—that you might teach someone. At this

point you are not making final decisions about what you would actually teach.

<Allow time for participants to work on their lists. Circulate as they work to answer

questions and to clarify any areas of confusion.>

Now turn back to page 48 in your manual. The last paragraph on that page

explains that these organizational patterns represent a hierarchy, from the

most specific to the most general. As explained, it is important to understand

that both concept patterns and generalization/principle patterns containinformation that is at a higher level of generality than the information in the

other patterns. As the first example in the paragraph on page 48 explains,

learning about the concept of culture will be much more useful to someone

than simply learning about the culture of a specific country.

Using my quilting example, I might learn about specific quilting patterns

and understand how these patterns symbolize aspects of the lives of pioneers.

Although this is interesting specific information, it would be more useful if

I learned the generalization “Arts and crafts of any era reflect the culture of

that era.” This generalization is at a higher level of generality and thus couldbe applied to many different situations.


Examine for a minute the examples on this overhead of potential goals for

units or study. Notice that the specific information is paired with more

general concepts and generalizations/principles.

Now look at the list of information you generated earlier about your topic of

interest. Did you identify any generalizations/principles or concepts that

would transfer to other topics? If not, could you? Reexamine your list, and

share the results at your tables.

< Allow time for them to work.>

To review, declarative knowledge can be organized into patterns so that

students see the relationships among the pieces of information. There are six

common organizational patterns that can be used to organize the information.

Some of these patterns organize very specific factual information; others

Individual Task


2.5Overhead




Dimension 2


organize information that is more general. We will revisit these patterns

when we explore how to help students organize and see patterns and when we

practice planning.

Procedural knowledge is somewhat easier to organize. Take a minute to read

the section about procedural knowledge on page 49 of your manual.

< Allow time for reading.>

Procedural knowledge, then, is not organized into patterns. It can be

organized as a continuum, from very specific skills to more general processes.

Go back to page 43, and look at the list of procedural knowledge. Notice

that some of the procedural knowledge identified is at the very general

process level. Some items on the list are more specific skills. With one or

two other people, try to identify some specific skills that would need to be

taught in order for students to learn the items that are more generalprocesses. Be ready to share.

<Participants should be able to identify a variety of skills. For example, the process of

setting up an experiment would include skills like controlling variables and

analyzing data. You might find that some of the skills identified by participants are

actually examples of the declarative knowledge that is needed to use a skill or process.

For example, if someone states that in order to read music a person must understand

what the musical symbols represent, point out that recognizing symbols is an example

of declarative knowledge. This is a good time to reiterate the following point.>

You probably noticed once again that for all procedural knowledge, you canidentify important declarative knowledge that is associated with it. For

example, setting up an experiment is included on the list of procedural

knowledge on page 43. You would not be able to set up an experiment if

you did not know what a variable was or if you did not understand the

concepts related to the subject of your experiment. As we study the

remainder of Dimension 2, we will see that when teaching skills and

processes, it is important to make sure that students understand the related

declarative knowledge.

At this point, some of you may be wondering why we are spending this time

trying to understand the distinctive characteristics of declarative andprocedural knowledge. A primary reason for pursuing this understanding is

that people learn these two types of knowledge differently. Let’s look at the

phases of learning both declarative and procedural knowledge. These are

explained briefly on pages 49-50.




Declarative Knowledge78 Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 2

<Allow time for reading. Then put up Overhead 2.6.>

Take a look at the two figures on page 50. Notice that to learn declarative

knowledge, the learner needs to construct meaning, organize, and store.

Learning procedural knowledge requires the learner to construct models,

shape, and internalize. These figures highlight that the relationship among thephases is different for each type of knowledge.

For declarative knowledge we will see, for example, that when we are

constructing meaning for information, we might already be organizing it

and that when we are constructing meaning for and organizing information,

we are more likely to store, or retain, that information. However, for

procedural knowledge, we tend to move through the phases in a more linear

fashion, although we may move back and forth among the phases, as needed.

For example, if we begin to practice the procedural knowledge in order to

internalize it, we may discover that we need to go back and do some work

on shaping it. The relationships among the phases for each type of

knowledge will be clearer to you as we study each. We will now look more

closely at declarative knowledge.

Declarative Knowledge

There is a great deal of declarative knowledge that students are expected to

acquire and integrate in school. Although some educators and noneducators

alike resist emphasizing the acquisition of information in an age of

technology, others suggest that we cannot function and progress as a societyunless we share a common body of knowledge that includes information that

we all know and understand. As the debate rages on, it continues to be our

responsibility as educators to identify important declarative knowledge and

to make every effort to provide students with multiple opportunities to

acquire and integrate that knowledge. This section of the Teacher’s Manual

provides suggestions for helping to achieve that goal.

< Put up Overhead 2.7.>

Construct Meaning As explained in the introduction to Chapter 2 (pages 49-50), acquiring

declarative knowledge requires three overlapping phases. The first phase we will

consider in learning declarative knowledge is constructing meaning. This is

facilitated when learners are able to connect new knowledge to what they

already know. During any learning situation, however, students may not

consciously and explicitly make these connections. The result may be similar to

your experience of reading the “Doing Laundry” passage during the Overview.

2.7Overhead

2.6Overhead





Dimension 2


<If participants have not had this experience, do this activity as described in the

training script for the Overview, page 38.>

There are a number of strategies and approaches that teachers can use, and

that they can teach to students, to ensure that students are constructing

meaning as they are learning declarative knowledge.

The first strategy, described in your manual on page 52, provides

suggestions for helping students understand the process of constructing

meaning. The “Doing Laundry” passage is included in this section as an

example to use with students just as it was used with you during the

overview of the Dimensions of Learning model. The reason this is the first

suggestion under constructing meaning is that students have a greater

chance of successfully using all of the other strategies for constructing

meaning if they understand the purpose of the strategies. Take a minute to

read the suggestions for building this understanding.

< Allow time for reading. After participants have read for a minute, stop them and

give them three minutes to turn to a partner and verbalize what they were thinking

about as they read. You are modeling for them a very unstructured “three-minute

pause,” which is the next strategy.>

The next strategy, strategy 2, describes the use of the three-minute pause.

Please read this section in your manual.


We just used the three-minute pause while you were reading. This is one of the simplest strategies for constructing meaning. As students are exposed to

new information when, for example, reading a book, watching a film, or

listening to someone presenting information, they periodically are asked to

pause and turn to a partner to summarize, discuss interesting ideas, and

identify and resolve any areas of confusion. This pause may last three

minutes, or it may be shorter. Students are then asked to turn their attention

back to the learning experience.

Why would this strategy help students to construct meaning? How can it

provide you with an indication of how well students are constructing

meaning?

<Target answer: Students become active rather than passive learners. When they

verbalize their thoughts, they begin to process the information they are receiving. If

during the pause teachers notice that students are not able to say anything about the

information, this should be a cue that students have not been able to construct

meaning.>






Dimension 2

A very different strategy for constructing meaning is for learners to use all of

their senses as they are exposed to information. This strategy (strategy 3) is

described on pages 53 and 54 of the Teacher’s Manual . Please read this section.


Although many of you probably have used this strategy in the classroom, it

is worth reviewing. Teachers have reported that when students become

proficient at using this strategy, their understanding and retention of

information is positively affected. However, to get these results, students

must practice generating mental images. It is relatively easy to do this when

a passage of information contains rich language that helps them to create

images, but it is much more difficult when the information is presented in a

traditional academic style. Let me illustrate.

In a moment I’m going to put up a passage taken from National Geographic .

I’d like you to read this passage. As you read, consciously try to create amental image, using all of your senses. Be ready to share your images, to

describe what was going on in your mind. In other words, be ready to

describe what it was like to think about the information.

<Put up Overhead 2.8 (Silk). Allow time for reading and sharing. Encourage

participants to describe what they saw, heard, tasted, smelled, and touched as they

read.>

When we are stimulated by writing that is rich with images, it is relatively

easy to engage all of our senses. We construct pictures almost unconsciously

and, as you just experienced, use our senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste,and touch. As a result, we understand and retain the information fairly well.

Content knowledge presented in textbooks or lectures, however, sometimes

does not have the rich language you just experienced. In such cases, learners

have to consciously work to engage all of their senses in order to help

themselves construct meaning. The more abstract the information, the more

challenging it is to create mental images and the more teachers must help

students to create them.

< Put up Overhead 2.9 (Why Our Hair Turns Gray).>

Now I want you to read this passage. Be prepared to answer: What can yousee? Hear? Smell? Taste? Touch?

<Allow participants time to read the passage on the overhead. You may want to,

instead, use your own passage for this experience.>

What mental pictures and sensations did you create?

Individual Task

2.8Overhead

2.9Overhead






Dimension 2

<Have several participants answer the question aloud. As they do, probe for more

details in their pictures and ask them what they saw, heard, smelled, tasted, and felt.

Role-play the teacher by demonstrating that you are not simply attending to the degree

to which they understand the content; you are helping them develop the ability to

create more and more detailed images.>

This passage is written in “textbook style” and describes a process. Both of

these characteristics make it more challenging for readers to engage all of

their senses because the language is straightforward, dry, and abstract. How

might you help students to engage all of their senses when they are

presented with passages like this?

<Make the point that you were demonstrating several techniques as you tried to elicit

more and more details about their mental pictures. Discuss other ways for helping

students to refine this skill, such as describing your own mental pictures and

sensations to students, asking students to describe their pictures and sensations to each

other, and using a think-aloud to model the strategy.>

Turn to page 81, and read the second classroom example, the Mrs. Garron

example. It shows how a teacher might use the mental imagery strategy to

engage students in the process of learning specific declarative knowledge in

the classroom, in this case a fifth-grade classroom. Even if you don’t teach at

this level, the example might help you think of ways to use this strategy

with your students.


Strategy 4 (Help students to construct meaning for vocabulary terms) alsoencourages the development of the ability to create images, but it applies the

strategy specifically to vocabulary development. You will recall that when

identifying the declarative knowledge that is important in a unit of study,

you might identify key vocabulary terms. The section in the Teacher’s Manual

that deals with Strategy 4 highlights the point that if students are simply

memorizing definitions of vocabulary terms, especially when they don’t

really understand the definitions, they are not constructing meaning. As a

result, the memorized definitions are virtually useless.

The five-step process described under Strategy 4 (see page 55) emphasizesthe importance of students developing an understanding of the terms they

are learning. With this approach, students do not memorize definitions from

the dictionary but, instead, use them as a resource for information that helps

them to understand the words well enough to create mental images. If they

are unable to create images, students learn that they must seek out other

resources—another dictionary, a dictionary on software, a parent, a teacher—




to get the information necessary to understand the terms well enough to

create images of them.

Helping students to construct meaning can also be facilitated with a strategy

called K-W-L, which was developed by educator/researcher Donna Ogle. It is

described on page 55 of the Teacher’s Manual .

< Put up Overhead 2.10 (the K-W-L chart).>

The first step in the K-W-L strategy is to ask students what they already

know ( K ) about the topic of the lesson. As students give their ideas (whether

right or wrong), write them in the first column of a K-W-L chart.

The second step is to ask students what they want (W ) to know about the

topic. Write their responses in the second column.

The third step is to present the information so that students can read, hear,

or experience it in some other way. It is important to remind students to

keep in mind what was recorded in the K and W columns.

Finally, after you have presented the information to students, ask them what

they learned ( L). As you record their responses, draw arrows to make explicit

connections to items listed under K and W . Some of what students learned may

validate or correct information listed under K or answer questions under W .

As explained on page 56, there are some additional things you can do to

make this strategy work for your students:

• Under K (what I know) it is sometimes helpful to ask, “What do youthink you know?” Then it’s okay if students find out later that they

were wrong.

• Under W (what I want to know) a related question might be, “What

do I think I’m going to find out?” Model for students how scanning

materials before they read can help them in this step.

• Some teachers add another W (what I want to know now) to reinforce

the idea that learning is ongoing; it does not stop at the end of the

lesson.

Teachers who have used the K-W-L strategy report that they see evidence

that students are constructing meaning when they use this strategy. They

also report some predictable glitches: When students are asked, “What do

you want to know?”, they sometimes reply, “Nothing” or “I don’t know

enough to know what I want to know.” It helps to model strategies—

scanning materials, predicting from pictures, talking to others—that help

them to anticipate the information that they will receive.



Dimension 2

2.10Overhead






Dimension 2


<K-W-L is a very popular strategy. You might ask participants if they have used it

in their classrooms and then encourage them to share their experiences.>

Many teachers feel that it is best for students to discover or figure out the

meaning of information. This approach, sometimes referred to as an

“inductive” or “inquiry” model, can be used very successfully to help studentsconstruct meaning. There are many specific instructional strategies that fall

into this category; the Teacher’s Manual provides a step-by-step description of

one such strategy: concept attainment . This strategy takes students through a

process that helps them discover the important attributes of a concept they are

learning. In this process of discovery, students construct meaning for the

concept by using the clues provided to them. Let’s walk through the version

of the concept attainment strategy that is described in the Teacher’s Manual .

The first step in this strategy is to present students with several examples

and nonexamples of the concept they are learning. Students then try to

identify what the examples have in common (and, conversely, what the

nonexamples lack); that is, they try to identify the attributes of the concept.

Usually, the teacher does not give the name of the concept at first. Instead,

he provides more and more examples and nonexamples as students try to

figure out the important attributes of the concept by identifying what the

examples have in common. When students think they know the important

attributes, they do not give these answers aloud because that would

immediately cut off the critical thinking processes of the other students.

Instead, if they think they know the attributes, students simply give other

examples and nonexamples. In this way, they can test their own ideas and

provide additional examples for other students to consider.

Now I want you to try to figure out the attributes of the concept illustrated

by these examples and nonexamples.

< Put up Overhead 2.11, and uncover the examples and nonexamples, one line at a

time. After uncovering several, ask the following question.>

I’m sure you will quickly recognize that the concept is compound word.

However, pretend that you do not know. What do you think are the major

attributes of the examples?

< Allow time.>

Can anyone think of any additional examples and nonexamples to add to the

lists?


2.11Overhead



< Add participants’ examples. If they say that the only attribute is “a word made by

combining two smaller words,” ask them to determine if the words “knowledge” and

“supervision” are compound words. They may then say that another attribute is that

“the meaning of the new word must combine the meanings of the two shorter ones.”

Then ask if “butterfly” is a compound word.

The attribute list will probably eventually include the following:

• two words are combined to make a new word,

• the meanings of some compound words are made up of a combination of the

meanings of the two shorter words, and

• the meanings of some other compound words are not strongly related to the

meanings of the two smaller words.>

Let’s try another example of this concept attainment strategy.

<Use Overhead 2.12 to take participants through the process for the concept

“rhombus.” Attributes: figure with four equal sides; opposite sides must be parallel.

Show examples and nonexamples one at a time. Ask participants to list attributes.>

Presenting new concepts in this way is a very powerful technique because it

requires students to construct the defining attributes of a concept. Students

must retrieve their prior knowledge about the examples and nonexamples in

order to try to identify characteristics that the examples share and that the

nonexamples lack. When using the strategy, it is important to reinforce

students’ thinking, and not just the right answers, as they try to figure out

the attributes of the concept.

Take a look now at the italicized lists of examples and nonexamples in the

middle of page 58 of the Teacher’s Manual . Quickly put your hand over the

paragraph under the two lists so that you cannot see the answer. As you try to

identify the attributes of this slightly more complex concept, notice how much

prior information you must use to construct the meaning of the concept.

<Allow time for participants to do this task.>

Finally, Strategy 7 suggests that teachers use instructional techniques that

provide students with strategies to use before, during, and after they receiveinformation. These strategies can be used by learners during the entire reading

process. Two instructional techniques that follow the before, during, and after

structure are described in the Teacher’s Manual : Reciprocal teaching and SQ3R.

Individual Task



Dimension 2

2.12Overhead





Dimension 2


Read through the description of reciprocal teaching on pages 59 and 60, and

then read the information in the margin on page 59. Explain to a partner

why you think this technique produces such dramatic results with students.

<Allow time for participants to read and discuss.>

The strategies included in this section of the manual are all examples of

things that teachers and students can do to ensure that information is being

learned, not just taught. No matter how rich the activity, learners will

successfully acquire knowledge to the degree to which they actively engage

in constructing meaning, whether they are reading, listening to, observing,

or doing something with the information.

Organize

I am going to show you a picture of something fairly familiar to you.

Although this is a simple task, don’t say aloud what you see. People will

recognize it at different times.

<Put up Overhead 2.13. Allow time for people to try to see the dog. It is a good time

to joke a little about their inability to see something they surely must know. Reward

those who see it quickly by labeling them as “the gifted students.” After a couple of

minutes, tell them there is a dog in the picture. Don’t be surprised when many people

do not see it until you outline it for them.>

The point of doing this is to help you experience what it is like when

something that is clear to some people is, at best, fuzzy to others. For those

who had trouble seeing the dog, how did it feel when others could see it?

For those who saw it before it was outlined, what feelings did you have when

you knew you could see it and others couldn’t? For those who quite clearly

saw something other than a dog, how did you feel when you found out you

were wrong?

As information is being presented in the classroom, students may or may not

recognize the patterns of ideas in that information, just as many of you had

trouble recognizing the pattern of the dog. Of course, patterns in information

are not intentionally distorted as the picture of the dog was, but what

students see in even well-organized blocks of information still will vary.

The key to seeing the dog was being able to organize all of the lines and

shadows in order to recognize the pattern of a dog embedded in the picture.

Likewise, when trying to acquire information, the key is to organize the

ideas in order to recognize the patterns of relationships embedded in the

Think/Pair/Share

2.13Overhead




block of information. Just as there were distracting lines hiding the picture

of the dog, there are often words and ideas that, for many students, seem to

distract them from the organizational patterns in the information.

<Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviated

definitions of the phases of learning declarative knowledge).>

Organizing declarative information is a critical part of acquiring declarative

knowledge. The strategies on pages 61-72 describe a variety of methods for

helping students to see patterns in the information they see and hear.

Perhaps the most common strategy used to organize information is the

formal outline. For some people, outlining is an effective way of

understanding the relationships among key ideas; for others, it is difficult

and not very helpful. However, there are many other strategies for helping

students to see the patterns of relationships in information.

The first strategy on page 61 reminds us that it often helps for students to

understand the purpose of the strategies in this section: to organize

declarative knowledge. The activities at the bottom of page 61 and the top

of page 62 suggest a sequence of experiences that might help students to

become aware of their ability to see patterns all around them and then to use

this ability to recognize patterns in information.

<Give participants an opportunity to skim through activities 1-4 on pages 61-62.>

In the introduction to Dimension 2 we examined the most common

organizational patterns in information. You’ll recall that these patterns wereconcepts, generalizations/principles, episodes, processes/cause-effect

relationships, time sequences, and descriptions. Students who are familiar

with these commonly used patterns can become skilled at using them to

organize information that they read or hear. To see and understand these

patterns more clearly, students can learn to use graphic organizers.

Read the sections on pages 62-65, which again describe the most common

organizational patterns and provide a graphic organizer for each.

<Allow time for participants to read. Then present the sample passages on Overhead

2.14 (How Do You Hear Sounds?) and Overhead 2.15 (Noise Can Harm You) to see if participants can recognize patterns that are clear examples of the organizational

patterns.>

< Put up Overheads 2.3 and 2.4 again (the graphic organizers).>



Dimension 2

2.7Overhead

2.14 2.15Overheads

2.3 2.4Overheads





Dimension 2


Let’s use these patterns.

Take a few minutes to read the passage on page 66 entitled “Dictators Rise

to Power.” When you finish, do not look ahead to page 67.


Now, use one of the graphic organizers you just read about to organize

important information into one of the six common organizational patterns.

Go ahead and draw the organizer, and begin to put in the key information.

For this first part of the activity, work alone.

<Allow time for participants to create their organizers.>

Now, compare what you have done with at least two other people.

< Ask several people to explain which pattern they used. You should get a variety of

responses.>

Look at pages 67 and 68, and compare what you created with the organizers

you find there. As you look them over, notice that as each organizational

pattern is used, different information from the passage is highlighted.

<Allow time for participants to look at the organizers on pages 67 and 68.>

Although many teachers have used graphic organizers with students, they

commonly use a web-like organizer similar to that used here under

descriptive pattern. However, it is important to remember that the graphic

organizer that is used should visually depict the relationship you wantstudents to see.

The use of patterns to organize the information can be either teacher directed

or student directed. The teacher may decide that there are specific ideas and

relationships among ideas that students must clearly see; in this case, he or

she should select the patterns to organize information. The other option is to

ask students to organize information on their own. Of course, this approach

makes students more active learners. If pattern recognition is truly student

directed, the teacher needs to accept what students see, as long as the

information is well organized.

Another method of communicating specific organizational patterns is to

provide students with questions to help them use a specific pattern and to

see the relationships among the ideas being organized. As you can see from

the examples on pages 68 and 69, there are specific questions to ask when

you want to emphasize a particular organizational pattern.

<Read a few of the questions to participants.>

Individual Task




Once students become familiar with the common organizational patterns,

you can encourage them to take notes using graphic representations.

Examine Figure 2.8 on page 70, which shows one way of organizing notes

using graphic representations. One teacher explains that she periodically

requires students to use this method. Her students prepare their note-taking

paper with two columns. Then periodically during the learning experience,

she cues them to pause and construct a graphic organizer for their written

notes. She also encourages them to use pictographic representations. Look at

page 71 for an explanation and an example of a pictograph.

Working with a couple of other people, select one of the graphic organizers

for the dictator passage that you were working on a few minutes ago, and

create a pictographic representation instead. You do not have to be an artist

to make this work. Think of it as playing the game of “Pictionary” in which

you use stick figures and crude drawings to communicate meaning.

<Allow time for participants to work and to share. If possible, distribute

transparencies on which they can create their pictographs and then share their work.

Large pieces of paper might also be used and then taped onto the walls of the room.>

Building pictographs engages students in representing linguistic

information nonlinguistically. As suggested, physical models also might be

used. Both of these types of representations require students to select

important information that should be included in their pictographs or

models. Thus, the strategy encourages students to focus on key ideas and the

relationships among them.

< Do the following activity if you have time.>

In groups of three, select a current event with which you are fairly familiar.

Represent the key ideas and the relationships among those ideas using a

pictograph. When you are finished, I will ask you to share your product.

< Allow time for participants to create their pictographs. Encourage them to use as few

words as possible. Ideally, make sure that chart paper and magic markers are

available to participants so that they can produce something large enough to share.

You might want to make it a game by having groups hold up their pictographs and

giving points to groups who can guess what each pictograph represents.>

As you share your pictographs, describe how you decided what to include

and why you represented it the way you did.

<Sharing can be with the whole group, among small groups, or both.>



Dimension 2








Dimension 2

Think about the explanations just given for the pictographs. What evidence

is there that creating these representations helps students to organize

information?

<Target answer: When creating pictographs, students have to be selective about the

information that they include and careful to identify relationships among elements.These two processes are at the heart of organizing.>

Teachers who have taught students to take notes using pictures and graphic

organizers have reported that many students get excited about the

possibilities. “You mean we can draw what we are learning?,” they ask. Of

course, many students still need guidance in building useful pictographs and

organizers, but for some students note taking begins to mean more than the

busy work of copying what’s on the blackboard or writing down every word

the teacher says.

Finally, it is recommended that you use graphs or charts to organizeinformation. This approach is commonly used to organize quantitative

information, but the example on page 72 shows a way of depicting

conceptual ideas as well.

There are, of course, variations of all of these strategies. Turn to page 82, and

read the classroom example in the middle of the page. It begins, “A team of

health education. . . .” This example does not include a pictograph or a

graphic organizer as described in the manual, but you will see the graphic as

a variation designed to help students organize information.

Store

<Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviated


When students use strategies that help them to construct meaning and

organize information, they are more likely to remember that information.

However, there are times when specific memorization techniques are necessary.

Discussing memory makes some people uncomfortable. How many of you

think you have a good memory? A bad memory? A so-so memory? How

many of you have already forgotten the question?

The characterizations associated with the labels “good memory,” “poor

memory,” and so on are one reason people feel uncomfortable with the topic.

Another is that many people believe memorization has no place in schools.

The reality, however, is that sometimes there is information that students are

expected to memorize. As explained in the introduction to the section on

2.7Overhead




storing declarative knowledge (page 73 in the Teacher’s Manual ), we as

educators need to make good decisions about what students should

memorize. We then should provide them with effective strategies so that it

will not take them long to memorize necessary information.

The most common method of memorizing is mental rehearsal, repeatedlygoing over information. This is also the least efficient way of storing new

knowledge. There are better strategies for enhancing long-term memory.

How many people have used mnemonic devices to help students memorize

information (for example, ROY G. BIV to remember the colors of the

rainbow or HOMES to remember the Great Lakes)?

<Elicit other examples.>

Creating mnemonic devices can be a very efficient way of storing specific

content knowledge. Unfortunately, they are somewhat limited in their use.It is difficult to generate mnemonics for everything we want to memorize.

There are, however, a number of other strategies students can use.

First, help students understand that storing information can be facilitated by

using strategies for constructing meaning and organizing. There are several

suggestions on page 74 for helping to build this understanding with students.

Next, introduce students to one of the most common principles related to

how human beings store and recall information: Memorizing often relies on

creating mental images, and these images rely on our ability to use symbols

and substitutions.

To illustrate this principle, think about something significant that has

happened to you within the last year (such as a wedding or graduation you

attended or a hike you took in the Grand Canyon). Try to recall that

incident in detail. Turn and tell your neighbor about it.

<Allow two or three minutes for this sharing.>

Now, describe what was happening in your head as you recalled and described

the event. Were you seeing things? Smelling? Tasting? Hearing? Touching?

<Allow time for sharing.>

When we remember something really well, like the event you just recalled,

our senses are usually involved. In the section of this model on constructing

meaning, one strategy was to have students use all of their senses. The

suggestion was to help students create mental pictures and physical

sensations so that they can attach what they know to what they are

Think/Pair/Share



Dimension 2





Dimension 2


experiencing. When the instructional goal is to store information, images

that include both mental pictures and physical sensations are used in a more

systematic and structured way.

Take a moment to read the second strategy for helping students to store

declarative knowledge (pages 74 and 75).


This section suggests helping students use symbols and substitutes to create

mental pictures and physical sensations for information. A symbol is a

concrete image that stands for or represents abstract information. The

clenched fist is a symbol for power. The dollar is a symbol for money. If I

were trying to remember the phrase “Money is power,” I might use these

symbols. I would create a mental picture of a clenched fist and a dollar sign.

I would also try to put touch, taste, smell, and so on in the picture.

A substitute is a word that sounds like or looks like abstract content but is

familiar and concrete enough to picture mentally. For example, if I were

trying to remember that Topeka is the capital of Kansas, I might picture a

top (Topeka) spinning on a can (Kansas). Note the example on page 75 that

shows a picture that might be created to remember that water is two parts

hydrogen and one part oxygen.

Turn to page 82, and read the last classroom example. It explains the creative

result of a group of students using substitutions to recall information.


In small groups, see if you can generate a symbol or a substitute for the

seven continents. Form these groups with the people around you in

whatever way feels comfortable.

<Allow several minutes for small groups to work. Elicit examples from the entire

group, or have small groups share with each other.>

Becoming skilled at creating mental pictures and physical sensations for all

types of concrete or abstract information will allow students to use a number

of memory strategies. One of the most widely used strategies is the link

strategy, which is described on page 75. It involves telling yourself a little

story that “links” together the mental pictures and physical sensations you

have created for the information. “Georgette, the Jersey Cow,” the system you

learned in the Overview session, is an example of the link method. The

mental pictures in this system were combinations of symbols and substitutes.


2.16Overhead




See if you can remember the pictures that were linked (during the

Georgette, the Jersey Cow/thirteen original colonies example) and then

determine which ones are symbols and which are substitutes.

<If participants did not do this during the Overview, have them read the description

on pages 75 and 76 and then see if they can recall all thirteen original colonies.>

<Allow time for participants to recall the pictures and to decide which are symbols

and which are substitutes. Only the Empire State Building is a symbol; all of the

other elements are substitutes.>

Now, with a partner take the symbols and substitutes you generated for the

seven continents and try to link them together into a story or picture.

<Allow time for pairs to work and to share their work with a couple of other pairs.>

There are a number of other highly structured systems that use mental

pictures. Four of these systems are described on pages 76-80.

<At this point, demonstrate the strategies with which you are most comfortable.

Include the rhyming pegword system by having participants give you ten or more items

to memorize (depending on how far you can go). Ask participants to give you the items

in random order while someone records them in numbered order on a blank overhead;

then repeat them back in order. This assumes you have practiced and are confident

demonstrating the technique in front of a group.>

I just demonstrated the rhyming pegword system. It is relatively simple to

use. Now I’ll teach you how to use it.


Repeat this list of words to yourself. One is a bun, two is a shoe. Get a

distinct mental picture of the items (bun, shoe, tree, etc.).

<Allow two or three minutes.>

Now I will give you a grocery list, and you will be able to list the items in

the order I give them to you.

<First, talk participants through the process as follows.>

Recall the pegword for the number I give you. I’ll start with the numberone. Get a picture of the bun. Now put into that slot a carton of milk. Make

sure the picture of the pegword (i.e., bun) and the picture of the grocery

item (i.e., milk) interact in some way (e.g., milk is pouring over the hot dog

bun making it soggy. Ick!). Also remember to try to hear, smell, taste, and

touch something. Focus on the picture of the two items (the pegword and

the grocery item), then let the picture go.



Dimension 2


2.17Overhead





Dimension 2


Think/Pair/Share

<Call out the other nine items, giving participants a few seconds to create mental

pictures of each. Record the list as you give participants the items in mixed order.

After reading all ten items, ask participants to write the grocery list in order. Many

will probably be able to do this. Encourage those who cannot to go back and examine

what went wrong for the information they could not recall.>

Many students can use the rhyming pegword system the first time they are

exposed to it or after a little practice. Whether they use it for content is not

necessarily important. They can just have fun with it. Often students will

discover that memorization, just like other thinking skills, is not a “gift”

that you have or that you lack. Anyone can get better at any type of

thinking when he or she has strategies for doing so.

Take a moment to read a more content-related use of the rhyming pegword

system on pages 76 and 77. Then read about the number/key word, the

number/picture, and the familiar place systems, which are variations of the

pegword system.


Now, with a partner, try to think of content that you teach that requires

students to memorize. Discuss whether you think any of these strategies

would help students to be successful.

<Allow time.>

The final strategy for helping students to store declarative knowledge,

strategy 5, reminds us that mnemonic devices are also very powerful ways of helping students to recall information.

As we have seen, there are many strategies that can be presented to students

to help them store important information. However, once again, please

remember that when students spend time constructing meaning and

organizing, they will be more likely to retain the information.

< Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviated


We have examined strategies for helping students to construct meaning for,

organize, and store declarative knowledge. There is no guarantee that these

strategies will work, but they all have been used effectively with students

who are acquiring declarative knowledge. We will see that when planning

for declarative knowledge, it is important to identify which strategies will be

used during the unit to ensure that as students engage in various activities,

they are constructing meaning for, organizing, and storing the information.

2.7Overhead




Declarative: Planning



presented related to this section of Dimension 2. See page 9 for explanations of each of

these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Planning for Dimension 2,


< Participants should have a blank planning guide for declarative knowledge in the

packet that we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in which


We have been discussing the types of thinking needed to efficiently acquire

and integrate declarative knowledge and have examined strategies that willstimulate these thinking processes. It is important to carefully plan

instruction related to Dimension 2. Like each of the dimensions, planning

for Dimension 2 requires a process that includes steps designed to answer a

primary question, in this case, “What will be done to help students acquire

and integrate declarative knowledge?” This process is described on page 83

of your manual.

<Put up Overhead 2.P1 (the questions and steps for planning for Dimension 2).>

As you follow these steps and make decisions, record your ideas and plans on

a planning guide, as shown on page 92.

<Put up Overhead 2.P2 (a reproduction of page 92 of the Teacher’s Manual).>

The planning process for Dimension 2 is perhaps the most difficult and time

consuming of any of the dimensions. This is because in Dimension 2 you are

identifying the knowledge that you want students to acquire and integrate,

extend and refine, and use meaningfully. Notice that Step 1 asks the question,

“What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and

integrating?” Accompanying this question, a sentence stem begins the

answer, “As a result of this unit, students will know or understand . . .”.

This part of the planning process is covered beginning on page 84. There are

several steps within Step 1. These steps vary depending on the extent to

which you use standards and benchmarks.

<Before the training begins, you should determine the degree to which you need to

explain standards and benchmarks to your audience. Once you determine if

participants use standards and benchmarks, structure the training in a way that



Dimension 2

Closure

2.P1Overhead

2.P2Overhead




Dimension 2


focuses them on the examples that most closely match their school, district, or state

requirements for curriculum design. In other words, if they use standards and

benchmarks, emphasize those examples that use benchmarks. If they do not, focus them

on the “without standards and benchmarks” examples.>

Frequently, unit planning begins with developing a title for the unit. Asdescribed in Step 1a, that title might be a topic, a theme, a concept, a

generalization, or any other unifying idea that brings meaning to the unit. A

unit title simply gives us a way of talking about the unit. The title of the

example in the Teacher’s Manual is the Colorado Unit.

Step 1b suggests brainstorming a list of information that should be included

in the unit. This is just a way of getting started. A list from this part of

planning the Colorado Unit might have looked something like this.


Step 1c asks you to start making some decisions. You can’t teach everything

there is to know about Colorado or about any topic. To help you make

decisions about what to teach, it is suggested that you use the organizational

patterns identified in the introduction to Dimension 2 and reinforced in the

section of the manual on organizing declarative knowledge. If, in addition, you

use standards and benchmarks, at this point you should let the benchmarks for

your grade level drive your decisions. With or without benchmarks, you need

to spend some concentrated time identifying and organizing the declarative

knowledge that it is important for students to learn.

Take a couple of minutes to read through the identification process explainedon page 85. (This includes a process to use with and without standards and

benchmarks.) Then examine the accompanying sample worksheets and unit

planning graphics on the following pages.

<Allow time for reading. You may want to use Overheads 2.P4, 2.P5, 2.P6, and

2.P7 as you review this process. These are overheads of the sample worksheets and

graphics on pages 86-89.>

<Put up Overhead 2.P3 again (the brainstormed list).>

Notice that not all of the information on the brainstormed list was identifiedas important. Notice also that much of the specific factual information was

selected because it supports the more general concept patterns and

generalization/principle patterns. Let’s look at these two patterns more closely.

When you are identifying concepts and generalizations/principles, you are

identifying knowledge that will help students understand information other

2.P3Overhead

2.P3Overhead

2.P4 2.P5

2.P6 2.P7

Overheads




than that included in this unit. Both factual information (which is more

specific) and concepts or generalizations/principles (which are more general)

are important. However, factual information is what students should know,

whereas concepts and generalizations/principles are information that students

should understand. We will see in other dimensions that general knowledge

(that is, concepts and generalizations/principles that students need to

understand) is the knowledge that is worth extending, refining, and using

meaningfully.

If only factual information is identified, we suggest that you ask yourself if

there is also general knowledge that students should be acquiring and

integrating during the unit.

During planning, then, you are identifying the important declarative

knowledge and organizing it into patterns. The worksheets on pages 86 and

88 are only samples that represent the process of making these decisions. The

unit planning graphics on pages 87 and 89 represent the final decisions for

this unit. As explained in the manual, the graphic format is shown as an

alternative way of depicting the final decisions; this is a visual and less linear

way of showing your planning decisions than the ideas roughed out on the

sample worksheets. Either the worksheet, the graphic format, or both may be

used to identify the declarative knowledge that will be the focus of the unit.

Before going any further with the planning process, let’s practice this very

important step of identifying the declarative knowledge for the unit. You

may work alone or with others. Start by selecting a unit that you are going

to plan. It makes sense to select a unit that you actually teach. If you are notpresently a teacher in the classroom, select a unit that you have taught or

that you know is taught.

<It is recommended that you try to let participants know ahead of time that they will

be planning a unit during the workshop. It helps if they have already made their

selections and perhaps even brought some materials with them that will help them in

this planning segment of the training. In addition, you should come to the workshop

prepared with your own examples to model each part of the process. You can use the

Colorado Unit examples, of course, but if you select something that is familiar to you,

it will seem more real to participants.>

First, brainstorm a list of the declarative knowledge that you want students

to acquire and integrate. It might be useful to think of the accompanying

sentence stem that begins the answer to the question in Step 1, “As a result

of this unit, students will know or understand….”



Dimension 2

Planning Activity






Dimension 2

If you are using benchmarks, this is a good time to specify which

benchmarks will be addressed in this unit. Depending on where you begin

in your planning, the brainstormed list of declarative knowledge might lead

you to the identification of appropriate benchmarks, or your selected

benchmarks might suggest appropriate declarative knowledge that should be

included in your brainstormed list.

<Model this for participants, and give them time to generate their lists.>

Next, set up a worksheet format (as shown on pages 86 and 88) or a unit

graphic format (as shown on pages 87 and 89), and begin identifying and

organizing the important declarative knowledge. If you plan using

benchmarks, organize the information under each benchmark that is being

taught, as shown in the Colorado Unit examples.

Identify any concepts, generalizations/principles, etc., that are important in

the unit, and write the pattern in the first column. Identify the knowledgethat is organized into those patterns in the second column.

If there are concept patterns and generalization/principle patterns in the

unit, consider if you need to identify any important specific facts that will

support these more general patterns. You can see how these are identified in

the Colorado Unit worksheets and unit graphics.

<Model this step for participants, and/or refer again to the Colorado Unit examples.>

Keep in mind that planning rarely is a linear process. Although we are

identifying the declarative knowledge in Dimension 2 before we look atDimensions 3 and 4, the knowledge we identify may be revised after

decisions are made in the other dimensions. In fact, some people plan by

beginning with Dimension 4 and then identifying the declarative knowledge

for the unit. We will look more closely at these different planning sequences

in Chapter 6, “Putting It All Together.”

<The amount of time that you spend modeling the planning process and providing

participants with time to practice will depend on the extent to which your audience

plans to use the Dimensions of Learning model to plan units of study.>

Now that you have identified the declarative knowledge that you wantstudents to acquire, you need to move on to Step 2 and answer the next

question, “What experiences or activities will be used to help students

acquire and integrate this knowledge?”

< Put up Overhead 2.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).> 2.P1Overhead




These experiences may include direct, active experiences or indirect

experiences such as reading, listening, or viewing. Look at the sample list of

experiences and activities on page 90. The sample page from the planning

guide for the Colorado Unit, page 92, includes both direct and indirect

experiences.

For many teachers, identifying experiences and activities has been the focus

of their planning efforts. Rich, engaging activities are, of course, important,

but you will notice that when planning with the Dimensions of Learning

model, the emphasis is on first identifying important knowledge and then

designing experiences and activities that will provide students with

opportunities to acquire that knowledge. The activities and experiences are

not the end; they are the means to the end.

When selecting and designing activities and experiences, the planner must

consider the diversity that exists in the classroom. Some learners are most

comfortable with active, hands-on activities; others prefer quiet, reflective

experiences. Some students learn best when they hear the information; others

will want to hear and see the information. The key is to vary the types of

activities and experiences so that all students at times will be learning in the

mode that is most comfortable for them.

Step 3 of the planning process asks you to now answer, “What strategies will

be used to help students construct meaning for, organize, and/or store this

knowledge?” As explained, we know that even wonderful activities and

experiences do not guarantee that students will acquire the identified

knowledge. During planning, it is important to identify the strategies thatyou might use to increase the likelihood that students will learn from the

activities and experiences that you have planned. The strategies reviewed in

this chapter are listed together on page 91 as a handy reference to use as you

are planning.

As just explained in Step 2, all classrooms have students with diverse styles

of learning. In addition to varying the types of activities and experiences that

you select, you need to vary the strategies that you use in conjunction with

these activities and experiences. Some students will prefer discovery or

inquiry strategies; others will find that they learn best when information is

presented using a didactic strategy such as K-W-L. Again, the key is to vary

your choices in order to appeal to diverse styles of learning.

Finally, Step 4 asks you to describe what will be done. This part of the

planning guide for the Colorado unit, as seen on page 92, shows a brief

description, written by the teacher planning the unit, of what will happen in

the classroom. This space does not have to be filled out as it is in this



Dimension 2





Dimension 2


example; that’s up to you. Use the space in any way that will help you, or

others reading your unit, to understand exactly what you plan to do.

The entire unit plan for the Colorado Unit is included in the back of your

manual (pages 329-339). You will quickly notice that there are multiple

pages for the planning of declarative knowledge in this unit. There are threereasons for this:

1. We wanted to provide you with a number of different examples

during this training.

2. This is a long unit (four weeks) with a heavy emphasis on declarative

knowledge.

3. The planning guides have been filled out in the kind of detail that is

needed if the unit is to make sense to others who may want to use it.

Units can be planned with much less detail, especially if they are only foryour personal use, or they can be planned with much more detail if you

include individual lesson plans. The amount of detail included, again,

depends on who will be using the unit plan.

It is important to remember that in addition to planning units of study,

there are other uses of the Dimensions of Learning model. For example, it

might be used to better understand the learning process or to increase your

repertoire of strategies for the classroom. Understanding this section, and the

next one on procedural knowledge, is critical to using the Dimensions of

Learning model for any of these purposes.





Closure




Procedural Knowledge

< Put up Overhead O.8 (from the Overview section).

As we discussed in the introduction to Dimension 2, the distinction betweendeclarative and procedural knowledge is important because these two types

of knowledge are learned differently and, therefore, should be taught

differently. We have seen that acquiring and integrating declarative

knowledge involves three phases: constructing meaning, organizing, and

storing. Acquiring and integrating procedural knowledge also involves three

phases: constructing models, shaping, and internalizing.

< Put up Overhead 2.18 (the triangles).>

One difference between learning declarative knowledge and learning procedural

knowledge is the amount of time spent on each of these phases. When we listthe phases sequentially, we can see on this overhead that the amount of time

spent in each phase for procedural knowledge is inversely proportional to the

amount of time spent on the phases for declarative knowledge.

It is relatively time consuming to construct meaning and to organize

declarative knowledge. Not much time is spent storing because the phases of

constructing meaning and organizing enhance retention, and there is not a

great deal of knowledge that needs to be memorized. However, when

students are learning procedural knowledge, the opposite is true. That is, the

first phase, constructing models, does not take much time; shaping takes

more time; and, internalizing, which requires students to practice over an

extended period, is the most time-consuming phase. This will make more

sense to you as we explore each phase of learning procedural knowledge.

< Put up Overhead 2.6 again. This overhead shows the three circles, representing the

three phases, for declarative knowledge and for procedural knowledge.>

Listing these phases sequentially to show this inverse relationship is actually

a little misleading. We have seen that the three phases of learning

declarative knowledge overlap. We will see that the three phases of learning

procedural knowledge are more sequential in nature, but also interactive.

Let’s explore each phase now.

< At this point, it is important for participants to relate each of the phases of learning

a skill to their own learning experiences. You can help them to do this by providing

them with a common experience, more specifically by teaching them a procedure and

including all three of the phases. Although we suggest that you teach participants to

use chopsticks, you can use any procedure that you feel comfortable teaching.>



Dimension 2

O.8Overhead

2.18Overhead

2.6Overhead





Dimension 2


<Even if some participants already are able to use chopsticks, they can take part

in the learning experience by learning to use chopsticks with their nondominant

hand. Overheads are provided (Overheads 2.20 and 2.21), and you can purchase

inexpensive sets of chopsticks from import stores or from Chinese restaurants. If you

do not have chopsticks, you can use pencils.

To create the chopstick experience for participants, use the script that follows. If you

are teaching them a different skill, use this script as an example that you can adapt.>

So that we can refer to a common experience as we study procedural

knowledge, I am going to teach you to use chopsticks. Let’s pretend that you

are planning to visit China and that you must learn this skill in order to

avoid insulting your host. If you are already proficient at using chopsticks,

use your other hand (your nondominant hand).

< Put up Overhead 2.19 (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the phases of

learning procedural knowledge).>

First, I am going to help you construct a model for this skill; that is, I am

going to teach you a set of steps for using chopsticks. This is a critical phase

any time you are learning to do something.

Think of another time you learned a skill of some sort, such as how to swing

a golf club or how to log-on to the Internet. Try to remember how you

learned the steps involved. Did someone demonstrate them? Did you read

them in an instruction manual? Did you figure them out on your own? As

you recall how you “constructed the model” for the skill, share your

experience with your partner.

<Allow time for thinking and sharing.>

One way of helping learners to construct a model is to provide them with a

set of written steps. I am going to use this approach now.

<Put up Overhead 2.20 (steps for learning to use chopsticks).>

As you read through these steps, I will demonstrate each step and talk

through what I am thinking as I do each step.

<Demonstrate each step with a set of chopsticks.>Now, pick up your chopsticks, and try to perform each step.

< Allow time for participants to try each step. Circulate in order to help anyone who is

having trouble.>

Let me stop you for a minute. Some people around you who already use

chopsticks may use a different method, such as holding the first chopstick

Think/Pair/Share

2.19Overhead

2.20Overhead




between the second and third fingers. Feel free to adjust your style of

holding chopsticks to use any suggestions your experienced colleagues might

offer. Also, try to pick up various things on your table and notice how your

grip needs to change as a function of the size and shape of the object. Go

ahead now and try to figure out the best way to alter or change the steps you

have been given so that you begin to become comfortable using the

chopsticks. This phase of learning a skill is called shaping.

<Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the

phases of learning procedural knowledge).>

<Give them time to use the chopsticks. You might consider passing out some objects for

them to try to pick up. Various types of candy can be fun. As you circulate, help

participants who are having trouble. You might ask participants how holding

chopsticks compares to holding a pen or pencil.>

Now I’d like you to increase your skill level so that you might eventually usechopsticks to eat yet still be able to have a dinner conversation with your

friends. In general, what must you do in order to get better at something?

<Target answer: Practice.>



I am going to help you begin to internalize this skill by having you practice

for a few minutes. I’d like you to see how many items you can pick up, move

about a foot, and then set back down in 30 seconds. I’ll then give you severaladditional 30-second periods to see if you can improve. You could record

your progress on a sheet like this one.

< Put up Overhead 2.21 (practice chart).>

Ready? Begin.

<Give participants several 30-second segments to practice. As you review and explain

each of the three phases of acquiring and integrating procedural knowledge, refer to

this common experience or ask participants to identify specific examples from their own

experiences as examples of each phase.>



You have now experienced the three phases of learning procedural

knowledge. To review, in the first phase learners construct a model, or learn

a set of steps, for performing the skill. They are able to perform the skill,

but their performance is usually a bit rough. Remember when you first



Dimension 2

2.19Overhead

2.19Overhead

2.19Overhead

2.21Overhead






Dimension 2

learned to drive a car? If you were driving a stick shift, the step that

required you to push down the accelerator pedal and release the clutch at the

same time was probably a bit rough the first time.

Shaping is the phase during which you “make the procedure your own.” You

learn how to use it in different situations and you change, add, or deletesteps, as needed. You probably remember that when you learned to drive a

car you began to realize that you really did not have to hold your hands on

the steering wheel exactly as your instructor advised. You could drive the car

with your hands in a number of different positions. You also learned that

driving is a bit different on wet pavement than on dry pavement. Each time

you changed the process of driving or performed variations of the process,

you were shaping your procedural knowledge.

The final step of learning procedural knowledge is to internalize the

procedure. The term internalize is used in everyday language to mean many

different things. Here we use the term only to refer to the phase of learning

that is characterized by being able to use the procedural knowledge without

having to think about the steps. (For example, you can now drive a car from

point A to point B without much conscious thought about driving, perhaps

without enough conscious thought. Have you ever driven from point A to

point B and, upon arriving, realized that you could not remember anything

that happened between the two points?)

We are now going to look at each phase more carefully. To prepare for this,

form groups of three with those around you. Assign each person a letter: A,

B, or C.

<Allow time.>

Now, I’d like each of you to study the strategies associated with each phase.

As we proceed through these phases together, you each will be the leader of

the group when we discuss the phase you have been assigned. For now, read

your assigned section and think about the strategies. Try to determine

which, if any, of those strategies I used when I taught you to use chopsticks.

<Put up Overhead 2.22 (jigsaw assignments), and give them time to read.>

As we discuss each phase, you will be the leader when we focus on thestrategies you were assigned.


2.22Overhead




Construct Models < Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the


The first step in learning a procedure is to construct a model, that is, to know

the set of steps involved in performing the skill or process. Sometimes all a

teacher has to do is demonstrate, or model, a skill or process to help students

clearly envision the steps that are involved. However, it is important to

understand that sometimes it is necessary to do more than demonstrate the

steps. Some students, because of the way they learn, consistently need more

than the experience of watching someone else use the skill or process. In

addition, some procedures have such a complex set of steps that all students

need to do more than watch a demonstration. There are a number of

techniques that can be used to help students construct models for procedural

knowledge. Several are described in the Teacher’s Manual .

< Put up Overhead 2.23 (Construct Models for Procedural Knowledge).>

The person in each group of three who was assigned to read this section (the

construct models section) should now briefly describe these strategies to the

group. When you describe each strategy, indicate which, if any, were used

during our shared learning experience with the chopsticks. In addition, in your

groups describe what exactly I would have done if I had used the strategy.

<Allow time for the small groups to discuss these strategies.>

Keeping in mind what you’ve learned so far and how you teach procedures,

what additional strategies might you use to help students construct models?

< Allow time for participants to share their ideas.>

Shape < Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the


The next step in effectively learning a procedure is to shape it. Once you

start to use a skill or process, you usually begin to modify or alter it in some

way. Thus, shaping can involve modifications like adjusting your approach,

adding some steps and dropping others, becoming aware of variations in

using the process, discovering potential problem areas, and using the process

in different contexts. This step is often left out of the learning process and

yet is critical to learning the procedure and using it effectively. If students

begin to make errors early in the learning process and then practice and

internalize the procedure while still making these errors, it is difficult for

them to correct the errors later.



Dimension 2



2.23Overhead

2.19Overhead

2.19Overhead






Dimension 2

Shaping also includes helping students to develop the conceptual

understanding that is necessary to becoming competent in the use and

application of the skill or process. Many students cannot use mathematical

computations to solve word problems, for example, because they do not

understand the mathematical processes nor the circumstances under which

one is used as opposed to another.

As stated earlier, although we know that shaping is critical, it is the phase

that is often left out of the teaching process. What are some reasons that this

phase is often left out?

<Target answer: Common reasons are lack of time, lack of awareness of the

importance of this part of the process, and failure to plan for shaping during unit or

lesson planning.>

The Teacher’s Manual suggests four strategies for helping students to shape

procedures.

< Put up Overhead 2.24 (Shape Procedural Knowledge).>

At this time, have the person in your group who was assigned this section

(the shaping section) briefly explain these four strategies, which are used to

help students shape procedural knowledge. Remember to identify the

strategies I used when I taught you to use chopsticks and, for the strategies

that I did not use, to describe what it might have looked like if I had.

< Allow a few minutes for small groups to work.>

Let’s take a few minutes to study in more depth the four strategies for

helping students shape procedural knowledge. Specifically, let’s see if we can

describe how these strategies might be used to help shape a specific

procedure: long division with whole numbers. Just to review, long division

refers to the process signified by the following <write on chart or overhead >:

3794 divided by 27.

In your groups see if you can identify

1. the variations in the process of long division that you might want to

make students aware of,

2. the common errors or pitfalls that you might want to make students

aware of,

3. various situations in which long division can be used that you might

want to make students aware of, and

4. important concepts or principles related to the process of long division.




2.24Overhead




< Allow participants five minutes to come up with their ideas. Then discuss

conclusions in the large group. Answers will probably include the following:

1. Important variations: Sometimes there is a remainder; sometimes there is

not. Sometimes it is easy to identify the number of times the divisor goes into

the dividend; sometimes it is difficult.

2. Common errors: It is common to lose track of place value when initially

beginning the division process. You might incorrectly bring down numbers

after subtraction.

3. Different contexts: There are some situations in which you need an estimate

of the answer and other situations in which you need an exact answer.

4. Conceptual understandings: It is important to understand the (a)

concepts of divisor, dividend, remainder, (b) when to use division, and

(c) that division is repeated subtraction.>

Internalize

< Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the


The last phase in learning a procedure is internalizing. Through practice, we

learn a process or skill well enough to perform it proficiently and accurately

without consciously thinking about every step. The procedure becomes a

means to an end.

<Put up Overhead 2.25 (Internalize Procedural Knowledge).>

Last, but not least, the person assigned to this phase of learning procedural

knowledge should now briefly explain these strategies to the group. Be sure

to identify the strategies I used and, for each strategy that I did not use,

describe what it might have looked like if I had.

<Allow time for participants to work in small groups.>

Practice is time consuming, but if students are going to be expected to use a

process or skill, opportunities to practice must be provided. Thus it is

important to ask yourself whether the skill is one that is critical to

internalize. In other words, is it one that students will still need to be able

to perform in a month, a semester, or a year? It is sometimes appropriate to

simply introduce a skill and give students time to practice it a little but not

to internalize it. However, for skills that are to be internalized, massed

practice, or frequent trials, should occur first. Then, over time, students

should engage in distributed practice, that is, periodic practice sessions at



Dimension 2

2.19Overhead

2.25Overhead





Think/Pair/Share

Closure


Dimension 2


increasing intervals (for example, once a day, then once a month, then once

every three months). Remember that the Teacher’s Manual suggests that

students keep a chart or some other record of their speed or accuracy as they

seek to master a procedure.

As educators begin to better understand the process of acquiring andintegrating procedural knowledge, they begin to see why teachers sometimes

accuse their students’ previous teachers of not doing their jobs. You may have

heard accusations like, “Didn’t they teach them anything in_____?” Often

the reason that students cannot do what they have been taught to do is that

they learned it only well only enough to pass a test. If educators expect

students to perform a procedure proficiently and accurately, they must set

aside time for students to practice so that they internalize the procedure.

On pages 104-105, you will find some classroom examples that deal with

acquiring and integrating procedural knowledge. With a partner, read and

discuss the examples provided. As you discuss these examples, answer the

following questions: What do you think of how the teacher in your example

responded in the situation portrayed? What might you do or recommend

that someone do in that situation? Then identify a process or skill that your

students have had difficulty learning. How might you strengthen how you

teach that process, given what you now know about acquiring and

integrating procedural knowledge?

< Allow time for discussion and then sharing with the whole group.>

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available and if time permits, it canbe useful to replay the tape for Dimension 2 and then to have a brief discussion about

the nature of declarative and procedural knowledge. Before participants watch this

tape, challenge them to identify things they were not aware of the first time they

watched the tape.>







Planning for Dimension 2,


< Participants should have a blank planning guide for procedural knowledge in the packet that we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in which


< Put up Overhead 2.P8 (the major planning questions and steps).>

Planning for the acquisition and integration of procedural knowledge

involves asking and answering the following question:

What will be done to help students acquire and integrate procedural

knowledge?

If you look at page 106, you will find that there are three basic steps involvedin answering this question. The three columns on the planning guide (page

112) correspond to the three steps for planning for procedural knowledge.

< Put up Overhead 2.P9 (the filled-in planning guide from page 112).>

Step 1: What procedural knowledge will students be in the process of

acquiring and integrating? As a result of this unit, students will

be able to….

Step 2: What strategies will be used to help students construct models

for, shape, and/or internalize this knowledge?

Step 3: Describe what will be done.

Now let’s look at the sample Colorado Unit to see how each of the steps is

addressed on the planning guide and accompanying worksheets.

Step 1, again, asks what procedural knowledge students will be in the

process of acquiring and integrating. The answers to this question will vary

depending on the specific school or district. Some teachers have a great deal

of latitude in determining what knowledge students should acquire. Others

are in schools or districts that have identified standards and benchmarks,

which articulate what students should learn. Examples and worksheets are

provided in the Teacher’s Manual for each of these situations.

Take a few minutes to examine the two worksheets with their accompanying

planning graphics on pages 109 and 110 in the Teachers’ Manual . One is for

planning without standards and benchmarks.

< Put up Overhead 2.P10 (the sample worksheet and unit planning graphic from

page 109).>



Dimension 2

2.P8Overhead

2.P9Overhead

Think/Pair/Share

2.P10Overhead

Procedural: Planning




Dimension 2


The other is for planning with standards and benchmarks.

< Put up Overhead 2.P11 (the sample worksheet and unit planning graphic from

page 110).>

How are they alike? How are they different? Identify any questions you haveabout these worksheets, and then talk these questions over with a partner.

< Allow time for participants to discuss, and then ask if anything needs to be clarified.>

When identifying the procedural knowledge that students will learn in the

unit, it is important to identify specific skills or processes, not general

macroprocesses (which are discussed in the introduction to Dimension 2 on

page 49). When procedural knowledge is too general, such as “students will be

able to read well,” it is difficult to generate a single set of steps and then to help

students shape and internalize the process. During planning, it is important to

specify exactly what skill or process students will be learning to do.>

< Put up Overhead 2.P9 again (the filled-in planning guide).>

Let’s look at the planning guide again. Step 2 (column 2) asks, “What

strategies will be used to help students construct models for, shape, and

internalize the procedural knowledge?” Step 3 (column 3) asks you to

describe what will be done.

In order to complete the second step, you must decide whether the skill

needs to be internalized; in other words, should students learn it well

enough to use it with relative ease and then practice it enough to be able to

use it in six months or a year? Some skills may simply need to be

introduced so that students construct a model, do some shaping, and then

perhaps practice the skill to a very limited extent. This somewhat cursory

introduction to a skill would result in students knowing about the skill.

However, in six months or a year students would need to extensively review

the skill before they could use it.

On the other hand, when the knowledge is to be internalized , students must

spend more time in each phase of the learning process. They must construct

a model, spend concentrated time shaping the procedure, and have many

opportunities for massed and distributed practice.

Refer to the planning guide for the Colorado Unit (page 112), specifically

steps 2 and 3. In your groups, discuss the following questions: What do you

think of the strategies the teacher selected to help students acquire the map

reading and interpreting skills? What other strategy or strategies might she

have selected?


2.P11Overhead

2.P9Overhead




< Refer to the summary of strategies on page 111 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

What other procedural knowledge might be taught as part of this unit?

< Allow time. You may want to take some suggestions from the large group.>

Let’s practice using these steps with the planning guide. Identify a procedure

you have taught or would teach as part of a unit you are planning. Once you

have identified a process or skill, select the strategy or strategies you would

use to help students construct models. For example, would you use a think-

aloud demonstration? Would you provide students with a written set of

steps? Next, identify the strategy or strategies you would use to help students

shape the process. Would you focus on variations in the procedure? If so, what

variations? Would you point out common errors in the procedure? If so, what

errors? What conceptual understandings would be important for students to

achieve competency with the process? Finally, if the skill is to be internalized,

identify the practice schedule that you would set up.

< Allow participants five minutes to plan. Then ask them to share their results with

the large group.>

As you look at the pages of the Dimension 2 planning guides for acquiring

and integrating declarative and procedural knowledge, it should be clear that

they guide you through the process of making decisions related to the

essential knowledge in a unit. Of course, students will be exposed to a great

deal of information in any unit you plan, but it is futile to expect them to

acquire and integrate everything that might be important. The important

knowledge that you identify on these planning guides is actually only aportion of the knowledge to which students will be exposed during the

activities and experiences—films, field trips, readings—in the unit.

< Put up Overhead 2.P12.>

Illustrating this point graphically, the large circle represents the total body

of content knowledge to which students will be exposed during a unit; the

small circle represents the portion that is planned for, taught, and assessed.

We will soon see that during the planning process for Dimensions 3 and 4,

it is this knowledge, represented in the small circle, that will be considered

when we are identifying what knowledge will be extended, refined, and usedmeaningfully.





Planning Activity

Closure



Dimension 2


2.P12Overhead



D i m e n s i o n 3




3

Dimension 3

Extend and Refine Knowledge

To the Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 3 of the Teacher’s Manual , which

addresses the eight complex reasoning processes in Dimension 3. It is

important for participants to understand that acquiring and integrating

knowledge is not the end of learning. The most effective learning takes place

when students extend and refine the knowledge they acquire in order to

develop an in-depth understanding of that knowledge. By making new

connections, restructuring the knowledge, experiencing new insights, and

correcting misconceptions, students understand the knowledge they arelearning at a deeper level and thereby extend and refine that knowledge. To

this end, teachers should plan and explicitly teach processes that, when

applied to knowledge, cause such connections and insights to happen. These

processes include the eight highlighted in Dimension 3:

• Comparing: Identifying and articulating similarities and differences

among items.

• Classifying: Grouping things into definable categories on the basis

of their attributes.

• Abstracting: Identifying and articulating the underlying theme or

general pattern of information.

• Inductive reasoning: Inferring unknown generalizations or

principles from information or observations.

• Deductive reasoning: Using generalizations and principles to infer

unstated conclusions about specific information or situations.




Extend & Refine Knowledge

Dimension 3

• Constructing support: Building systems of support for assertions.

• Analyzing errors: Identifying and articulating errors in thinking.

• Analyzing perspectives: Identifying multiple perspectives on an

issue and examining the reasons or logic behind each.


• that the process of learning should go beyond acquiring and

integrating knowledge to include extending and refining important

knowledge;

• that students can learn specific complex reasoning processes that

extend and refine knowledge. As a result of using these processes,

students should see knowledge in new ways and be able to express

insights, understandings, ideas, or discoveries related to that

knowledge;• that these processes must be taught explicitly so that they can be

rigorously applied to important content;

• how to use the eight complex reasoning processes to help students

extend and refine knowledge;

• how to teach students to use each of the eight processes to extend and

refine knowledge; and


When you cover the Dimension 3 complex reasoning processes, it issometimes helpful to cluster them into groups and then show how the

processes within each cluster are interrelated. Specifically, we recommend

presenting comparing, classifying, and abstracting together because they all

focus on similarities and differences; inductive reasoning and deductive

reasoning can be presented together because although there are other

important differences between these two processes, inductive reasoning is

essentially the inverse of deductive reasoning; the processes in the third

cluster—constructing support, analyzing errors, and analyzing

perspectives—all deal with examining issues and their related claims and

supporting arguments.





Dimension 3



A basic principle of learning is that once acquired, knowledge changes. Whenwe encounter new information, we may learn something about it and achieve

a certain level of understanding. But then as a result of having additional

experiences that encourage us to think again about the information, we may

change our understanding because we learn more, clear up misconceptions,

make new connections, and so on. In Dimension 3, these changes in

knowledge are referred to as “extending and refining” the knowledge.

As a result of the experiences we have every day, we are constantly extending

and refining knowledge. This is fortunate because another principle of learning

suggests that when we first learn something, we usually learn it at a surface

level, and we sometimes learn it inaccurately; thus, we may unknowingly walk

away from a learning experience with incomplete understandings,

misconceptions, or misunderstandings. For this reason, whether it happens

naturally or is carefully planned as part of students’ learning experiences,

knowledge should be constantly extended and refined. Symbolically, the

process of extending and refining knowledge might be represented in this way.

< Put up Overhead 3.0A.>

• This top graphic represents the knowledge students might have

about the Civil War after an initial period of study.

• As a result of reexamining that knowledge by explicitly applying one

of the complex reasoning processes, that knowledge might look like

this bottom graphic. It is expanded and reorganized, and new

connections are made.


3, which runs about nine minutes. Ask participants to look for specific examples of

students extending and refining their knowledge. Afterward, lead a brief discussion

about what participants observed. Alternatively, you might show the tape at the end

of Dimension 3 as a summary and review.>

As we explore the eight complex reasoning processes in this dimension, keep

in mind that the purpose of engaging students in these types of thinking is

to help them extend and refine their knowledge: to make new connections,

to have insights, to restructure their knowledge, and to clarify

misunderstandings. It is important for students to understand this so that

they not only deepen their understanding of content but also increase their

understanding of learning as a process.

3.0AOverhead

O.11Overhead



Jigsaw



Dimension 3

< Put up Overhead 3.0B.>

John Dewey reminds us, “We learn by doing, if we reflect on what we have

done.” This quote reminds us that it is important to build enough time into

instruction for students to learn how to use a reasoning process, for them to

apply it to important content in order to extend and refine their knowledgeof that content, and for them to reflect on what they have learned as a result.


Read over the list and description of the eight reasoning processes included

in Dimension 3, which can be found on page 114 of your manual. Some of

these reasoning processes are probably very familiar to you, and some may be

fairly new to you. We will look at several of them in-depth as we proceed

through this part of the training.

It is important to note that many teachers use questioning techniques toengage students in the types of thinking listed in Dimension 3. Teachers

might already be asking questions such as, “How are these items alike?” or

“How could you group these items?” These types of questions are especially

common in classrooms in which the teacher uses Bloom’s Taxonomy to

construct questions. Although such questions can potentially stimulate

students to engage in “higher level” thinking, frequently they do not have

this effect. Instead, students give answers that reflect lower-order, or surface-

level, understanding. This might be because although students may have a

sense of what it means to synthesize or to analyze, they often don’t know

exactly how to do these types of thinking.The bias here, therefore, is to explicitly teach the reasoning processes and to

have students rigorously apply them to important content. Students must

know how to use the processes if they are to adequately perform the kinds of

analyses the processes require. It is unfair to students, and presumptuous on

the part of teachers, to assume that students understand what they are

supposed to do when asked to use comparing or inductive reasoning, for

example. Remember, these processes are procedural knowledge and,

therefore, take quite a lot of practice before they become internalized. And

because the processes are procedural knowledge, they should be taught as

any other skill or process, by helping students construct models for, shape,and internalize them.

There are some general principles of implementation that are useful to

consider as teachers, schools, and districts plan for teaching the Dimension 3

processes. Get into groups of three with those around you. I’d like each

person in the group to read one of the bulleted items on pages 114-115.

3.0BOverhead

O.12Overhead




Dimension 3


Then share the general principle of implementation with your group, and

discuss each point briefly.

< Allow time for this activity.>

Before we explore the individual reasoning processes in Dimension 3, itmight help you to understand that a similar organizational format is used for

each reasoning process.

< Put up Overhead 3.0C.>

In addition, on pages 115-116, there is a brief explanation of the five

sections that have suggestions for teaching each process.

< Read the steps aloud.>

I’d like to point out that section 2 under each reasoning process includes a set

of steps (which we sometimes refer to as “regular” or “original” steps) as wellas a set of steps in simplified language, which is often used with younger

students or with students who are just beginning to learn the process.

Comparing

<If you are starting your training here, remember to review the introduction to

Dimension 3, which identifies the major goals of these training segments and provides

suggestions for helping participants understand the organization of the Teacher’s

Manual for each of the reasoning processes in this dimension.>

<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want to

plan the training so that the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting are

examined as a cluster. This will help participants to see that these three processes can

complement and supplement each other in the classroom. For example, when students

are comparing, they may discover that the process of abstracting works better when

they are comparing large blocks of information or that the process of classifying works

better when there are long lists of items.>

Comparing is the process of identifying similarities and differences among

items. We all regularly compare things in daily life: We might comparebooks written by a favorite author, we might compare with our spouse or a

friend how we spend our time at work, and so on. As a result of comparing

things in this way, we gain new insights or change our perceptions about

them. These benefits of the process of comparing are also available to us as

we are exposed to comparisons made by others, for example, through the

media or in conversation. For example, Consumer Reports organizes much of its

3.0COverhead

Comparing




Dimension 3


information about products into comparison matrices that influence buyers’

perceptions of these products. Similarly, television news-magazine programs

often compare current and historical events to help us understand both.

What other kinds of comparisons are we regularly exposed to in life? In

what other instances do we regularly use the process of comparing? Try tothink of a time you compared two or more things that you thought you

knew well but about which you discovered something new as a result of the

comparison. Or, try to think of a time you were influenced by a comparison

made by someone else. In other words, think about a comparison that

extended and refined your knowledge.

<Elicit several examples. Emphasize how comparing extended and refined participants’

knowledge. Allow participants to discuss and then to share some examples.>

It is important to communicate to students that comparing—and all of the

other complex reasoning processes that are part of Dimensions 3 and 4—areused frequently in everyday life. To this end, the first strategy for teaching

comparing—in fact, the first strategy for teaching all eight of the extending

and refining processes—provides suggestions for helping students

understand the process so that they see its importance and usefulness in

many places besides the classroom.

Considering that most people compare things many times each day, it is

somewhat surprising that students often perform poorly on tests that require

them to do comparison tasks. For example, a number of years ago, the

National Association of Educational Progress (NAEP) included in itsnational assessment a comparison task that asked students to compare the

diet of the pioneers with the typical diet of today (see Mullis et al., 1990).

Even though a description of the diet of the pioneers was provided, only

27% of all 17-year-olds completing the task received a score indicating

adequate or better performance. This is a perplexing result because teachers

report that students are frequently asked to engage in comparison tasks in

the classroom. Why did students perform so poorly on this test?

One possible explanation is that although students are frequently asked to

compare, they may not have been taught how to compare. Another possible

explanation is that students may have learned how to compare in one or twoclasses during their schooling but never internalized the process. Remember,

learning how to compare—in fact, learning how to engage in each of the

reasoning processes that are part of Dimensions 3 and 4—requires students to

learn a skill, that is, to learn procedural knowledge. To truly learn a skill,

students need to construct a model for, shape, and internalize the procedure.

Thus, to become proficient at using the process of comparing, students need to


Comparing





Dimension 3

learn the steps and have opportunities to practice using the steps over a fairly

extended period of time. If, instead, students simply are asked from time to

time to compare and are not taught the steps in a careful manner or given a

chance to practice using them, they will not really learn to use the process.

This might help explain students’ poor performance on the NAEP task.

To provide support for directly teaching complex reasoning, the Dimensions of

Learning Teacher’s Manual includes a step-by-step model for using each of the

eight processes. Let’s look at the steps for the process of comparing.

< Put up Overheads 3.1A and 3.1B.>

If I were introducing these steps to students using a think-aloud process, I

might say, “Let’s see. I want to compare pizza, fried chicken, and tossed

salads. Now, what specific characteristics should I use in my comparison?

How about nutritional value, calories, price, and the amount of fun you can

have eating them?”

<Begin to fill out a blank comparison matrix as provided on Overhead 3.1C. This

food example is only a suggestion. Feel free to use any items and characteristics you

wish. It is probably a good idea to fill out much of the information in a prepared

matrix before the training.>

I might construct a matrix using the items and characteristics I have

identified and then fill out the information in each cell. Now, how are the

items similar and different in terms of each characteristic? Looking at this

information, what have I learned? It seems that the more fun things are, the

more expensive and the less nutritional they are. That figures.

Strategy 3 for each of the eight complex reasoning processes identifies the

critical steps and difficult aspects of the reasoning process and gives

suggestions for dealing with them. Teaching the process of comparing can

seem deceptively simple. There are several key points offered to help you avoid

possible pitfalls. Take a minute or two to read the key points on page 119.


<Put up Overhead 3.1D.>

As emphasized in these key points, it is important to ask yourself what

knowledge students are extending and refining as they engage in comparison

tasks. Careful thought needs to be given to the items that students are

comparing and, especially, to the quality of the characteristics that are

being used in the comparison. Selecting characteristics is a critical step if

meaningful conclusions are to be drawn from the comparison.

3.1DOverhead

3.1COverhead

3.1A 3.1BOverheads

Comparing








Dimension 3

< Put up Overhead 3.1E.>

Notice the difference in the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn when

characteristics are changed. Different characteristics require the learner to

examine very different attributes of each item.

Notice in Key Point 2 that although there are a couple of suggestions for

helping students generate meaningful characteristics (i.e., brainstorm ideas

as a class and use an expanded comparison), we recommend that teachers

model the process of generating good characteristics and give students

extensive feedback as they are learning to compare. Let’s practice.

Suppose you were asked to compare these cities: New York, Denver,

Houston, and ____. <Add the city where you are.> With a partner, generate

characteristics on which to compare the cities that might produce interesting

insights or conclusions.

< Ask several pairs to share their sets of characteristics. Emphasize the idea that

different attributes of cities, or of any location, are examined as a result of identifying

different characteristics. Make the point that it is important to identify the knowledge

that students are extending and refining during the process of comparing.>

Identify one or two comparison tasks you have used in your classroom. With

a partner or with those around you, discuss the purposes of these tasks.

What knowledge did you expect students to extend and refine—that is, to

understand better—by engaging in these tasks? How could you use the

information in the key points from the Teacher’s Manual to strengthen or

alter what you have done?

<Ask several pairs to share any insights they had as a result of their conversations.>

Now take a minute to look at the graphic organizers presented in strategy 4.

(See pages 120-121.) These are organizers that you can use to help students

understand and use the process of comparing. Consider the steps in the

comparing process as you look at the Venn diagram organizers.

< Put up Overhead 3.1F.>

Sometimes teachers use a single diagram in which similarities are written in

the overlapping portions of the circles and differences are written in the

respective outer portions of the circles. How is this use of Venn diagrams

different from the way Venn diagrams are used in the graphic on page 120

(or on this overhead)? How does it reflect the steps of the process?

3.1F Overhead

3.1EOverhead

Comparing





Dimension 3

<Target answer: In the example from the manual, a separate pair of circles for each

characteristic is needed. This emphasizes step 2 of the process in which students are

required to clearly identify the characteristics they will use in the comparison.>

As explained in the introduction to Dimension 3, strategy 5 offers

suggestions for using both teacher-structured and student-structured tasks.Please take a minute to read strategy 5 on page 121.


The degree to which the teacher or students structure tasks is a function of

the purpose of the task. Generally, however, the goal is to increase the

amount of input that students have in structuring tasks. Turn to page 122,

and read the third classroom example. This is a task that is fairly teacher

structured. After you read it, be ready to describe how you could make it

more student structured.

<Have a few participants share their examples.>

Remember that comparing is a reasoning process that we all use. During any

learning experience, it can be helpful to consciously compare things—cities,

food, books, movies, etc.—to understand them more in-depth or in new

ways. When asking students to compare, we must teach them how to

compare and then encourage them to reflect on the results.



presented related to the process of comparing. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Classifying






plan the training so that the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting are






Closure

Classifying





Dimension 3

<Optional introductory activity. Have participants classify themselves into the

following categories:

1. Those born and raised in the city in which you are training.

2. Those born and raised anywhere (else) east of the Mississippi.

3. Those born and raised anywhere (else) west of the Mississippi.

4. Those born and raised outside the continental United States.

Designate a part of the room for each category, and have participants move to that

place. After looking at the results of this classification, determine what conclusions

you might draw. Often, the main conclusion is that people in the room who were born

and raised in the city in which you are training like it well enough to stay and work

there. This is information that you did not have before the activity.

Next, have participants move again to one of the four locations, but this time ask them

to move to where they ideally would live if they could freely choose and money was not

a consideration. After participants have moved, ask for conclusions that might be

drawn. Frequently, people who were born, raised, and are still living in the city in

which you are training also prefer to live there.

After participants have returned to their seats, make the point that classifying and

reclassifying things can provide new information about the items classified. In this

case, participants probably learned something new about one another.>

Classifying is the mental process of grouping items according to common

characteristics. Because it often requires a careful analysis of the items being

classified, it helps us to extend and refine knowledge.

People make sense of their world by classifying information and using

classification systems that they take for granted. The way we classify things

and the ways things are classified by others influences our perceptions and

our behaviors. It can be fun to make this point with students by asking

them to consider what might happen if certain classification systems

changed. For example:

• What might be different if items in a grocery store were classified

into three price ranges: 1¢ to $1.00, $1.01 to $5.00, and $5.00 and

higher?

• What might be the consequences of classifying middle school

students by their height?

What other classification systems might be fun to change?

<Provide time for participants to share ideas.>


Classifying






Dimension 3

The point is that classifying information or accepting given classifications

can influence how we view information. As with the other extending and

refining processes, we regularly and naturally use this one in our everyday

lives. Likewise, in the classroom we ask students to classify things. However,

as we spend time now learning about the process of classifying, we will try

to distinguish between classifying as it is most commonly used in the

classroom and classifying as it is used to help students extend and refine

knowledge.

The most common type of classifying assignment asks students to place

items into predetermined categories: animals into species, literature into

genres, wars into time periods. Although interesting connections certainly

can be made, this type of assignment is really only asking students to find

out or recall the correct answer. Conversely, when students are asked to

create and define their own categories and then to justify the placement of

items into those categories, they might analyze information in new ways andthereby extend and refine their understanding of the information (i.e., gain

insights, make new connections, and clarify confusions).

<Put up Overhead 3.2A.>

Let’s do an activity that requires you to analyze the categories and the

information that is being classified. With two or three people around you,

take a few minutes to classify the items on the left into the three categories:

living, dead, or other (the column with the question mark). Feel free to

define items or categories as you work together.

<Allow a few minutes for participants to classify most of the items.>

Let’s go over each item and see what you did in your groups. If you have an

answer that differs from one given by another group, please raise your hand,

give your answer, and explain that answer.

<Take answers. When there is more than one answer given, put a check in the column

for each answer, as long as the explanation is reasonable. After doing six or eight of

the items, call a time-out and explain the point of this activity.>

The important part of the activity was not where the checkmarks were placed

but the discussions that went on at your tables. The process of classifying,when used in the spirit of Dimension 3, is about extending and refining

information. Some of you may have used the traditional scientific definition

of living ; others of you may have generated your own definitions. In either

situation, whenever you stopped to discuss and reconsider attributes of the

items or the meanings of the category labels, you were engaged in extending

and refining your understanding of the information.

3.2AOverhead

Classifying



Many teachers use the process of classifying as a Dimension 2 activity. When

they use the process like this, the purpose is for students to get the item in

the right column, to reproduce knowledge. Although there is nothing wrong

with using the process in this way, students might then be asked to

reclassify the items using different categories in order to extend and refine

their knowledge. For example, students might first be asked to classify

insects the way a scientist might classify them. This would assess how well

they know the scientific classifications. Then, to help them look at different

attributes of insects (to help them extend and refine their knowledge) they

might then be asked to classify the insects as if they were exterminators and

then as if they were frogs looking for dinner.

Now I’m going to give you another assignment to do in your small groups.

Here are the categories I want you to use.

<Put up Overhead 3.2B.>

Here are the items I want you to classify.

<Put up Overhead 3.2C.>

<Give no further directions. Some groups probably will begin to categorize

immediately. Some will define the rules for the categories before they begin. Circulate

and look for (1) groups that have clearly defined their categories before proceeding; (2)

the difference in discussion when the categories are defined in a way that clearly

indicates where each item fits (e.g., they might realize that the colors don’t give them

clear definitions of the categories so they have to create clearer characteristics for the

categories, such as works written in the 1800s, the 1950s, the 1960s, etc.) and whenthe categories are defined in a way that less clearly indicates where each item fits

(e.g., passion, humor, sadness, purity); and (3) examples of groups performing each

step of the process from pages 124-125 in the Teacher’s Manual. Allow five to six

minutes for this activity. Most participants will not finish but will have gone far

enough for the important points to be made during the discussion.>

The reason I gave you vague category labels was to see how you dealt with

the categories. Most of you were bothered by these ambiguous category

labels, and, therefore, early on in the activity you stopped and defined your

categories. Before hearing how you grouped the items, turn to the step-by-step process on pages 124-125.

<Put up Overheads 3.2D and 3.2E.>

Although you may not have finished, try to determine if you followed each

of these steps as you worked on your assignment.



Dimension 3

3.2BOverhead

3.2COverhead

3.2D 3.2EOverheads


Classifying





Dimension 3

<Allow some time for groups to consider what they did. Then, with the large group,

provide some feedback on what you observed, and make some of the following general

points, which relate to the critical steps and difficult aspects of the process on pages

125-126 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

Often when we do this activity in workshops, some participants begin tocategorize the titles right away without defining the categories. As a result,

in some cases items might be placed into a category for different reasons. In

other words, the category changes each time an item is placed into it. For

example, we might place The Scarlet Letter in the Red category because scarlet

is red but also place Hamlet in the Red category because the story is bloody.

What is the point? The category labels you were given were intentionally

ambiguous. You probably discovered that if you had not first carefully

defined the categories, the process of classifying the items would have simply

been an exercise in putting items into columns. The purpose of this activity

was to help you remember that students often do what some of you started

to do: place items into categories before they understand the attributes

necessary for category membership. The bad news is that they might do this

even when the category labels are quite clear. The very bad news is that

sometimes when they realize that they don’t really understand the categories,

they go right ahead and continue to classify the items. They are “getting the

assignment done.”

The task you just did highlights another challenge in using the process of

classifying. When students are creating their own categories, as you

eventually had to do, they may clearly identify the attributes of the category,but the categories they select may do little to extend and refine their

knowledge. For example, the Red category could be defined as “books with

red bindings,” Blue as “books with blue bindings,” and so on. Or, Red could

be defined as “books with five or fewer words in their titles,” Purple as

“books with 5-10 words in their titles,” etc. Students will need modeling, as

well as practice and feedback, to become proficient in identifying

meaningful, relevant categories.

Finally, students might define categories that are totally unrelated to one

another. For example, it would be difficult to classify items if Red were

defined as “books with powerful emotional scenes,” and Blue as “books that

have predominantly female characters.” It is more meaningful to create a

“classification system,” that is, to use categories that are related. For

example, along with “books with powerful emotional scenes” students might

create categories like “books that maintain a lighthearted tone” and “books

that move back and forth between intense emotion and lightheartedness.”


Classifying



<As you make these points, you may want to use examples that you observed during

the activity.>

In summary, the purpose of this activity was to emphasize the first three key

points in the process of classifying, as explained on pages 125-126.

<Put up Overhead 3.2F, and read aloud the first three key points.>

The final key point is important to keep in mind when you are designing

classifying tasks. Some of the more interesting insights into knowledge come

when students classify the items more than once. Each time they reclassify

items, they are (at least potentially) examining different attributes of the

items. This is what leads to extending and refining the knowledge.

< Put up Overhead 3.2G.>

For example, one teacher used classifying to deepen students’ knowledge of

the vocabulary terms in a geography unit. After students gained afundamental understanding of the words, she asked them to classify the

words into categories they created. They classified the terms in predictable

ways. Although their work indicated that they had some understanding of

the terms, she then asked them to reclassify the terms two additional times

using less conventional categories. The teacher was pleased with the

conversations among students as they did this task in groups.

You try it. In your small groups, use this list of terms (or you may use the

list of titles of books), and figure out two additional ways of classifying

them. Notice how you extend and refine your knowledge of the terms (or

books) as you reclassify them into additional classification systems.


< Put up Overhead 3.2H.>

Strategy 4 presents two graphic organizers that may be used to help with the

process of classifying. Take a look at these organizers, which can also be

found on page 127, Figure 3.3. One of these graphics is simply columns

created to represent each category. The other one is more hierarchic and is

most appropriate when some categories need to be divided further.

Now take a few minutes to read the classroom examples on pages 128-129.

In your small groups, select one example, and discuss what knowledge the

students are extending and refining as a result of the classifying task. In

addition, discuss the following questions: What is a strength of the task?

What potential problems might arise as students attempt to complete the

task? What suggestions might you make to deal with these problems? Are

there any general suggestions you might make for redesigning the task?





Dimension 3

3.2F Overhead

3.2GOverhead

3.2HOverhead

Classifying





Dimension 3

<Allow time for a few participants to share.>



presented related to the process of classifying. See page 9 for explanations of each of


Abstracting





<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want to plan the training so that the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting are






Now we’re going to look at the process of abstracting. First, let’s read this

passage.


Find a partner, and try to identify another sequence of events that follows

the same general pattern as the sequence of events in the QWERT passage

but that has nothing to do with typewriters.

<Allow time for pairs to work together, and then ask them to share with the large

group. Some common examples include the metric system and the nine-month school

year.>

What you have done is move from the concrete to the abstract to the

concrete (or from the literal to the general to the literal). You read a passage,identified key ideas, transformed the specific key ideas into a general

pattern, and matched the general pattern to a new situation. It is a relatively

easy and natural process that helps us to make connections between

seemingly different situations. In the Dimensions of Learning model, we call

this procedure abstracting . Although it sounds academic, we use this process

almost every day. We identify and use general patterns when, for example,

we recognize that two people who seem to have very different styles of


3.3AOverhead

Closure

Abstracting



communicating actually share certain general characteristics, or when we are

watching a movie and we think to ourselves, “This is one of those movies in

which the person least likely to be guilty is the one who did it.”

In the classroom, we frequently give assignments that, although unstated,

ask students to abstract. For example, we might ask them to read a fairy taleand then write their own. Often, however, students simply rewrite the same

fairy tale and change the characters’ names. These disappointing results can

be addressed by teaching students the process of abstracting.

Strategy 1 on page 131 of the Teacher’s Manual suggests ways of helping

students understand this process and includes additional examples of

abstracting from everyday life. Take a couple of minutes to read this section.


Once students are familiar with the nature of abstracting and how people

often unconsciously use it, you can present them with a set of steps to use

when applying the process to content.

<Review Overheads 3.3B and 3.3C along with Overhead 3.3D.>

Let me walk you through these steps with the QWERT passage. Step 1 asks

you to identify what seems to be important or basic in the information. This

simply means to identify the main ideas. For this passage, the result might

look like this.

<Put up Overhead 3.3E and show the left side only (Specific/Literal).>

The next step is to rewrite the basic information in a more general form.Notice the words that are changed in the general pattern on this overhead.

(Although it is not the case on this overhead, often as you rewrite you can

condense the general pattern into fewer steps.)

<Show the right-hand side (General/Abstract) of the overhead one item at a time so

that participants can see how the general pattern was created.>

<Then cover up the Specific/Literal side of the overhead.>

Finally, examine the general pattern, and decide what other information

might follow that same pattern. Now, begin to think about other things that

follow this pattern. We already generated examples of information that

seemed to follow this same pattern. Let’s see how closely the examples we

generated earlier—before we learned the process—match the general pattern

of the QWERT passage.

<Guide participants through an analysis of each example generated earlier, and try

to determine how closely they match the general pattern on the QWERT overhead



Dimension 3

3.3B 3.3C

3.3D

Overheads

3.3EOverhead

Abstracting






Dimension 3

(Overhead 3.3E). You will probably conclude that some of their examples match the

pattern exactly, whereas others only partially match this general pattern.>

Notice that when we closely followed the steps of the process, we could

compare the original and the new information in much more detail than we

could when we did it loosely.

Abstracting is a way for us to identify similarities and differences between

and among large blocks of information. Because it can seem intimidating at

first, the process of abstracting probably should be introduced to students in

a very methodical way with simple examples. For instance, you might give

students the specific pattern from a simple passage, and then either provide

them with the general pattern or help them to generate it. They should then

be able to apply the general pattern to new information.

To help students understand the process, you might share examples with

them of situations in which abstracting has been used (e.g., West Side Storywas abstracted from Romeo and Juliet ), then ask them to identify other

examples of situations in which abstracting was used or instances in which

they used abstracting in their own lives. You might also help them to

understand that metaphors and analogies are forms of abstractions. For

example, “love is like a rose” is a metaphor based on a basic pattern: Love

and a rose are both beautiful and enjoyable, but they are not without their

painful aspects.

Once students have seen examples of abstracting and have practiced using

the process, hopefully they will see it as a way of connecting two pieces of information that appear to be unrelated. Point out that rigorously using the

abstracting process can help them to extend and refine their understanding

of information as they make connections that are more subtle and that they

otherwise might miss.

< Put up Overhead 3.3F (The Emperor’s New Clothes). If you think that participants

might not be able to read this overhead, include it in a handout.>

Let’s spend a little time practicing the process of abstracting. Read this

passage and perform each of the steps in the abstracting process. You may

work in pairs or in small groups. Refer to the steps of the process. Be sure touse each of them. Be ready to share with the large group.

< Allow time for this activity. You might then put up Overhead 3.3G, which shows

one possible result of applying the abstracting process to “The Emperor’s New

Clothes.”>

What was most difficult about doing this? What was most interesting?

3.3F Overhead

3.3GOverhead

3.3EOverhead

Abstracting



<Often participants say that identifying the literal pattern of information was the

most time-consuming part. They also often say that it’s interesting to find out how to

methodically connect two very different things.>

A number of English teachers have reported that the abstracting process has

greatly improved students’ creative writing. Frequently when students areasked to write stories that have the same theme as one they are studying, the

stories they write are almost identical to the one they are studying (with the

exception of name changes). However, when they learn the abstracting

process, they carefully identify the literal series of events in the story they are

studying, then, event by event, create a general pattern. Then, by focusing

only on the general pattern they have created (teachers often have students

put away the paper on which they recorded the literal series of events), they

write new stories. Teachers have been very impressed with the results

because of the interesting stories that students write that follow the general

pattern but that are quite different from the original and from each other.

One social studies teacher reported how pleased he was when he used

abstracting to help students discover that the pattern of events in the

Revolutionary War could be applied to current events. This process helped

students to see why and how studying history helps us understand events in

the world today.

Using the abstracting process can help learners extend and refine knowledge

by helping them make connections between the familiar and the unfamiliar.

More specifically, the process can help them understand unfamiliar, complex

information by connecting it to something they know well, and it can helpthem gain new insights into familiar information by connecting it to

something new. For example:

• In a unit on MacBeth, the process of abstracting helped students to

see that a story that was written so long ago and that was set in a far-

off place had a theme that was very much like those of books they

had read and soap operas they had watched.

• In a science class, students studying how blood cells fight disease

began to better understand the process when they saw that it was

like a military raid.• While learning about different cultures in a social studies class,

students at first thought that many of the customs and rituals were

“weird.” When they used abstracting, they reexamined their own

familiar customs and discovered that these customs had some of the

same general “weird” qualities.



Dimension 3

Abstracting






Dimension 3

• As students were trying to understand the writing process, their

teacher helped them to see that at an abstract level the process is like

things they consider to be quite different. She helped them to see,

for example, that writing is like baseball: In writing class they have

to practice, try not to make errors, and do their best when other

people are going to see their work.

Let’s take a few minutes to consider and discuss the critical aspects and

difficult steps of the abstracting process and to look at some classroom

examples that feature abstracting.


The first key point explains that Step 1 of the process of abstracting

(identifying what is important or basic to a block of information) is often the

most difficult for students. Many of you experienced this when you did the

assignment in your small groups. You may need to give students multipleopportunities to practice this step.

The second key point highlights a dilemma that students often face when

doing the second step (writing the basic information in a more general form).

How general or how specific should the pattern be? Look at the examples

provided in Key Point 2 on page 134. The level of generality that’s

appropriate depends on the content and the purpose of the assignment.

However, keep in mind that if the pattern is too specific, it will be difficult

to make any interesting connections to the original information. On the other

hand, if it is too general, everything starts to connect to everything else.< Put up Overhead 3.3I.>

Let me illustrate. On this overhead are four of the major events in the story

of Cinderella. In the right-hand column is a pattern that is very general,

perhaps too general. There are many stories that could be generated from

this general pattern that would have very little connection to the theme of

Cinderella. Working with one or two others, generate a more specific, but

not too specific, general pattern for the middle column that more accurately

identifies a general pattern or theme.

<Allow time for work and then sharing.>

The last key point emphasizes that the process of abstracting is more

powerful if at first you simply encourage students to make connections that

are the most obvious but eventually hold them accountable for making

connections that are less obvious. Remember that the goal is to extend and

3.3HOverhead

3.3IOverhead

Abstracting



refine students’ knowledge. Therefore, it is important to push students a

little as they use this process or any of the reasoning processes. The greatest

insights will probably not come on their first try.

As has been explained, you may have to guide students and model the steps

of this process at first. In other words, you might start with tasks that arevery teacher structured, and then slowly move toward tasks that are more

student structured as suggested in strategy 5 on page 135. Turn to the

classroom examples on pages 136 and 137 of your manual. As you read

them, notice the extent to which the teacher is guiding the students in the

use of the abstracting process.

<Use if you have looked at the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting as

a cluster.>

We have just looked at the processes of comparing, classifying, and

abstracting. Take a few minutes to review and reflect on each of these threeprocesses. What do they have in common? What are their similarities? What

differences can you identify?

<Target answer: They all involve looking at attributes or characteristics; they all also

involve generating conclusions by examining similarities and differences. Comparing is

best when there are three or four items to analyze; classifying works best when there

are lists of items; and abstracting is most appropriately used with blocks of

information or scenarios.>


logs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has been presented related to the process of abstracting. See page 9 for explanations of each of


Inductive Reasoning





< As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want to

plan the training so that the processes of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning

are examined together. There are several suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual for

helping students understand when they need to use inductive reasoning versus deductive

reasoning.>

Closure



Dimension 3


Inductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

<Combine this task with a break.>

Take five to ten minutes and go on an “induction outing.” That means that I

want you to walk around the area and carefully observe everything around

you. Make a list of several specific things that you observe. When you return

to the room, I want you to write a conclusion that you can draw about thearea, that is, about this building, the grounds, and/or about the people who

work here. Make sure that your conclusion is supported with a number of

observations, three or four perhaps. For example, if you took a walk around a

neighborhood and noticed that at a particular house there were skis hanging

in the garage, a basketball hoop above the driveway, tennis rackets on the

porch, and a volleyball net in the backyard, you could reasonably conclude

that the people living there are very involved in sports. When you come back,

be ready to share the pieces of evidence that led you to your conclusions.

<When participants return, have them write a conclusion about what they noticed.>

Now look at your conclusion, and see if you can generate a different

conclusion that could be drawn from the same observations.

< After they have had time to do this second part of the assignment, ask several

participants to share their conclusions from the induction outing. As they read their

conclusions, ask them to identify the observations they used to draw the conclusions and

then to share the other conclusions that could be drawn from the same observations.>

Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring unknown generalizations or

principles from information or observations. It is a process that we use every

day. In fact, we can’t avoid it. We infer people’s moods from their behavior,we infer the intent of comments made to us, we even infer what people look

like before meeting them. Have you ever worked with someone for a long

time before you met his or her spouse? And then when you met him or her,

your first reaction was, “No way!”? You had unconsciously inferred what the

spouse would look like.

The induction outing you just experienced is a good way to introduce

inductive reasoning to your class. Actually you can use it when students are

in any situation in which they can make rich observations: on a field trip,

during an assembly, watching a movie, and so on. It is an experience thatstudents enjoy, and it is an effective way of helping students to understand

two important points about inductive reasoning: When using the process,

conclusions should be based on a number of observations (otherwise, how

would you be able to look for patterns or connections?); and, there are often

several conclusions that can be drawn from the same observations. Thus,

conclusions that are based on inductive reasoning may or may not be

accurate or true.

Individual Task

Inductive Reasoning



We ask students to do inductive reasoning all the time, particularly after

reading information or viewing a film or video. In fact, any time teachers say

“read between the lines” or ask, “What can you conclude?”, they are asking

students to use inductive reasoning; students must come to general

conclusions that are not stated within the text but are inferred by the

information that is presented. If we want students to do a good job with this

type of reasoning, we should teach them the process and help them practice

it so that they can consciously apply the process to everyday situations and to

academic activities.


Let’s read over the general process for inductive reasoning. The steps are also

on page 139 and 140 in your Teacher’s Manual . (Notice that you loosely

followed these steps as you took your induction outing.) Take a couple of

minutes to read these steps and the example in italics right below the steps

on page 140. Note that seeing the patterns or connections in the information

or observations is what helps you to determine the generalization or

principle.

One way of giving students opportunities to practice using inductive

reasoning is to provide them with a list of specifics and ask them to draw

general conclusions. Let’s practice doing this with this list of specifics.


The specific information listed here is about the topic of soap operas. Using

only these statements, what conclusions might you draw about soap operas?

<Give participants time to read the specific statements and to draw conclusions. Ask

several people to share their conclusions. As people start to share their conclusions, you

will notice that many use other information to draw their conclusions; that is, they

use information that was not given in the specific statements but was part of their own

knowledge about the topic.>

Your goal is to draw general conclusions from the patterns or connections

you see in the specific information. The only way to determine if your

conclusions are logical is to examine the specific information that you used.

There is nothing wrong with using more information than you were given,but I would need to consider that additional information.

<If the following example does not come up in your interactions with participants,

share it with them as a common occurrence:



Dimension 3

Individual Task

3.4A 3.4BOverheads

3.4COverhead

Inductive Reasoning






Dimension 3

A participant might offer the conclusion that soap operas are watched

primarily by women. You can point out that such a conclusion does not

follow from the information provided. The reply might be, “But it says

that soap opera ads focus on household cleaning products.” Again, point

out that it still does not logically follow that women are the primary

audience. If you then ask what additional information the participant

was using, he or she might say, “It is primarily women who use

household products.” Now the conclusion about women as the primary

audience does follow logically.>

Valid conclusions arrived at inductively follow logically from specific

information and observations. Notice that it is important to clearly identify

the information or observations that are being used to draw conclusions

inductively and the extent to which they are correct or valid. In this way, we

can analyze the information and observations to determine the validity of the

conclusions. Take a minute to skim over the key points on page 141.

<Allow reading time. Put up Overhead 3.4D.>

As I responded to your conclusions about soap operas, I was applying these

critical points to determine the validity of your conclusions. Were your

conclusions really opinions, restatements, or additional observations? Was it

clear what information you were using, and was that information free of bias

or assumptions? Did you use several pieces of information to draw your

conclusions?

When introducing inductive reasoning to young students, you might simplyemphasize the process of making connections and seeing patterns in

information. Some of these key points will be too complex for them to

understand. Gradually, however, students need to be made more aware of these

points and increasingly held accountable for drawing conclusions that are valid.

One way to help students become more proficient at using inductive

reasoning is through visuals such as the organizer on page 142 and the

inductive reasoning matrix illustrated on page 143.

< Put up Overheads 3.4E and 3.4F.>

By organizing pieces of information graphically and providing spaces forwritten conclusions, students can make connections that otherwise might be

quite difficult to make.

Although drawing invalid conclusions about soap operas does not have

serious consequences, sloppy inductive reasoning in other situations is much

more serious. Look at the key points again.

3.4DOverhead

3.4E 3.4F Overheads

Inductive Reasoning



<Put up Overhead 3.4D again.>

Discuss with two or three others at your table how sloppy inductive

reasoning—that is, reasoning that violates the key points—can lead to

prejudice, impulsive behavior, and destroyed relationships.

<You might ask several people to share their ideas aloud.>

Section 5 in the Teacher’s Manual reminds us to use both teacher-structured

and student-structured tasks. Read the classroom examples on pages 144-

145. In each case, the teacher is asking students to use the process of

inductive reasoning. Choose a couple of the examples, and discuss with a

partner whether you think they are student structured or teacher structured.

How would you change one to be more student structured or a different one

to be more teacher structured, and why would you do that?

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learning logs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has been

presented related to the process of inductive reasoning. See page 9 for explanations of

each of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Deductive Reasoning



suggestions for helping participants understand the organization of the Teacher’s Manual for each of the reasoning processes in this dimension.>


plan the training so that the processes of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning

are examined together. There are several suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual for

helping students understand when they need to use inductive reasoning versus deductive

reasoning.>

Deductive reasoning is the process of using generalizations and principles to

infer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations. This

definition may sound fairly technical, even intimidating. But it is importantto understand that it is something we do every day. Take a couple of minutes

to read the introduction to deductive reasoning in your Teacher’s Manual on

pages 146-147.




Dimension 3

Closure

3.4DOverhead

Think/Pair/Share

Deductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

We are going to examine deductive reasoning as a general process of

applying generalizations and principles to specific situations, and we are

going to look more closely at one form of deductive reasoning: categorical

syllogisms. The goal of this training is to understand how to teach students

the process of deductive reasoning. This process is particularly important for

students to learn because, as emphasized in the introduction, it helps them

to transfer knowledge from one situation to another.

Let’s begin to develop our own understanding of the process of deductive

reasoning by using the suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual for helping

students learn to use it. On pages 147 and 148, strategy 1 recommends that

you help students understand the process by examining the relationship

between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

The most common understanding is that inductive reasoning moves from

specific to general and deductive reasoning from general to specific.

Although this is technically accurate, there is much more to the distinction

between inductive and deductive reasoning. Take a couple of minutes to read

the explanation and examples of inductive and deductive reasoning at the

bottom of page 147 and the top of page 148.

From these examples, it is evident that when you reach conclusions

inductively, you use specific information and try to generate the most likely

conclusion. However, even when you do a good job of reasoning, that

conclusion may or may not be true. The process of deduction is much more

precise; that is, if you use appropriate generalizations and principles and if

you do a good job of reasoning, you can have a great deal of confidence inyour conclusion.

The important role of principles and generalizations in the deductive

reasoning process should be fairly evident at this point. Let’s look at the

steps for deductive reasoning to understand better when generalizations and

principles are used in the process.

<Put up Overheads 3.5A and 3.5B.>

Of course, the implication of these steps is that to be able to engage in

deduction, students first must learn principles or generalizations that theycan apply to specific situations. Further, students must understand these

generalizations and principles well enough to know when and how to apply

them to new or different situations. Using the example you just read at the

top of page 148, if students only memorized principles of force and motion,

they certainly would not be able to use those principles to make accurate

predictions about the path of a billiard ball.

3.5A 3.5BOverheads

Deductive Reasoning



<You might point out to participants that this emphasis on understanding

generalizations and principles is explained further in the first key point made about

this process on page 150.>

In everyday situations, understanding important principles well enough to

apply them might not seem so difficult. For example, if I understand generalprinciples related to flowers, or to cooking, or to golf, I then can use these

principles to draw conclusions about how to help a specific flower to bloom,

how to cook a specific soufflé properly, or which club to select on a specific

fairway. However, as we begin to examine some of the more academic

generalizations and principles, the challenge of teaching these generalizations

will become clear.

Let’s examine some examples that use more academic generalizations and

principles. Take a couple of minutes to read the classroom examples that

apply deductive reasoning. These can be found on pages 153 and 154. What

are the academic generalizations or principles that students must understand

in order to complete the assigned tasks? What challenges in teaching these

might the teacher encounter?

<Target answers: In the Ms. Isaacs example, students must understand what plants

need to survive and how they get what they need. In the Mr. Caraveo example,

students must understand what happens when people are choking. In the Mrs.

Williamson example, students must understand the characteristics of a free-market

system. And, in the Ms. Touchett example, students must understand the law of

conservation of momentum. Participants probably will see that the challenge is to help

students understand generalizations or principles well enough to feel confident in answering the questions.>

The second key point related to deductive reasoning (on page 150) explains

the challenge of the third step of the process: helping students determine if

the generalizations or principles do, in fact, apply to the specific situation.

Learners must make sure that the specific situation meets the conditions that

have to be in place for those generalizations or principles to apply. In some

cases, this means that they must restate the generalizations or principles in

order to clearly identify those conditions. In the example you read earlier at

the top of page 148, it was explained that because you understand the laws

of gravity, you can predict that if you step off the roof, you will fall. Of

course, that is the case only if certain conditions are met. The laws of gravity

apply to the situation only if, for example, you are on the planet Earth and

you are not in a vacuum. Again, it is important to determine if the situation

meets the conditions that must be in place for the generalizations or

principles to apply.



Dimension 3

Individual Task

Deductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

In one of the classroom examples you read, students were learning that when

someone is choking, the Heimlich maneuver should be applied. In the

situation given to students, a person is choking. However, in order to answer

the question correctly, students had to determine if the conditions were right

for using the maneuver. They had to recognize that the specific situation did

not meet the conditions necessary to require the Heimlich maneuver. What

conditions were not met?

<Target answer: The Heimlich maneuver is appropriate only if the choking person is

getting no air. The person who was coughing was obviously getting enough air to cough,

and, therefore, the conditions requiring the Heimlich maneuver were not in place.>

Take a look at the graphic organizers for deductive reasoning on pages 151 and

152. These highlight the importance of checking to determine if the

conditions are in place that would make the generalizations or principles apply.

< Put up Overheads 3.5C and 3.5D.>

As you may be able to see by now, deductive reasoning encourages an in-

depth understanding of important content generalizations and principles. It

also enhances understanding of new situations to which these generalizations

and principles are applied. This is why it is such a powerful process for

extending and refining knowledge.

The final key point related to deductive reasoning emphasizes that although

inductive approaches to learning are often recommended (perhaps too often

recommended), deductive approaches can be equally as effective. Because

deductive reasoning can help students gain an in-depth understanding of content knowledge, when planning it is important to consider whether

students should spend their time discovering generalizations and principles or

applying generalizations and principles.


We have touched on each of the key points on page 150. Let’s review these

points again.

Are there any questions?

< Allow time.>

Let’s turn to page 157 of your Teacher’s Manual . Some of you may be

interested in teaching your students a more formal type of deductive

reasoning called categorical syllogisms. Many of you will groan, but let’s take

the following quiz.

3.5C 3.5DOverheads

3.5EOverhead


Deductive Reasoning



< Put up Overhead 3.5F. Allow participants time to discuss and compare answers in

small groups. The answer to all three is “d.” You may want to tell participants the

answers when they have completed the quiz but indicate that you will discuss the

reasons later.>

These items are similar to those that appear on many aptitude tests and testsof reasoning abilities. They all require deductive reasoning. The first one is

an example of a categorical syllogism. Let’s spend some time exploring this

type of deductive reasoning and discussing how to use it in the classroom.


A categorical syllogism contains two premises and a conclusion. On this

overhead is the categorical syllogism example from page 155.

< Read aloud Overhead 3.5G.>

As explained, when the two premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the

conclusion must be true. Most people are familiar with this format, often

from the classic categorical syllogism:

All men are mortal.

Plato is a man.

Therefore, Plato is mortal.

< Show the first syllogism on Overhead 3.5G.>

This type of reasoning format is usually studied in formal logic classes.

However, it can be used powerfully in any classroom. Your manual suggests

four ways in which you might approach categorical syllogisms with your

students.


The first suggestion is to help students recognize hidden categorical

syllogisms in their everyday language. The syllogism about airplanes, as

explained on page 155, could be “hidden” in the statement, “I know this

airplane has a fire extinguisher because it is a commercial airplane.” When

someone says, for example, “That is a bee. Watch out for its stinger,” the

implied categorical syllogism is

<Put up Overhead 3.5G again, and show this syllogism.>

All bees have stingers.

That is a bee.

Therefore, that has a stinger.



Dimension 3

3.5GOverhead

3.5GOverhead

3.5HOverhead

3.5F Overhead

3.5GOverhead

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

Turning a statement into a categorical syllogism clarifies the two underlying

premises and the conclusion and allows you to more easily analyze the degree

to which they are true. Turning an everyday statement into a categorical

syllogism with its two premises and conclusion is called standardizing . When

a statement is standardized, it also is easier to recognize another characteristic

of categorical syllogism: that the two premises have three elements.

<Write the following two examples on a blank overhead:

All apples are fruit.

This is an apple.

Therefore, this is a fruit.

All whales are mammals.

That is a whale.

Therefore, that is a mammal.>

The three elements of the first example are easy to pick out: “apples,”

“fruit,” and “this.” Now examine the second syllogism.

Identify the three elements.

<Provide answers for them to check themselves: “whales,” “mammals,” “that.”

This is typically fairly easy for participants.>

< Put up Overhead 3.5G again.>

Look again at these three categorical syllogism we used earlier. Let’s analyze

the second one about airplanes. Finding the three elements here is a little bit

tricky. See if you can find them.

<Allow time.>

You probably easily identified “commercial airplanes” as one element. You

probably can see that the third element is “the airplane I am on.” The second

element, however, requires that you take the phrase “have a fire extinguisher

on board” and turn it into an element. You do this by simply changing it so

that it reads: “things that have a fire extinguisher on board.” That word thingsis the key to turning phrases into elements. So, if I had a premise, “All

zebras are striped,” I would have to restate it to say, “All zebras are things

that are striped.” Now my first two elements would be “zebra” and “things

that are striped.” See if you can identify the three elements in the other two

syllogisms we examined earlier.

Individual Task

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning



<Use the Plato and the bee syllogisms on Overhead 3.5G. Participants should be able

to identify the elements in the Plato syllogism as “men,” “things that are mortal” (or

“people who are mortal”), and “Plato.” The bee syllogism elements are “bees,” “things

that have stingers,” and “this.”>

Now try to standardize these everyday statements so that the logic is valid.

<Put up Overhead 3.5I. Expose only the left-hand column first. After participants

have had a chance to work, show the right-hand column answers.>

The second suggestion for teaching categorical syllogisms is to provide

students with a way of graphically representing categorical syllogisms. The

most common way is to use Euler < pronounced “oiler”> diagrams. If you can

graphically represent the relationships, you can explore the logic in the

reasoning. To get a sense of Euler diagrams, take a few minutes to read pages

156-157.

< Allow a few minutes for reading.>

Consider the statement from our previous exercise: “Oh, you say Mary wrote

this report? Then we don’t have to worry; it will be accurate.”

When we standardized it, we identified three elements: “reports that Mary

writes,” “things that are accurate,” and “this.” Let’s represent these

graphically. < Draw the diagram on the overhead as you model these steps.> First,

give each element a circle. Next, show the relationship between “reports that

Mary writes” and “things that are accurate.” Now add the relationship

between “this” and “reports that Mary writes.”

Notice that once you have depicted the relationship between the two

premises, you can test the validity of a conclusion. In other words, you can

determine whether the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Is the

conclusion, “This is accurate” valid?

things that areaccurate

reports that Mary writes

this



Dimension 3

3.5IOverhead

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

<Target answer: Yes, because the “this” circle is within the “things that are accurate”

circle.>

Now graphically represent each of the other two syllogisms on this overhead.

< Participants are doing this task for the syllogisms on Overhead 3.5I. Go over the answers with them.>

For each of these syllogisms, the conclusion that was written has been shown

graphically to be valid. Notice that I continue to use the word valid . Again,

this means that the Euler diagrams showed that the reasoning used was

logical; in other words, we can confidently draw the conclusions, given two

premises. However, we will see that valid does not necessarily mean true.

If you are interested in having students become more familiar with common

valid categorical syllogisms, you can follow the suggestion on page 157:

Present students with the various forms of valid and invalid categoricalsyllogisms. The chart on page 158 can be used as a quick reference to help

students analyze the validity of the reasoning in various syllogisms.

You will see that this chart labels the elements A, B, and C. Look across the

top of the chart, and find the coded form of your first premise. Look down

the side to determine the coded form of the second premise. Now, find the

intersecting square. If the square is blank, then no valid conclusion can be

drawn; otherwise, the coded statement will tell you what conclusions can be

drawn.

Try Item 1 in the test you took at the beginning of this section:

All beans are vegetables = All A are B.

Some vegetables are green = Some B are C.

What conclusions can be drawn?

<Target answer: No valid conclusion can be drawn.>

Students who become intrigued with categorical syllogisms could try to

write examples of each valid conclusion identified in the chart or find

examples and try to place them in the chart.

The final suggestion on page 159 suggests having students examine the

truth of the premises in categorical syllogisms. Take a minute to read this

section.


Individual Task

3.5IOverhead

Deductive Reasoning



<Put up Overhead 3.5J.>

Now take a look at the statements on this overhead. Work with one or two

other people to do the following: First, identity the implied categorical

syllogisms; next, use a Euler diagram or the chart on page 158 to determine

if the reasoning is valid.

<Allow time for this work.>

Is the conclusion in each example valid?

<The answer is “yes.”>

But what is wrong?

<Participants should easily see that although the reasoning is valid, the premises are

not true.>

These examples highlight the difference between validity and truth.

If I teach students that “all dogs bark,” then tell them that I have a dog and

ask them to tell me what they can conclude about that dog, they could say,

“Your dog barks.” However, we know there are dogs that don’t bark;

therefore, their conclusion might not be true because the principle they are

reasoning from is not true. Actually, it is more accurate to say that the

conclusion is valid but not necessarily true.

To illustrate with content knowledge, students are commonly taught that

mysteries have the following characteristics:• unresolved or unexplained events

• foreshadowing

• suspense

• clues or evidence

Students may incorrectly translate these characteristics into the following

four generalizations or premises:

• All mysteries have unresolved or unexplained events.

• All mysteries use foreshadowing.

• All mysteries are suspenseful.

• All mysteries provide clues or evidence.



Dimension 3

3.5JOverhead


Deductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

If we asked students to use this information to make a prediction they might

conclude the following:

• All mysteries are stories with foreshadowing.

• My book is a mystery.

• My book will be a story with foreshadowing.

Although this conclusion is logically valid, it is not necessarily true because

we know that not all mysteries use foreshadowing. The point is that if you

are teaching students to reason deductively from premises, you must be

careful to make sure they understand that they must consider the validity of

their conclusions and the truth of their premises.

To summarize, when teaching students principles and generalizations, you

need to help them understand if the principles or generalizations always

apply or if they only sometimes apply to specific situations. Likewise, whenteaching a concept, it is important to clarify which attributes are always

present and which attributes are sometimes present.

The consequences of incorrectly concluding that all dogs bark or that all

mysteries use foreshadowing are not very serious. In other situations, however,

faulty deductions can have serious consequences. In fact, at the heart of

stereotyping is valid reasoning from untrue premises. An example from one or

our earlier activities, the syllogism related to blondes, illustrates this type of

stereotyping. What are some conclusions that students might make that

could have serious consequences because they are based on false premises?



presented related to the process of deductive reasoning. See page 9 for explanations of


Closure

Deductive Reasoning



Constructing Support






plan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing errors, and

analyzing perspectives are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to see

that these three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom.

For example, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use the

process of analyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or they

may want to take a perspective and construct support for it.>

Think of a time when someone or something (such as an article or

advertisement) tried to influence you or talk you into something. Now, find

a partner. Taking the position assumed by the person, article, or ad,

reconstruct the case made. Do this by role-playing the “pitch” that was

made. You might be a teenager arguing to stay out late, a politician trying

to gain support or a vote, or an advertiser selling a particular product. If you

can’t recall such a situation, take a position about something that’s

important to you, and role-play trying to influence your partner’s thinking

or actions about that topic or issue.

< Allow time for activity.>

As you listened to someone else trying to influence your thinking or

persuade you to do something or buy something, you probably noticed that

the person used some very specific techniques. Specifically, what techniques

did your partner use to try to persuade or influence you? Share your ideas

with your partner.

< Allow time for each partner to share.>

Constructing support is the process of building systems of support for

assertions, or, stated more simply, it is the process of providing support for

statements. Think about how our lives are influenced by the persuasiveabilities of people involved in campaigns, whether designed to sell a political

candidate, an anti-drug message, or a product or to elicit community buy-in

for a new recycling project. These campaigns succeed because people know

how to construct support for their ideas.



Dimension 3








Dimension 3

People who successfully construct support for assertions have two kinds of

knowledge: first, an understanding of and ability to use persuasive

techniques, and, second, an understanding of the information needed to

construct a powerful argument. Teaching students to construct support,

then, not only provides them with the opportunity to gain the ability to use

persuasive techniques, it sets up situations in which they will need to

develop an understanding of the information—to extend and refine their

knowledge—in order to construct the argument. In addition, taking and

constructing support for a position, especially when students have some

choice about the position, is beneficial because it increases their engagement

in the learning process.

Let’s look at the steps for the process of constructing support on page 162 of

the Teacher’s Manual .

< Put up Overheads 3.6A and 3.6B. Allow time for participants to read.>

As you present the steps to students, ask them to identify current topics or

issues (e.g., from the classroom, the news, or their own lives) that might

warrant their taking a position and constructing support for that position.

Then, preferably using one of their ideas (or, if you feel more comfortable,

using the think-aloud example in the manual or an idea of your own), model

how you would construct support for a position. As you model the process,

elicit suggestions from students for how to make the argument stronger.


The key points for constructing support present information that studentsneed to understand in order to competently use the process. The first key

point, which begins on page 163, discusses the difference between fact and

opinion. This is an important distinction because, as stated in the first two

steps of the process, it is appropriate to construct support only for opinions.

Take a minute to read the Key Point 1 on page 163.

< Put up Overhead 3.6D.>

Now let’s take a look at a few examples. Teaching students the difference

between facts and opinions is actually fairly common. However, it is

important for students to understand that the term fact is being used to referto statements that can be verified. At your tables, determine whether each of

these statements is a fact or an opinion.


3.6COverhead

3.6DOverhead

3.6A 3.6BOverheads




In addition to understanding the difference between fact and opinion, it is

important to understand some of the techniques that speakers traditionally

use to garner support. Key Point 2, on page 164 of the Teacher’s Manual ,

includes a description of such techniques, specifically four types of appeals.

Although these types of appeals will sound familiar, they actually date back

to ancient Greece. As you read through the descriptions of these four types

of appeals, keep two questions in mind: Which type of appeal is most

commonly used in our society? Which type is emphasized in school?

<Allow time for participants to read about the four types of appeals.>

Let’s answer the two questions: Which type of appeal is most commonly

used in our society? Which type is emphasized in school?

<Take responses from participants. Typically, people conclude that appeals that are

not based on reason are probably used the most. Yet we tend to teach students to

construct reasoned appeals.>

It is important for students to understand all four types of appeals, because

others will use these methods to persuade them and because students should

know how to use the appeals to be persuasive in important situations. People

who are well respected (and some who are not) use these appeals every day.

For each of the appeals, see if you can identify famous people, living or from

the past, who are or were particularly good at using that appeal. Be ready to

share your examples.

< Allow time for participants to work together to think of examples. Possible examples

that you might offer are• Using personality: Political candidates often use personal stories, show a

great deal of personal interest in people, or are very cordial. President Ronald

Reagan was considered persuasive in part because he was so likable.

• Using tradition or accepted beliefs: Speakers sometimes use phrases like,

“Americans always have. . . ,” “like Grandma used to make,” “the right

thing to do,” or “family values.” Religious leaders, such as Billy Graham,

are known for using this approach.

• Using rhetoric: Martin Luther King used beautiful language and an

eloquent style when he spoke, for example in his “I Have a Dream” speech. Jesse Jackson is well known for his use of language to make a strong case for

his positions.

• Using reason: Pamphlets and brochures often have well-structured support

for the ideas, people, and institutions that they represent. These typically

include statistical evidence to support claims made. William F. Buckley is

well known for his reasoned arguments.>





Dimension 3





Individual Task


Dimension 3

<Optional activity: Show television video segments of examples of the various kinds of

appeals. Give participants a mini-quiz to determine if they can designate the kind of

appeal or appeals that each uses.>

When you are aware of the variety of appeals, you begin to notice their uses.

All of these types of appeals are effective, but the one that is probably thefocus in most schools is the appeal to reason. One model for constructing a

sound appeal to reason is provided in Key Point 3 on page 165 of the

Teacher’s Manual. There are four primary components to a sound appeal to

reason in this model.

< Put up Overhead 3.6E, which has descriptions of each part.>

<Now put up Overhead 3.6F.>

Let’s look at the beginnings of an argument constructed with this model.

Notice that the claim is supported with factual information that helps to

build the case.

However, just because all the parts are there does not guarantee that the

argument is strong. Let’s look at two different passages constructed using the

basic model. As you read each of them, notice that all the elements of an

appeal to reason are present. What is the difference between the two?

< Put up Overheads 3.6G and 3.6H. Allow a few minutes for participants to read

and analyze both arguments. Ask for their conclusions, and make sure the following

points are made.>

This activity makes it apparent that an appeal to reason containing all four

components is not necessarily a strong appeal. Factual information may be

presented in a way that communicates bias. When teaching the process of

constructing support, it is important for students to understand the kinds of

errors that they should avoid if they want their arguments to be valid. It

may be useful to review the different kinds of errors in thinking. These types

of errors are described in the Teacher’s Manual in the section on analyzing

errors. With enough practice and guidance, students will become skilled at

constructing support for their ideas.

Let’s take a few minutes to practice constructing support. Use what you

know and have learned about the process. You may want to use the graphic

organizer on page 166 to help you plan for making your case.

< Put up Overhead 3.6I.>

3.6G 3.6HOverheads

3.6IOverhead

3.6EOverhead

3.6F Overhead




Consider the following claims: <Write on a blank overhead.>

A. The salary structure for teachers should include merit pay.

B. The salary structure for teachers should not include merit pay.

< Alternatively, substitute a current issue that might stimulate opposing views and that most participants will know well enough to be able to generate evidence,

elaborations, and limitations.>

You may work with one or two other people. First, select one of the two

claims. All of the groups supporting Claim A move to one side of the room;

groups supporting Claim B move to the other side. Now, working together,

construct support for your claim. You may use any of the appeals, but you

must include an appeal to reason. See if you can include all four components

of a good appeal to reason.

< Allow time for groups to work.>

Now, I’d like each group to find a group from the opposing side. Take turns

presenting your support.

< Again, allow time for each group to present.>

What were the easiest and the most difficult parts of the process of

constructing support? What did you notice as you listened to support for the

opposing claim? How does the process of constructing support help you to

extend and refine knowledge?

<Often participants notice that the same evidence could be used to support or refute an argument, that it is hard to come up with facts as opposed to opinions, and that the

process of constructing support leads to many discoveries, insights, and ideas related to

the topic. They also typically say that they would need to consult some resources to get

more information.>

You will notice that strategy 5 suggests using both teacher-structured and

student-structured tasks. Let’s look at how the process of constructing

support is used in the classroom. Take a few minutes to read the classroom

examples on page 167. Notice that the first three are very teacher structured

and the last one is very student structured.

< Allow time for this activity. Have a few people share their arguments with the

entire group. Make sure the following point is made: It’s important to involve students

early and often in the design of constructing support tasks because part of learning the

process is being able to determine which opinions warrant support.>



Dimension 3








Dimension 3



presented related to the process of constructing support. See page 9 for explanations of


Analyzing Errors






plan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing errors, and

analyzing perspectives are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to see

that these three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom.

For example, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use the

process of analyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or they

may want to take a perspective and construct support for it.>


In each of these, someone is trying to persuade someone else to believe or to do

something. Without necessarily using the technical language associated with

fallacies, describe the types of weak arguments you notice in each statement.

<Allow time for discussion in small groups.>

We live in a society in which we are inundated with information like the

examples we have examined. Some messages are clear and straightforward,

simply providing us with information. Many messages, however, are like

these. They are skillfully crafted to influence us to buy something, to believe

or support something, or to take some sort of action. The ability to analyze

this information, to identify ways in which others are trying to influence us

or other people, and to recognize possible errors in thinking is an important

lifelong learning skill.

Analyzing errors is the process of identifying and articulating errors in

thinking. This process is used to develop the habit of analyzing information

for possible errors (intentional or unintentional) that are made through the

use of faulty logic, weak references, attacks, or misinformation. One way to

help students become aware of the need to understand and use the process of

analyzing errors is to present them with information from their everyday

Closure

3.7AOverhead


Analyzing Errors



lives and then ask them to find errors in thinking reflected in the

information, just as we did a few minutes ago.

When first teaching this process you might present students with messages

like the ones you just analyzed but take them from your local newspaper or

from current events students will recognize. Don’t use advertisements only;older students in particular are very aware that advertisers use all sorts of

techniques to try to persuade them. As you present students with examples

that reflect errors in thinking, focus on the reasons that people make errors in

their thinking and the consequences of not recognizing such errors.

Look again at the examples of messages we examined earlier. Think about

the types of examples you would probably find to introduce students to the

process of error analysis. What are some examples of the consequences people

experience because of their failure to recognize errors in the thinking

underlying information they are receiving?

<Ask for several people to share examples of consequences. Typically, examples of

consequences will include experiencing regret after you vote for a candidate, buying

something someone talks you into or doing something dangerous such as taking drugs.>

As you are discussing consequences with students, you can present them

with a model for the process of analyzing errors (on pages 169-170 of the

Teacher’s Manual).

<Put up Overheads 3.7B and 3.7C.>

Although the steps appear simple enough, most people do not rigorouslyapply the process when confronted with information and, consequently, fall

into situations they could have avoided. As explained in the first key point

(page 171), one of the major goals in teaching this process is to introduce

and reinforce the practice of looking for errors in information that you are

receiving. If students only develop the tendency to watch for errors, they are

well on their way to becoming proficient at using this process.

The next challenge, described in the second key point, is to help students

recognize different types of errors. Although cautiously watching for errors

in information is important, understanding different types of errors will

enhance students’ ability to recognize errors, even subtle, skillfully craftederrors. Let’s look at the section called “Types of Errors in Thinking,” which

is on pages 173-176.

Let’s examine this detailed information on types of errors in thinking. You’ll

find four sections that describe specific types of errors: faulty logic, attacks,

weak references, and misinformation.



Dimension 3


3.7B 3.7COverheads

Analyzing Errors








Dimension 3

< Put up Overheads 3.7D and 3.7E.>

Take a few minutes to skim through this information. Some of the types of

errors will be very familiar to you. Some will probably be less familiar or

new to you.


Do you recognize the use of any of these in the examples we analyzed earlier?

<Put up Overhead 3.7A again. 1. Appeal to authority. 2. Appeal to the people. 3.

Appeal to emotion. 4. Arguing against the person. 5. Arguing from ignorance.>

Let’s become more familiar with these types of errors in thinking. I apologize

for having you sit and read so much but we will become more active here in

a minute. Turn to the classroom examples on pages 176 and 177, and read

through them. Pay particular attention to the last example.


Notice that in the last example the topic is whether there is life on other

planets. This is a topic that people love to talk about, as evidenced by the

number of movies about the topic, the speculation in the media, the UFO

sightings, etc. Let’s use some of the types of errors to analyze the reasons that

people give for believing or not believing about the existence of life on other

planets.

Working in small groups, try to construct, for as many types of errors as

possible, an argument that exemplifies that error. Look again at the examplesin the classroom task on page 177 for the model of what you should do. Let’s

make this a little competitive. We will see which group can construct an

argument for the most types of errors in thinking. Ready. Go.

<Allow time for them to work. This should be fun. They will find that some of the

errors are more difficult to exemplify than others. Circulate throughout the room, and

encourage groups to move on if they are having trouble with one particular type of

error. At the end of the working time, determine which group was able to exemplify

the most types of errors. Time permitting, have people read examples for as many errors

as possible.>

<You will need to prepare slips of paper ahead of time for the following activity.>

Now let’s use what we have learned to apply these types of errors to other

topics. On the table in the front of the room, there are small pieces of

folded-up paper. On each piece is a letter. Buddy up with someone, and

each of you come up and select a piece of paper. You and your partner will

now have two letters that correspond to one of the types of errors on

3.7D 3.7EOverheads

3.7AOverhead

Analyzing Errors




pages 173-176. Generate an example of each to present to a partner. Do this by

• thinking of an experience in which you heard the error used or

making up a story in which such an error is used, or

• role-playing a situation illustrating the type of error in thinking.

In a few minutes, you and your partner will present one or two of your

examples to another pair, and they will try to determine which error in

thinking you are illustrating.

< Allow preparation time. Then have each pair present one example. After both pairs

have presented, if there is time have them repeat the activity and present again.

Although this takes some time, it is helpful for each pair to hear other examples, and

it is usually interesting for them to present their examples.>

<For groups of at least 34: Have participants count off to 17. Have 1’s together, 2’s

together, etc. Then give each pair or group a letter (a through q, randomly distributed, not in order). Have each pair prepare a role-play or skit to demonstrate the error its letter

addresses. Ask the remainder of the group to guess which error is being demonstrated.>

What did you discover or find interesting during that activity?

<Typical answers: Some errors in thinking are less obvious than others. Different

people label the same example as different types of errors.>

<Put up Overhead 3.7F.>

As explained earlier, the first key point emphasizes that the first goal in

teaching the process of analyzing errors is to help students develop the habitof looking for errors. However, as highlighted in the second key point,

helping students become familiar with the types of errors we have just been

using here will help them to recognize errors in information they are

receiving. Finally, as discussed in Key Point 3, it is important for students

to realize that good thinkers know that there are some situations in which

error analysis is not appropriate. Good thinkers accept some information on

faith or because of the credibility of the information source.

<Put up Overhead 3.7G.>

Take a look at the graphic organizer on page 172. Help students to

understand that those two “stop sign” symbols remind them that not all

information needs close scrutiny.

As with each of the reasoning processes, strategy 5 simply suggests using

both teacher-structured and student-structured tasks. After spending time

with the process of analyzing errors, ideally students will begin to recognize

situations in which the process is necessary.

Alternative Activity



Dimension 3

3.7F Overhead

3.7GOverhead

Analyzing Errors




Individual Task

Closure


Dimension 3

< At this point, if you would like to provide a final practice activity to enable

participants to experience using the process with information from a different medium,

you might show a video segment of a televised debate or a panel news program. Ask

participants to describe any errors in thinking that they notice.>


presented related to the process of analyzing errors. See page 9 for explanations of each

of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Analyzing Perspectives




Manual for each of the reasoning processes in this dimension.

As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want to

plan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing perspectives,

and analyzing errors are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to see that

these three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom. For

example, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use the process of

analyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or they may want

to take a perspective and construct support for it.>

In a moment, I’m going to bring up an issue about which people have

different opinions. Note your reaction to the issue, and indicate that reaction

by putting your thumb up, down, or to the side. “Thumbs up” means you

have a positive reaction to the issue; “thumbs to the side” means you are

neutral, and “thumbs” down means you feel negatively about it.

The proposal is year-round schooling <or another current controversial topic such

as vouchers for private and parochial schools, national standards, women past

natural-child-bearing age having children, etc.>.

< Allow time for each participant to react.>

Now, jot down the reasons for your reaction. Next, consider a different

reaction. For example, if your reaction was negative, consider either a

positive or neutral reaction. Now, predict what reasons someone might give

for that reaction.

Next, find someone whose initial position was different from yours. Then,

compare their recorded reasons with what you predicted. As you talk with




your partner, ask questions about the reasons he or she gave. Remember that

the goal of analyzing perspectives is not to accept, agree with, or tolerate

someone else’s perspective or the reasons for that perspective. The goal is to

fully understand the reasons for another’s position. Analyzing perspectives is

the process of identifying multiple perspectives on an issue and examining

the reasons or logic behind each. It is about understanding various points of

view. It is not about changing anyone’s perspective.

< Allow time for participants to interact.>

Why do you think it is valuable for students to learn the process of

analyzing perspectives?

<Take time to hear several answers from participants. If the following points are not

made, emphasize them as follows.>

It is, of course, valuable to listen to and be sensitive to others’ points of view.

Students will be developing a skill they can use later when faced with

emotionally charged situations. As a result of identifying and understanding

their own reasons for a perspective as well as the reasons for a different

perspective, they will find that sometimes they change their perspectives but

that often they strengthen their points of view.

The academic value to students’ learning how to analyze perspectives is that

it can help them to extend and refine academic content knowledge. Because

the emphasis is on analyzing the perspectives, the goal is understanding.

This often means that students have to seek additional information and seek

clarity in that information to explain various perspectives.

As with all Dimension 3 complex reasoning processes, it is important to

present and model the steps in the process of analyzing perspectives.


These steps are described on pages 179-180 of the Teacher’s Manual . Take a

couple of minutes to read them.

< Allow a couple of minutes for reading.>

You may now realize that these steps parallel the thumbs up/thumbs down

activity we did. Following my first instruction (to put your thumb up,

down, or sideways) required you to select a perspective. This part is often

fairly easy. The second instruction (to jot down your reasons) was probably a

little more difficult because it might have been a while since you thought

about the reasons for your point of view. It may be that you never have had

to clearly articulate the reasons for your perspective.




Dimension 3

3.8A 3.8BOverheads





The third and fourth instructions (to identify a different perspective and to

identify the reasons for that perspective) might have been even more

difficult, especially if you felt strongly about the topic. This is because we

sometimes attend most closely to information that supports our own point of

view. When teaching the process of analyzing perspectives, it is important to

emphasize to students that the goal is to seek understanding of the reasons

or logic underlying multiple perspectives, including their own.

To help us gain a deeper understanding of the process of analyzing

perspectives, we are going to spend some time reviewing four key points

discussed on pages 180-181 of the Teacher’s Manual. First, read over the

following anecdote about a potential display at the Smithsonian Institute.


With a partner, identify the probable perspectives of the diverse groups.

<Allow time for pairs to complete this activity and to have several share answers with

the whole group.>

<Target answers: A human rights group wanted to display the airplane as a symbol

of death and destruction to show the dangers and horrors of war. Military leaders

wanted to display it as a war trophy and a symbol of victory and strength. Airplane

enthusiasts wanted to display it as an example of the “flying machine of the time.”>

Now, with your partner, review the key points.

<Put up Overhead 3.8D.>

Let’s discuss each, using the perspectives of the groups that wanted to

display the Enola Gay.

We actually have already discussed the first point: that the goal of analyzing

perspectives is not just to acknowledge other perspectives but to gain an

understanding of multiple perspectives. If you were analyzing perspectives

about displaying the Enola Gay, it would be important for students to do

more than state, for example, that some people wanted to display it as a

reminder of the horrors of war. Students would need to explore why people

felt that it would serve as such a reminder.

The second key point explains one of the challenges of teaching the process

of analyzing perspectives: helping students to recognize and be able to

generate good reasons and valid logic. Articulating good reasons for a

perspective is an ability that can be developed starting in kindergarten.

Examine the kindergarten example in the margin on page 181. These young

students are learning that a good reason must provide information or



Dimension 3

3.8COverhead

3.8DOverhead





evidence; it can’t just be a restatement of the perspective, such as, “I like

winter because I love it.”

Using the Enola Gay example, generate some examples of weak reasons for

believing that the airplane should be displayed. In other words, generate

reasons that really do not provide information or evidence. For example,“The plane should be displayed because it is the right thing to do.”

<Ask for several examples from the small groups.>

Key Point 3 states that most issues have multiple perspectives and that

students should learn to dig deeply to search them out. What other

perspectives not yet mentioned could increase our understanding of the issue

of displaying the Enola Gay?

< Allow time for discussion with the large group. Be sure to elicit some of the reasons

for each of the perspectives presented.>

There are several ways to engage students in the process of analyzing

perspectives. One common classroom activity is to set up a role-playing

situation in which students argue one side of a controversial issue and then

the other. Another approach is to ask students to describe the thinking of

several people involved in a situation in which there are differences in

perspectives. Students can practice with real-life issues (e.g., a family feud

between a sister, a brother, a mother, and the family dog; a planning session

for a school dance from the perspectives of a student, a custodian, and a

teacher).

Let’s practice. Consider the topic “nuclear reactors as the major source of

power for large cities,” which might be brought up in a science unit. In

small groups, take a few minutes to identify the reasons that someone might

have who strongly opposes the use of nuclear reactors as the major source of

energy for large cities. Then take an equal amount of time to identify the

reasons that someone might have who supports this use of nuclear reactors.

<Give participants several minutes to generate the two lists.>

What did you learn as a result of doing this activity? What knowledge might

be extended and refined as a result of using the activity in the classroom?

< Allow time for discussion. Ask several participants to share.>

One way to analyze perspectives is to ask students to place positive, negative,

or neutral values on a topic and then to specify reasons for their assignment of

value in a structured format using a Perspective Examination Matrix or a

Conflict Clarification Matrix like those that have been filled in on page 182.



Dimension 3







< Put up Overheads 3.8E and 3.8F.>

In small groups, try filling in a Conflict Clarification Matrix for the

following issue: All employees in a school district should be subjected to

mandatory drug testing.

<Allow time for participants to fill out the matrix and to share some examples with

the large group.>

What did you learn, discover, or think about as a result of doing this activity?

< Ask participants to share.>

Notice the last row in the Conflict Clarification Matrix in which students

are asked to identify a conclusion they drew or an awareness they gained as a

result of analyzing perspectives in this way. Teachers report that sometimes

students’ responses are fairly trivial. For example, they sometimes say that

they concluded that “there are other ways of looking at things” or “there are

two sides to every argument.” It takes some encouragement to get students

to think about what they learned about the issue being examined. But it is

worth the time to encourage them to do this thinking. It is the key to their

extending and refining their knowledge.

Let’s apply this process to the classroom. First, skim the information on

teacher- and student-structured tasks on page 183. Then, look at the

classroom examples on pages 183 and 184. Discuss what you’ve read with a

partner, and then, using that information, together design an analyzing

perspectives task for the classroom, preferably one that one or both of youcould use.

<Allow time for participants to read the information and to construct a task. Have

several people share their tasks with the large group.>



presented related to the process of analyzing perspectives. See page 9 for explanations of




Dimension 3



Closure

3.8E 3.8FOverheads










overarching question:

What will be done to help students extend and refine knowledge?

By following the three steps outlined in the Teacher’s Manual, pages

185-187, you will answer this question. Each step requires you to answer

a specific key question or provide information. There is a place on the

planning guide to record your decisions.

We will look at the planning guide for Dimension 3 for the sample Colorado

Unit (page 188) while considering the planning questions for this dimension.

Step 1 asks you to respond to the following question:

What knowledge will students be extending and refining?

Specifically, students will be extending and refining their

understanding of . . .

As you answer this question, it is important to remember that the goal of

extending and refining knowledge is to deepen and broaden students’

understanding of information that is important enough to warrant the extra

time and emphasis. In most cases, it is generalizations/principles and

concepts that will be selected as important enough to extend and refine. For

example, students might not need to deepen their understanding of the facts

about the life of an artist, but it might be important for them to deepen

their understanding of the following generalization that is related to these

facts: An artist’s body of work reflects his or her life experiences.

The best way to identify the knowledge that you want students to extend

and refine is to examine the declarative knowledge that was identifiedduring the planning process for Dimension 2 and then to simply ask

yourself, “What information that I have identified in this unit do I want

students to understand in greater depth?”

Turn back to page 87 in Dimension 2. You will see the Unit Planning

Graphic for declarative knowledge for the Colorado Unit.



Dimension 3

3.P1Overhead

Planning



< Put up Overhead 2.P5 (planning graphic) to verify for participants that they are

on the right page. Note that we are suggesting that you use the graphic that is

organized without standards and benchmarks. Using this graphic (rather than the

graphic for planning with standards and benchmarks) will make it easier for

participants to see that the knowledge selected for extending and refining is from the

concept patterns and generalization/principle patterns.>

Keeping your hand on that page, look at the planning guide for Dimension

3 on page 188.

< Put up Overhead 3.P2 (the filled-in planning guide from page 188). This overhead

is not large enough for participants to be able to read, but putting it up can verify for

them that they are looking at the right page in their manuals. They should also be

able to see it well enough to see the columns that you point out as you discuss the steps.>

Notice the knowledge that is being extended and refined, which is identified

in the first column.

<Allow time for participants to read this column.>

Now go back to the Dimension 2 Planning Graphic for the Colorado Unit,

page 87. You can see that the knowledge being extended and refined in this

unit was selected from the concept and generalization/principle patterns. You

can also see that not all of the information in these patterns is being extended

and refined. The teachers planning the unit have decided which information

is going to be a major focus of the unit and then have designed tasks that will

help students develop an in-depth understanding of that knowledge.

<Put up Overhead 3.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).>

Step 2 asks you to identify the reasoning process that students will use to

extend and refine the important knowledge you have identified. The specific

process selected should be driven by the information that you think should

be extended and refined. Some processes are better suited to certain

information than to others.

<Put up Overheads 3.P3 and 3.P4 (the stimulus questions from pages 186 and 187).>

On pages 186 and 187, you will find a set of questions for each of the eight

Dimension 3 reasoning processes. These questions are intended to be used

during planning to stimulate ideas for tasks and to help you design

interesting tasks that engage students in complex reasoning and that lead to

students’ extending and refining the knowledge they are learning. Let’s

examine the process used to design the tasks for the Colorado Unit.



Dimension 3

3.P3 3.P4Overheads

3.P2Overhead

3.P1Overhead

2.P5Overhead

Planning




The third step of the planning process simply asks you to describe the tasks

that students will be doing. Take a minute, if you haven’t already done so, to

read the first task in column 3, a classification task, as well as the second

task, an inductive reasoning task, both of which were designed using theseplanning steps.

<Put up Overhead 3.P2 (the filled-in planning guide from page 188).>

Let’s walk through this planning process once more. Both of these tasks were

generated as a result of the teachers first asking themselves the Step 1 and 2

questions. To plan the first task, for example, they obviously decided that

students would be increasing their understanding of how topography,

natural resources, and climate influence settlement patterns. They might not

at first have known exactly what they wanted students to do, but perhaps

they knew that they wanted students to apply the knowledge in situationsother than those directly related to Colorado. With these goals in mind, they

then used the questions for the complex reasoning processes (on pages 186

and 187) to help stimulate ideas for the task. They might have considered

two or three ideas before designing the classification task described on the

planning guide.

Picture the students doing these two tasks. Discuss at your tables how these

tasks would extend and refine students’ understanding of the identified

knowledge.


< Put up Overheads 3.P3 and 3.P4 again.>

Read over these stimulus questions. Then look again at the processes selected

for the Colorado Unit. Select two different processes that might have been

used and then, using the blank Dimension 3 planning guide you have been

given in your handout, try to design tasks that would extend and refine the

identified knowledge.

<Give participants time to read the stimulus questions and to come up with some of

their own ideas for the unit. Take a few ideas from the large group.>

Note that there is room on the planner for two processes. This isn’t a magic

number. You might have only one or, perhaps, even three. The idea here is

not “the more the merrier.” When deciding how many tasks to include in a

unit, you should consider the length of the unit, how much of the

information students need to understand in-depth, and how many reasoning

processes you might have to teach in the unit. If students are not already





Dimension 3

3.P1Overhead

3.P2Overhead

3.P3 3.P4Overheads

Planning



proficient at using the reasoning processes the tasks require, you must allow

time in the unit to teach these processes.

Now let’s practice using this planning process for a unit you are planning or

might plan. First, identify some important declarative knowledge that you

want students to extend and refine. Then select one or two complexreasoning processes, and design tasks that might help students extend and

refine that knowledge.

< Allow time for participants to plan and to share a few examples with the large

group. Some may want to use blank Dimension 3 planning guides, so you should have

some extras available to them. In order to become more comfortable teaching these

reasoning processes and using them in units, participants will need multiple

opportunities to study and practice writing tasks. Depending on your training schedule,

allow as much time as possible for them to design tasks and share them with others.>






Dimension 3

Planning Activity

Closure

Planning



D i m e n s i o n 4




4

Dimension 4

Use Knowledge Meaningfully

To the Trainer

This portion of the training deals with Dimension 4, which is covered in

Chapter 4 of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual . As a result of this

training, participants will understand that the ultimate purpose of acquiring

knowledge is to be able to use it in a meaningful way. This means that

students must be able to use what they have been learning by engaging in

tasks that they perceive to be relevant, interesting, and engaging. These

tasks often take a significant amount of time to complete. However, whenthey are used in instruction, they allow students to achieve a higher level of

understanding and proficiency; when they are used for assessment, they

allow students to demonstrate their understanding and proficiency. Ideally,

educators will use tasks that ask students to use knowledge meaningfully for

instruction as well as assessment.

When designing tasks that ask students to use knowledge meaningfully,

participants should learn to use the complex reasoning processes so that the

emphasis is on students’ thinking about the content knowledge rather than

on the product that they are to create. Six reasoning processes have been

identified and defined within Dimension 4. They are

• Decision making: Generating and applying criteria to select from

among seemingly equal alternatives.

• Problem solving: Overcoming constraints or limiting conditions

that are in the way of pursuing goals.





Dimension 4

• Invention: Developing unique products or processes that fulfill

perceived needs.

• Experimental inquiry: Generating and testing explanations of

observed phenomena.

• Investigation: Identifying and resolving issues about which there

are confusions or contradictions.

• Systems analysis: Analyzing the parts of a system and the manner

in which they interact.

During this training, participants will be in the process of gaining

understanding about the complexity of constructing tasks that require

students to use knowledge meaningfully. They will be in the process

of learning

• that teachers can help students use knowledge meaningfully bymaking sure that students engage in tasks that they perceive to be

relevant, interesting, and engaging and that require them to apply

complex reasoning processes to content knowledge;

• that when students perceive tasks as meaningful and relevant, they

are motivated to acquire the knowledge needed to complete the

tasks, which, in turn, can result in a greater depth of understanding

and proficiency relative to that knowledge;

• that six specific complex reasoning processes should be explicitly

taught to and modeled for students: decision making, problem

solving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and systems

analysis;

• how to model and teach the six complex reasoning processes to help

students use knowledge meaningfully;

• how to help students learn to use the processes independently in ways

that are meaningful to them;

• how to create tasks that involve these processes; and




Think/Pair/Share



Dimension 4

However, there are some general differences between the processes in

Dimensions 3 and 4. First, the Dimension 3 processes are less cognitively

complex than those in Dimension 4; in other words, it takes fewer mental

operations to complete a comparison, for example, than it does to conduct a

systems analysis. Second, it usually takes less time to complete an activity or

a task that is constructed around a Dimension 3 process than it does to

complete one that is constructed around a Dimension 4 task. For example, a

student might classify items in just a few minutes, whereas he might take

hours or days to invent something. Third, the Dimension 3 processes require

students to analyze content in some way; the Dimension 4 processes tend to

provide opportunities for students to apply knowledge of content in specific

ways. Finally, Dimension 4 tasks are typically more student directed than

most Dimension 3 activities or tasks.


4, which runs about six minutes. Then ask for any other comments regarding thedifferences between Dimensions 3 and Dimension 4.>

Just as completing a task that requires students to use knowledge

meaningfully can be perceived as a major challenge, designing these tasks, or

setting up opportunities for students to design them, can pose major

challenges to teachers. There are several points to keep in mind when

constructing tasks designed in this dimension.

We’re going to take a few minutes to go over some suggestions for

constructing Dimension 4 tasks. Turn to page 191 in the Teacher’s Manual .

Starting at the bottom of the page and continuing to the top of page 193,there are several suggestions, each preceded by a bullet. Buddy up with

someone, divide the bulleted sections between you, read your sections, and

then share and discuss your information with your partner.

< Allow time for participants to complete the assignment. Ask for and respond to

questions and comments from the whole group.>

It is important to note that tasks that require students to use knowledge

meaningfully can be constructed with reasoning processes other than or in

addition to the Dimension 4 processes. For example, two or more Dimension

3 processes may be used together in a combination task that requires studentsto do more than simply extend and refine knowledge. Take a moment to

read an example of such a task on page 194.


The emphasis in the Dimensions of Learning model is not on trying to

decide if a task is a Dimension 3 or a Dimension 4 task. It is on




Dimension 4


understanding that some tasks simply help students to increase their

understanding and some tasks require them to also use their understanding.

In both situations, it is important to emphasize the thinking students are

doing. Many times, projects involve the creation of products that simply

have students reproduce knowledge, albeit often in a creative, fancy, or even

glitzy manner. Incorporating a Dimension 4 complex reasoning process or

one or more Dimension 3 processes moves the project to a completely

different level by requiring students to generate knowledge and apply it in a

meaningful context.

Chapter 4 of the Teacher’s Manual is structured to provide you with the

direction and information needed to understand and use the identified

complex reasoning processes to construct tasks that require students to use

knowledge meaningfully. For each of the six reasoning processes, the

following organizational format is used.

< Put up Overhead 4.0A. If participants have already studied Dimension 3, point

out that this is exactly the same format as for each of the reasoning processes in

Dimension 3. If this is the first set of reasoning processes they have studied, you will

need to explain the following.>

On page 193, you will find an explanation of Roman numeral 2, the five

sections that are included for each reasoning process. Take a couple of minutes

to scan through these reasoning processes in the Teacher’s Manual so that you

are familiar with the format. Please notice that for each process, you will find

in section 2 a set of steps for the process, followed by a version of the same

steps in simplified language. This simpler version is often used with youngerstudents or with students who are just beginning to learn the process.





Closure

4.0AOverhead




Dimension 4


Decision Making

I am going to present you with a decision that I want you to make fairly

quickly. You are going on a vacation at your own expense. You must select

one of the following:

• two weeks in London for $4,000

• two weeks in Hawaii for $2,000

• two weeks in a cabin in the Adirondacks for $700

< Allow a few moments for participants to decide, and then ask how many selected

each alternative. Ask individuals why they chose what they did. As they answer,

identify the criteria implied in what they say. For example, if they say they chose

Hawaii because of the sunshine, then an important criterion for them is “warm, mild

weather.” If they chose London because they want to attend plays, then “cultural activities” is probably an important criterion, whereas “money” probably is not.>

What you have just done is use a decision-making process. For some of you,

this may have been a fairly easy decision because one of the choices seemed

far superior to you than any of the other choices. For others, it may have

been a more difficult decision because all of the choices were equally

appealing or unappealing. In either case, most of you probably did not give a

great deal of thought to the criteria you would use to make the decision

because you realized that this decision was being made only to make a point;

it wasn’t going to lead to your going on that trip. Certainly, the importanceof the decision and the degree to which the choices are equal affects the rigor

with which we approach the decision-making process.

When used to construct meaningful use tasks, the process of decision

making requires a great deal of rigor and thought. Decision making is

defined as the process of generating and applying criteria to select from

among seemingly equal alternatives. Stated more simply, it is the process of

developing and using criteria to select from choices that seem to be equal.

On pages 196 and 197 of the Teacher’s Manual is an explicit model of the

steps involved in the decision-making process.< Put up Overheads 4.1A and 4.1B.>

< Allow participants time to read through the steps in the process.>

Notice the level of rigor required for students to engage in this process.

When considering seemingly equal choices, they must clearly define the

criteria they consider to be important and then apply those criteria to

Individual Task

4.1A 4.1BOverheads

Decision Making





Dimension 4

alternatives in order to make a selection. It is a more methodical and rigorous

process than the one you probably used to determine which trip to take.

To teach students this process, introduce the process to them by

demonstrating each step, perhaps as a think aloud. Select a decision-making

situation that uses fairly simple content knowledge or a real-life situation,like deciding what car you should purchase. This modeling experience

should involve the use of a matrix to help students organize the large

amount of information needed to generate criteria and alternatives and to

apply each criterion to each alternative.

<Put up Overhead 4.1C.>

< Just for fun, you might use the blank matrix to do the following activity. Tell

participants that you are going to give an award for the best participant in the

workshop due to the extensive and critical nature of the information being discussed.

Have them determine criteria they think you should use to select the winner of this award. After participants have had a few minutes to generate criteria, compare their

criteria with criteria such as

• the number of treats the participant brings and the quality of those treats;

• the degree to which the participant takes care of your wants and needs;

• the frequency with which the participant smiles and exhibits positive body

language; and

• the extent to which the participant agrees with what you are presenting and

tries to convince others around them that you are one of the best, most intelligent presenters he or she has encountered.

Help participants to see that generating criteria has a profound effect on the outcome of

the decision-making process and that changing criteria can lead to different choices.>

Now let’s go through an entire example together, using each step of the

process.

<Fill out the matrix on Overhead 4.1C as you walk participants through the process.

The following car example works. However, if you have a personal example, feel free

to substitute your own.>

4.1COverhead

Decision Making





Dimension 4

Decision Making

Suppose I am trying to decide which car to buy. I have narrowed my choices

to four:

• the Kia

• the Saturn

• the Explorer

• the Lexus

< Acknowledge that these alternatives aren’t equal; they are being used to clearly

demonstrate the process.>

Next, I determine the criteria I want to consider in this decision. I include

• cost

• mileage

• safety• roominess

• style

But these criteria are much too vague. In other words, I have not defined my

criteria very well. What exactly do I mean by “cost”? Vague, ill-defined

criteria are often the reason people have trouble making clear decisions. The

first key point, on page 200, talks about the importance of clear, precise

criteria. Take a minute to quickly skim Key Point 1.


Now let’s go back and better define my criteria.

By “cost” I mean the car must cost under $15,000. By “mileage” I mean it

must get approximately 15 miles per gallon in the city.

<Continue defining criteria, letting participants contribute.>

Now I can assign each criterion an importance score, using a scale of 1-3. I

might assign cost and safety a score of 3, meaning they’re very important,

mileage and roominess a 2, and style a 1.

< Place importance scores beside the criteria on Overhead 4.1C. Acknowledge that thevalue scores could be the same for two alternatives but are different here to clearly

demonstrate the process.>

Next, I determine the degree to which each alternative possesses each criterion.

On a scale of 0 to 3, to what degree does the Kia meet the cost criterion?

4.1DOverhead





Dimension 4

Problem Solving

programs like this are often limited to a few students, frequently those who

have been identified as gifted and talented. This is unfortunate because most

people believe that all students should learn to be good problem solvers.

The term problem solving is used in many different ways. In fact, students, as

well as teachers, frequently refer to any difficult task as a “problem-solvingtask.” Because some difficult tasks require using the processes of decision

making or experimental inquiry, referring to them as “problem-solving

tasks” does not guide students to a process that will help them complete

these tasks. In the Dimensions of Learning model, the term problem solving is

only used to refer to a process that helps students with tasks that require

them to solve unstructured problems. This means that students are trying to

overcome a constraint or limiting condition in order to achieve a goal. Take a

few minutes to read the introduction to problem solving on pages 205 and

206. Pay particular attention to the descriptions of structured and

unstructured problems. Be ready to distinguish between the two types andto discuss the type focused on in Dimensions of Learning.


Now, get a partner. Together discuss the definitions of structured and

unstructured problems and the difference between them. As you should do

when crafting any good definition, do not use the terms themselves (i.e., the

words structured or unstructured) in your explanation. Then, create an example

of each type of problem. Finally, discuss the type of problem—unstructured

problems—that is the focus of the process of problem solving as defined in

the Dimensions of Learning model.

<Allow time for discussion, and then ask for responses from the group.>

As explained, one important characteristic of an unstructured problem is that

it involves a constraint or limiting condition. In the task you just finished

(discussing structured and unstructured problems), I put a constraint on your

discussion of the two types of problems: You could not use the terms

unstructured or structured . In effect, I created a problem-solving task.

How did having to overcome the constraint (not using the words structured

or unstructured) affect your use of knowledge, in this case your knowledge of the types of problems?

<Target answer: The constraint forced them to define the two types of problems by

using language that explained the terms unstructured and structured. Participants

had to use precise language to explain exactly what these terms mean. If they did not

understand the terms, they probably struggled with this task.>







Problem solving, then, as defined in Dimensions of Learning, is the process

of overcoming constraints or limiting conditions that are in the way of

pursuing goals. Stated more simply, it is the process of overcoming limits or

barriers that are in the way of reaching goals.

<Put up Overheads 4.2A and/or 4.2B again.>

Students should be introduced to the steps in the problem-solving process

with a demonstration of how they might use the steps as they go through

the process. Let me model what that might look like.

<You might choose to model this process using the example found on page 208 in the

manual or using your own content-area example. In either case, use a think-aloud to

help participants understand the thinking involved in the process. Ask participants to

engage in the demonstration as if they were students.>


What I’d like you to do next is to use the demonstration we just went

through to create and fill in a graphic organizer like this one, which can also

be found on page 211. You may work together with one or two other people.

<Allow time for this activity. Have one or two groups put their graphic organizers on

transparencies and share them with the group.>

After introducing the problem-solving process to students and presenting them

with the model, give them opportunities to observe others engaged in problem

solving and to practice and reflect on their own experiences solving problems in

content-related situations. Let’s spend a little time right now practicing some

problem solving. Try to be aware of yourself as a problem solver as you attempt

one of the problems I’m about to give you. Be ready to reflect on the aspects of

problem solving that are easiest or most difficult for you.

You may work with a partner, by yourself, or in small groups. First, read the

three classroom examples on page 213. Because the third example poses a

problem that would be difficult to solve in this workshop setting, select one

of the first two and begin to solve the problem described.

<Give participants time to solve their problems and to share their solutions between

groups or with the entire group. Then ask them to share within their groups those

things they noticed about themselves as problem solvers. What was difficult? Easy?

What other things did they notice?>

Let’s look at the key points related to problem solving on pages 209 and 210

and apply them to the problems you just solved.



Dimension 4

Problem Solving

4.2A 4.2BOverheads

4.2COverhead





Dimension 4

Problem Solving


The first key point discusses the importance of step one of the process:

identifying the goal you are trying to accomplish. In the problems you were

just solving, the goal was provided for you. It is not unusual for the goal to

be defined when a problem is presented in the classroom. However, in real-life situations, defining the goal is critical.

If you are part of a school district that is dealing with parents who are

complaining about test scores, but, in a time of budget cuts, you can’t spend

any additional funds to address this issue, you clearly have a problem. There

are at least two ways of defining the goal. What are they?

<One goal: Raise test scores. Another goal: Stop the complaining.>

Notice that the way you define the goal will provide direction for the

remainder of the problem-solving process. It is important for students tohave opportunities to engage in problem-solving tasks in which the goal is

not provided so that they can practice this step of the process.

Read the second key point on page 209.


As you were solving the problems from the classroom examples, to what

extent did you carefully examine the constraints or limiting conditions

before generating alternatives? Discuss this with your group.

< Allow time for discussion.>

The third key point explains that when solving a problem, you may have to

shift to the processes of decision making or invention. If, for example, you

can’t decide which alternative to try, you may need to engage in decision

making. If you are unable to generate a good alternative solution to your

problem, you may have to invent one. As you can see, as students become

familiar with using each reasoning process, there are ever-increasing

opportunities for them to use knowledge meaningfully.

The final key point emphasizes the importance of students understanding

that the process of problem solving should be used to help them find the best solution, not just a solution. Reflect once more on the problems you were

solving earlier. If you were using these problems in the classroom, how

might you encourage students to search for the best solution (as opposed to

just “getting the assignment done”)? Discuss this in your group, and be

ready to share your ideas.




4.2DOverhead




Closure

< Allow time for discussion and sharing.>

Assuming you have taught and reinforced the problem-solving process, one

of your biggest challenges will be setting up problems around content. Take

a few minutes to read the section in the Teacher’s Manual on teacher-

structured and student-structured tasks (pages 211-213) and to quickly scanthe classroom examples on page 213.


Working with a partner or in small groups with those around you, construct

a teacher-structured problem-solving task that you might use in a particular

content area. Be sure to consider the steps in the process as you construct the

task. Keep in mind that you need a clear idea of the content knowledge that

you would like students to meaningfully use and a clear idea of how the

problem solving-process will help them use that knowledge.

<Allow participants time to construct their problem-solving tasks. Then have each

group share its task with another group. Ask the other group to first consider the

degree to which the task requires students to engage in the steps of the process and to

meaningfully use the identified content knowledge and then to give feedback to the

group that created the task. You might want to ask one or two of the groups to share

their tasks with the group. Point out the strengths and weaknesses of the tasks, and

suggest revisions as necessary.>



presented related to the process of problem solving. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>



Dimension 4

Problem Solving







Dimension 4

Invention

Invention

We are now going to spend some time looking at the process of invention.

As we will discuss a little later, not all inventions are successful.

< Put up Overhead 4.3A (Goggles for Fowls). This is a humorous way to start this

section.>

Find a partner, or get into small groups with a few other people. I am going

to provide you with paper, paper clips, rubber bands, and tape <or any other

material you would like to make available>. I’d like each pair or group to invent

a paper airplane that is better in some way than the typical paper airplane.

Before you construct this airplane, set a standard that you will work toward.

In other words, specify how it will be better than the typical paper airplane.

Will it look better? Will it be able to fly farther? Turn at certain angles?

Carry cargo?

< Allow some time for participants to complete and then to share their inventions. If

they have previously done the problem-solving paper-airplane activity, discuss the

differences between problem solving and invention. Then have participants read the

middle paragraph on page 214 in the Teacher’s Manual as well as the last two

paragraphs on page 215. The differences between problem solving and invention are

discussed on these pages.>

Invention is the process of developing unique products or processes that

fulfill a perceived need. The invention might be a procedure, a product, a

speech, a game, a campaign, a machine, or a show. Whatever is beinginvented, the process of creating includes the following steps.

< Put up Overheads 4.3B and 4.3C.>

Successfully completing this process requires a major commitment to a task.

The U.S. Patent Office has expressed the concern at times that fewer and

fewer people are willing to make such a commitment, as evidenced by the

decreasing number of patent applications.

<You might ask participants to speculate on how complex a patent application might

be for an invention like the FAX machine or another technological breakthrough.>

Have you ever seen an invention that is incredibly successful and lucrative

for the inventor and thought to yourself, “I had that idea a long time ago,”

“Why didn’t I think of that?”, or “I can’t believe that’s popular.”

Try to think of something you would like to invent or create. If it helps,

complete one of these sentence stems.

4.3AOverhead

4.3B 4.3COverheads

Individual Task






Dimension 4

Invention

3. Finally, inventors might not attend to step 5, which asks them to be

flexible in looking for alternatives and to revise the standards as

necessary.

Coming up with invention tasks is sometimes difficult. Although the

Teacher’s Manual does not really provide suggestions for coming up withideas for invention tasks, let’s look at one powerful way to do this. One way

to stimulate ideas for student invention tasks and to stimulate students’

thinking about potential invention ideas is to use analogical reasoning.

Using analogies to come up with ideas for inventions might look like this.

<Write the following on a blank overhead:

I would like to invent something for____ that would do what _________

did for _________. For example, I would like to create a television show

for opera that would do what MTV did for modern music or what AMC

did for old movies.>

When applied to content, analogical reasoning can help teachers and

students generate ideas for invention tasks. Here are some more examples.


To develop a better sense of the steps in the invention process, we’re going to

break into small groups for the next 10 minutes and engage in the process of

invention. Take a look at the suggestions on this overhead.

< Put up Overhead 4.3F.>

Before working on the task, read the key points on pages 218-219 in theTeacher’s Manual .


Let’s go over these points together briefly.


Each of these points reminds the teacher that students often want to jump in

right away and start making their invention. It is important to monitor

them carefully to ensure that the invention process not only results in

something useful and creative, but that it also encourages students to useknowledge meaningfully.

<Put up Overhead 4.3F again.>

Now let’s go back to our task. Select one of the tasks, and, keeping in mind

the key points, start to move through the steps of the invention process. Get

as far as you can in 10 minutes. Use the graphic organizer on page 219 to

represent the invention process that you are engaged in.

4.3EOverhead

4.3F Overhead

4.3F Overhead

4.3GOverhead





Dimension 4

Experimental Inquiry


Experimental inquiry is the process of generating and testing explanations of

observed phenomena. Stated more simply, it is the process of developing and

testing explanations of things we observe. Experimental inquiry is oftenassociated with science, specifically the scientific process or method.

However, the steps involved in this process can be applied to any content

area and can be useful to anyone, not just scientists and researchers. Before

we explore some examples, let’s examine the steps of the process.

< Read through the steps with participants. Use Overheads 4.4A and 4.4B, or see

page 226 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

A real-life example might make these steps seem more familiar to you.

Consider a mother observing the behavior of her two-year-old son.

< Put up Overhead 4.4C. Relate the elements of the example to the steps of the process.>

At a certain level, even young children engage in experimental inquiry. They

wonder why, they hypothesize, they test, they regroup and try something

else. For example, they may wonder why their toy doesn’t work and think to

themselves, “Maybe it’s the batteries. I’ll turn the batteries around and try it

again. . . . Nope, it still doesn’t work. Maybe it’s because. . . .” In essence,

these children—and all who engage in the process of experimental inquiry—

are trying to address the questions identified in the simplified version of this

process.

In a science classroom, there are obvious opportunities for teaching the

process of experimental inquiry and for explicitly applying it to content.

What are some science-related examples that you have seen or used?

<Take examples from the group.>

Experimental inquiry is less commonly used in other subject areas within the

liberal arts, fine arts, or the humanities. This is unfortunate because the same

process that is applied to physical phenomena in the sciences can be applied

to psychological phenomena related to a wide variety of content areas. For

example, by conducting an experimental inquiry, students can attempt toexplain why people react to specific pieces of literature, art, or music.

As explained on page 225 of the manual, when introducing experimental

inquiry to students, that is, before you even introduce the steps, you might

conduct an actual experiment or discuss an example of a famous experiment.

Then ask students to think of examples of famous or important experiments

and to discuss how people’s lives have been impacted by these experiments

4.4COverhead

4.4A 4.4BOverheads





Dimension 4


Take a couple of minutes to think about what makes you wonder. In other

words, try to think of things you might like to explore through

experimental inquiry. For example, I wonder why people don’t exercise, why

people get sick at high altitudes, and why so few people read Shakespeare.

< Allow time for participants to identify examples, and then have them share their examples with the group.>

Students initially enjoy the second step of the experimental inquiry process

because trying to explain the reason for what they have observed can seem a

bit like a guessing game. They soon realize, however, that to conduct an

effective inquiry, they must slow down and think, rather than guess or

thoughtlessly make up explanations. In order to be successful, students must

bring with them an understanding of the concepts, generalizations, and

principles that could help them explain the phenomenon. In fact, this is the

point in the process that they use what they have previously learned in order

to understand an observed phenomenon. In the think-aloud you read in the

Teacher’s Manual (about the feather and rock), what knowledge would students

need to use to try to explain why the rock fell faster than the feather? Key

Point 2 discusses the necessity of providing opportunities for students to learn

the knowledge they will be asked to use in the experimental inquiry.

Similarly, students often find that generating a hypothesis or prediction is

fairly simple (step 3) but that setting up an activity or an experiment to test

it (step 4) can be quite challenging. Step 4 requires a great deal of modeling

and guidance in how to set up an experiment.

The final step in the experimental inquiry process, step 5, reinforces the ideathat invalidating your hypothesis can be as enlightening as finding support

for it. Key Point 4 discusses the importance of students understanding the

interactive nature of the steps of the experimental inquiry process; that is, if

the results of an experiment indicate that their explanation of the

phenomenon was incorrect, they must go back and either try to set up

additional experiments or, perhaps, go all the way back to step 2 and

consider different explanations.

Let’s take some time now to practice the experimental inquiry process. Pretend

we are in a social studies class and that we are in the middle of our 1960s unit.

Get into groups of three or four, and read over these experimental inquiry tasks.


In your groups, select one of the two tasks, state your hypothesis, and be

ready to describe the experiment you would set up to test your hypothesis.

See if you can use the graphic organizer on page 229 to help you organize

your ideas.



4.4EOverhead



Investigation

What is the difference between what reporters do when they are reporting a

story and what they do when they are engaged in investigative reporting?

<Ask several participants to describe differences. If the following differences are not

identified, make these points.>

Reporting a story requires gathering information from several sources and

organizing it in some cohesive way; investigative reporting involves digging

for information and trying to resolve inconsistencies, contradictions, or other

indications that the entire truth has not been exposed. The goal of

investigation is to gather and use information to clear up inconsistencies and

confusions, or to uncover or generate information that is missing or

otherwise unknown.

Just as reporting is different from investigative reporting, investigation is

different from doing an information-gathering research report.

Which of the five dimensions of learning are students using when they do an

information-gathering research report?

<Target answer: Most students are involved primarily in acquiring and integrating

knowledge (Dimension 2). They generally use several sources (e.g., two or three

encyclopedias) and select pieces of information from each. This can be a very productive

activity, but it is frequently limited to the acquisition and integration of knowledge.>

The process of investigation requires students to go beyond the acquisition

and integration of knowledge. To understand what is required of students,

read the descriptions on page 235 of the three types of investigation.


Then look at the steps of the process on page 237.

<Put up Overheads 4.5B and 4.5C.>

What specifically are students required to do in an investigation that they

typically are not required to do in more traditional research reports?

<Allow time for participants to read and respond. Target answers: Investigation

focuses on questions or topics for which there are no known or agreed-upon answers or

explanations.>

Students cannot simply go to a resource and find the resolution to an

investigation topic. Instead, they must use what they have already learned



Dimension 4

Investigation




4.5AOverhead

4.5B 4.5COverheads



4. What would happen if we became a cashless society?

Answer: Projective

5. Was Edgar Allan Poe really a deranged alcoholic? Or was that

characterization created by a biographer who was jealous of him?

Answer: Historical

6. How and when did Hitler die?

Answer: Historical

7. What is the “Third World”? Is it a socioeconomic, political, cultural, or

geographical distinction?

Answer: Historical

8. What would have happened if Columbus had landed on America’s West

Coast?

Answer: Projective

9. What is cooperation? Is helping a friend with his or her homework an

example of cooperation? Is letting a friend copy your homework an example of

cooperation?

Answer: Definitional

10. What would happen if genetic engineering resulted in processes that could be

used to easily clone humans?

Answer: Projective

When participants are finished, have them report to the large group.>

You may have noticed that many of the topics in the investigation examples,

both on the overhead we just used and the classroom examples provided in

the Teacher’s Manual , are appropriate for upper elementary and secondary

students. Of all of the reasoning processes in Dimensions 3 and 4,

investigation is probably the most difficult one to use with primary

students. The ability of young students to conduct research is somewhat

limited, thus topics for investigation are limited. However, the process canbe taught to students as they seek to define concepts like friendship or

community or as they project into the future with ideas that start with, “What

would happen if…?”

The challenge of identifying topics for investigation—whether identified by

the teacher or by students—is the focus of the first key point in this process.

These key points are described on pages 239-240.



Dimension 4

Investigation





<Put up Overhead 4.5F.>

The graphic organizer presented on page 241 can be helpful to students as

they present their information and resolutions. Look at the think-aloud

example about the ozone layer on pages 237 and 238. In your groups, share

what information you might put in each of the boxes of the graphic organizer.

<Give participants time to share.>

Again, it is important to gradually move from teacher-structured to student-

structured tasks. Find a partner. A’s, read the guidelines for teacher-structured

tasks (bullets at the bottom of page 241) and the teacher-structured

democracy task at the top of page 242. B’s, read the guidelines for student-

structured tasks (bullets on page 242) and the student-structured democracy

task at the bottom of page 242. When you both have finished, share your

information and compare the teacher-structured and student-structured

democracy tasks. How are they similar, and how are they different?

<Give participants time to complete this activity.>



presented related to the process of investigation. See page 9 for explanations of each of


Systems AnalysisThe world that surrounds us is composed of many systems: families, the

interstate highway system, factories, schools, etc. Many of these systems are

part of even larger systems. For example, a factory might function as a

system, but, it also might be part of a larger business system that has other

parts such as a marketing department, a retail outlet, and so on. Each part of

any system is dependent on other parts; when one part changes or stops

functioning, other parts of the system are influenced.

Take a minute to identify other systems you encounter regularly or that you

know about.

<Have participants share examples they have identified.>

It is often said that the key to understanding the present, and even to

predicting the future, is to use “systems thinking.” This means that as you

analyze any situation, you carefully attend to all of the systems that are relevant

to the situation and analyze each system to try to understand the relationships



Dimension 4

System Analysis

Closure


4.5F Overhead




This activity helps students to have a clear image of what a system looks

like. You might then have them begin a list of systems that they understand

fairly well and then have them discuss how the parts interact.

<Put up Overheads 4.6A and 4.6B.>

Next, introduce to students the definition and the steps of the process of

systems analysis. Systems analysis is defined as the process of analyzing the

parts of a system and the manner in which they interact. Stated more simply,

it is the process of describing how the parts of a system work together. Let’s

look at the steps. We will examine them together as you might do in the

classroom, by modeling with a specific example.

Let’s take a system we’re all familiar with, and see if we can use the systems

analysis process to analyze it using what we know about this system. How

about a school district? Step 1 of the process asks us to identify the parts of

the system. What are the parts of a school district?

<Target answer/examples: Schools, teachers, students, the school board,

administrators, transportation services, food services, etc.>

Let’s do step 2. What are the boundaries of the system? This requires us to

define the role of the system and to describe where it begins and where it

ends. For example, a school district includes all of the parts that work

together to offer formal education to children within given boundaries,

which are usually mandated by the state. Its physical boundaries, areas of

jurisdiction, responsibilities, and powers are fairly well delineated in state

documents. In this way the boundaries are clear.

Some boundaries might be a little more difficult to delineate. For example, are

parents part of the school system, or are they members of another system—the

family—that can influence the school system? What do you think?

< Answers will vary.>

You can see that defining the boundaries of some systems might require

careful analysis and that, in the end, everyone might not agree.

Step 3 asks how the parts of the system affect one another. You are familiar

enough with a school district to define the roles of many of its parts, for

instance, the role of the school board, of teachers, of administrators, etc.

However, even when you are familiar with a system, this can be a

challenging part of the process. Take a couple of minutes to read the two key

points for systems analysis on pages 250-251. Both key points are related to

this third step of the process. Notice the term functional relationship as it is

defined in the second key point.



Dimension 4

System Analysis

4.6A 4.6BOverheads





You will find a discussion of the use of teacher-structured and student-

structured tasks on pages 252 and 253. Although the philosophy underlying

Dimensions of Learning is to increasingly shift responsibility for these

thinking processes to students, you still might need to model the process for

them and guide them as they engage in it. When the system being analyzed

is quite complex and involves human interactions, the process of systems

analysis is challenging even to those experienced in using the process.

Systems analysis, like the other complex reasoning processes, can provide a

meaningful context within which students can use what they have been

learning by engaging in tasks that are relevant, intriguing, and authentic. At

the same time, effective systems analysis tasks are tied strongly to content

knowledge. Turn to pages 253-254 in the Teacher’s Manual , and read the

examples provided. Notice how each example has students use content

knowledge meaningfully.

<Give participants time to read the examples.>

Let’s look at the elementary example in which students began to realize how

parts of a story are a system. This strategy is sometimes called character

relationships, but the thinking process underlying it is systems analysis.

Students are trying to understand that plot, character, and setting create a

system. But characters in a story, together, are also a system. Let’s look at the

relationships among the characters as depicted on page 253.


Notice that the teacher is guiding students through the first three steps of systems analysis. The parts of the system are identified and the relationships

are described. Now try doing the last step of the process (as students are

asked to do in this example). Change just one relationship, and then discuss

how the story or plot would change. Then select a different story, and try to

use the same process.


To help build your understanding of the systems analysis process, work with

a partner or with two or three other people to identify systems within your

own content area or within units of study you now teach. Suggest ways of applying systems analysis to that content in order to help students use their

knowledge of the system in a meaningful way. Be ready to share your ideas

with the large group.

<Allow participants time to complete this task and to share their ideas. Typically

they are astounded at how much of what they teach involves systems.>



Dimension 4

System Analysis

4.6EOverhead





presented related to the process of systems analysis. See page 9 for explanations of each

of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>





<Put up Overhead 4.P1 (the major planning questions and steps).>


overarching question:

What will be done to help students use knowledge meaningfully?

By following the three steps outlined in the Teacher’s Manual, pages 255-

259, you will answer this question. Each step requires you to answer a

specific key question or provide information. There is a place on the

planning guide to record your decisions.

< Put up Overhead 4.P2 (the filled-in planning guide as it appears on page 259).

This overhead is not large enough for participants to be able to read, but putting it up

can verify for them that they are looking at the right page in their manuals. They should also be able to see it well enough to see the columns that you point out as you

discuss the steps.>

We will look at the planning guide for Dimension 4 for the sample Colorado

Unit (page 259) while considering the planning questions for this dimension.

< Put up Overhead 4.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).>

Step 1 asks you to respond to the following question:

What knowledge will students be using meaningfully? Specifically, students

will be demonstrating their understanding of or ability to . . .

You will notice that you are given a sentence stem to begin answering this

question. This stem suggests two important points to keep in mind as you

are planning. First, the stem states “students will be demonstrating their

understanding or ability to….” This is a reminder that you might be

planning for students to use either declarative knowledge, thus requiring

students to demonstrate their understanding of information , or procedural



Dimension 4

Planning

Closure

4.P1Overhead

4.P1Overhead

4.P2Overhead



knowledge, which requires students to demonstrate their ability to use a skill

or process. It is important to be clear exactly what knowledge students will

be using as they do the task and to make sure that it is important

knowledge, whether declarative or procedural, that is worth the time that

Dimension 4 tasks often take students to complete.

Second, this sentence stem reminds you that students are “demonstrating”

knowledge, implying that they have had an opportunity to learn the

knowledge that they are being asked to use. This emphasizes that these tasks

should not be designed as independent studies. Although students might need

to do some independent research, they should have had an opportunity to

acquire the understanding or ability before they are asked to use it in the task.

Take a minute to read the first column on the planning guide, page 259,

that identifies the knowledge students will be using in the Dimension 4 task

from the Colorado Unit.



Step 2 of the planning procedure (on page 256) asks, “What reasoning

process will students be using?” This is followed by a list of the reasoning

processes from Dimension 4. The “other” on the list provides a place to

indicate if students are being asked to use reasoning processes other than

those identified in Dimension 4. For example, students might be doing what

is referred to on page 193 as a “combination task.” This is a task that

requires students to use a combination (usually two) of Dimension 3reasoning processes as they complete the task.

The second step of planning suggests that students should not only be using

content knowledge meaningfully, they also should be “using” a reasoning

process. We recommend that many, although not all, tasks engage students

in these reasoning processes as a way of providing direction for the task and

ensuring that students are doing some type of thinking that is not at the

level of recalling, reiterating, or otherwise reproducing knowledge.

Again, not all tasks will focus on these reasoning processes. For a further

explanation of when they are included, please read the two paragraphs at thebottom of page 256.


The same point was made earlier in the introduction to this dimension.

When students are using procedural knowledge, such as their ability to

calculate the area of a parallelogram or to play a piano concerto, it is not



Dimension 4

Planning

4.P1Overhead



necessary to provide a focus for the task by integrating the reasoning process.

Students might simply be using their ability in a meaningful context.

However, sometimes even when the knowledge being used is procedural

knowledge, you might need to provide a context or purpose for the task by

requiring students to also use their ability while, for example, solving a

problem or analyzing a system. For instance, students might be

demonstrating their ability to display data on various types of graphs—

procedural knowledge—but the reason they need to use this procedural

knowledge might be to make a decision.

Although designing tasks around a reasoning process is not always necessary

when students are using procedural knowledge, when they are using their

understanding of important declarative knowledge, we recommend that you

select one of these reasoning processes for the focus of the task. As we have

seen, the classroom examples at the end of each section for the reasoning

processes in the Teacher’s Manual provide models for tasks that integrate thedeclarative knowledge and the reasoning processes. When these tasks were

planned, the teachers first identified what type of reasoning students would

be engaged in; then they identified what product students would create. The

emphasis then is clearly on the thinking process.

To help you with this step in the planning process, whether asking students

to use declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge, the manual provides

you with a set of questions (on page 257) that can stimulate your thinking

and guide you as you design these Dimension 4 tasks.

<Put up Overheads 4.P3 and 4.P4 (the stimulus questions).>

When trying to come up with an idea for a task or when trying to provide a

focus for an idea you already have, let the questions help you determine

which reasoning process would be best for guiding students in using the

knowledge identified in Step 1.

Notice that on the planning guide (page 259) the process of experimental

inquiry has been selected. Notice also that only one process has been selected.

The steps of the selected reasoning process should guide students through the

task. Thus, we recommend that you focus on only one process (or two

processes from Dimension 3 if you are designing a combination task). If youanalyzed many tasks, you could identify a number of types of thinking (at

least at a surface level) that students are engaged in. However, it is best to

select the one or two that will guide them as they work. For example, as you

design an experimental inquiry task, you might notice that students will also

be making some inferences, which is inductive reasoning, and identifying

some similarities and differences, which really is comparing. However, even



Dimension 4

Planning

4.P3 4.P4Overheads



though these other types of thinking are going on, we advise you to focus

students on the steps of the reasoning process—in this case, experimental

inquiry—that will guide them through the task.

< Put up Overhead 4.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).>

Finally, Step 3 asks you to describe the tasks that students will be doing. At

this point, you would take your initial ideas from Steps 1 and 2, and then

create the task that will be given to students. As you draft and revise the

task, there are several other characteristics of the task that you should

consider. Read the questions under Step 3 (on page 258) that will further

guide you as you design the Dimension 4 tasks.

<Allow time for reading. Put up Overhead 4.P5 (Step 3 questions from page 258).>

The first bullet reminds us that one of the major challenges in writing these

tasks is to make sure that students are using the identified knowledge. Thinkof a time that you assigned a major project—maybe a time from your

earliest years as a teacher—and, in hindsight, you would have to say that

students got caught up in making the product and never really used the

knowledge that you had hoped they would. For instance, they produced

colorful maps but never really used their understanding of regions. Take a

minute to think back to a situation like this from your own experience, then

share with someone at your table.

< Allow time for discussion at tables.>

Before you practice planning these types of tasks, let me make one morepoint. Notice that the second bullet provides several ideas for ways of making

sure that the task is meaningful to students. Some people may believe that in

order for tasks to be meaningful, they must mirror real life or be perceived by

students as being relevant to their future success. Actually, students can also

consider a task meaningful when it stimulates them intellectually, encourages

them to express themselves artistically, or allows them some choice and

control. These suggestions certainly are not the only methods of making tasks

meaningful, but remember that the goal is for tasks to be meaningful and

that meaningfulness can be achieved in a variety of ways.

<Put up Overhead 4.P2 again (the filled-in planning guide).>

Now take a minute to read the brief description of the task in column three

of the planning guide on page 259. You will notice that criteria for

evaluation are not included. We will discuss these criteria when we examine

the assessment section in Chapter 6.



Dimension 4

Planning

Think/Pair/Share

4.P1Overhead

4.P5Overhead

4.P2Overhead



Look again at column one in which the knowledge that is being used is

identified. At your tables, try to generate two alternative ideas for tasks that

would also require students to use the identified knowledge. For each

alternative, use a different reasoning process. Be ready to share.

<Allow time for participants to work in groups, then ask several people to share.>

Now let’s practice using this planning process for a unit you are planning or

might plan. First, identify some important declarative knowledge that you

want students to use meaningfully. Then select one or two complex

reasoning processes, and design tasks that might help students use that

knowledge meaningfully. Be ready to share your ideas.

< Allow time for participants to plan and to share a few examples with the large

group. Some may want to use the Dimension 4 planning guide they have been given. It

is a good idea to have some extras available to them. In order to become more

comfortable teaching these reasoning processes and using them in units, participantswill need multiple opportunities to study and to practice writing tasks. Depending on

your training schedule, allow as much time as possible for them to design tasks and to

share them with others.>







Dimension 4

Planning


Planning Activity

Closure



D i m e n s i o n 5




5

Dimension 5

Habits Of Mind

To the Trainer


Teacher’s Manual . Participants should understand that in this model higher

order thinking is a characteristic of the learner, not of the task. Students’

performance on any task will be influenced by certain mental habits, or

dispositions, referred to here as productive habits of mind . The dispositions

listed under the categories of Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, and Self-

Regulated Thinking can be the criteria for determining if learners areengaged in higher order thinking. No matter what the task, some emphasis

can be placed on helping students to develop these habits.

The process of helping students to develop productive habits of mind may

take some time away from academic content. However, when students

develop and use these habits, their learning of academic content is enhanced

and they learn more efficiently and effectively. These habits are also useful in

learning situations throughout life. Productive habits of mind of the type

identified in Dimensions of Learning are the mark of successful learners in

any context.


• that higher order thinking is a characteristic of the learner, not of the

task;

• that certain mental habits—habits of mind—characterize higher order

thinking and that teachers can help students to develop these habits;





Habits of Mind

Of course, many students develop productive mental habits as a result of

influences at home. However, because these habits significantly influence

student learning, it is also important to teach and reinforce them at school.

<In place of the above activity, you might have participants work in pairs to prepare

to “write a letter of recommendation” for a student to enter college. Ask them to list the student’s characteristics that they would include in the letter and then to share

their list with another pair. Next, ask participants to write the name of a teacher in

their school who specifically teaches and assesses that characteristic.

Most participants will list characteristics like sticks to a task, is honest, and works

accurately. They also typically will identify teachers who value these characteristics

but may not be sure who teaches and assesses them. In your discussion, make the point

that although we value these characteristics, often we do not directly teach and assess

them. Dimension 5 suggests that we should consider teaching these skills, and even

assessing them, by giving feedback and reinforcement to students who exhibit them.>

It is important to remember that although the list of mental habits on page

262 is considered important in much of the educational literature, the list is

not sacred. As explained in the introduction, we encourage you to modify

the list, if necessary, to match your own perspective on mental habits. Some

teachers have made changes, additions, and deletions to this list; some have

encouraged students to create their own individualized lists of important

mental habits. Further, a district may prefer teachers to use its own list of

the characteristics of “lifelong learners” instead of the habits of mind listed

in Dimensions of Learning. Recommendations in the Teacher’s Manual for

helping students to develop habits of mind also apply to these customizedindividual or district lists.

As explained in the introduction to this dimension, it should be noted that

the word habits might be misleading. There are instances when the use of a

particular habit is critical, but there are other situations in which a

particular habit may not be appropriate or useful. For example, you probably

do not want to restrain impulsivity while brainstorming, and it could be

dangerous to seek clarity if you smell smoke and someone yells “Fire!” Can

you think of other situations in which specific habits might not be useful or

needed?

< Allow time for sharing.>

To maximize the chance that all students develop productive habits of mind,

we recommend that these habits be explicitly and overtly introduced,

defined, taught, practiced, and reinforced. It is not enough to model them

and then hope that students use them and appreciate their importance.

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5




“Happy Gram” written by a first-grader to a student teacher, Mrs.

McDermott, during their class party the day the student teacher was

to leave.


It is clear that the students were beginning to understand that these habits

are positive and important.

Another teacher asked students to set goals based on the list of habits and to

draw pictures of what achieving those goals might look like. One example of

these pictures is in the margin on page 265. Here are several others.

< Put up Overheads 5.4 through 5.8.>

One of the suggestions for helping students to understand the habits of

mind is to share personal anecdotes with them. This takes some planning

and reflection. Let’s try it.

First, identify one of the habits in any of the categories (critical, creative, or

self-regulated thinking) that is a strong one for you and that has been

beneficial; or, identify one that is weak or missing, the absence or weakness

of which has been costly or a problem. Try to think of an example of a time

you used the habit or would have benefited if you had. Make sure your

example is one you would feel comfortable sharing with students. Be very

specific. This is good practice for the classroom. Share your example with

one or two other people around you.

<Share a personal example to model the activity. Allow several minutes for

participants to read and share their examples. Ask for questions, reactions, and an

example or two.>

Once students understand the habits and have a sense of their benefit or

importance, you can begin to help them develop strategies for effectively

using them. The Teacher’s Manual includes several suggestions (pages 265-

266) for helping students identify and develop strategies related to the

habits of mind.

One suggestion is to demonstrate a strategy by using a think-aloud. I’ll do

this now using the PMI strategy from Edward de Bono’s CoRT program.

(The citation for this program is on page 266 of the Teacher’s Manual .) This

strategy encourages open mindedness.

PMI stands for plus, minus, and interesting . When an issue or suggestion

comes up about which you might feel close-minded, you can discipline

yourself to go through the PMI process. That is, first identify something


Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.3Overhead

5.4 5.5

5.75.6 5.8

Overheads

Habits of Mind




about the subject that is a “plus,” or positive idea, then something that is a

“minus,” or negative idea, and then something that is “interesting” about

the subject. So, if I were considering, for example, the suggestion that

students wear school uniforms, I would do the following.

< Do a think-aloud with this issue or one that is relevant to your audience.>

“Let’s see. A ‘plus’ idea about school uniforms is that it would

take some of the social pressure off of students. A ‘negative’ idea

about school uniforms is that they don’t allow students to

express their individuality. It might be ‘interesting’ to see if

students would start looking for other ways to individualize

their appearance.”

Now I’d like you to try this. Here’s a topic for you to practice with:

Marriage licenses should be issued with a five-year expiration date; the

license would have to be renewed by both parties to be valid.

< Allow a few minutes for participants to list a plus, a minus, and, finally, an

interesting idea. Elicit a few responses each for P, M, and I. Provide enough time for

this activity inasmuch as the purpose of the PMI strategy is to consider all sides long

enough to generate ideas and write them down. In fact, de Bono suggests going back

and allowing additional time for a second round of P, M, and I. Often the best ideas

come after some reflection.>

Another recommendation is to have students share strategies that they use to

foster the habits. Sometimes this involves asking students to share their

strategies. Other times it requires you to interact with students to help thembecome aware of strategies that they have used but may not be conscious of

using.

For example, if you notice a student restraining herself from shouting out

during class (e.g., you see her halfway out of her seat, red in the face, lips

pursed; then she suddenly sits down, relaxes, and waits for her turn before

speaking), you might acknowledge that you noticed that she restrained

impulsivity and ask her to reflect on the thoughts and feelings that helped

her to restrain herself in this instance. She might say that she noticed she

was out of her seat, remembered being embarrassed the last time she spokeout without thinking, and reminded herself that she had promised herself to

think before she speaks. You then might make explicit for her and for her

classmates the strategy she used: She became aware of what she was doing,

recalled the negative consequences she had suffered when she did the same

thing in the past, and reminded herself of her decision to change this

behavior.

Individual Task

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

Habits of Mind



209Trainer’s Manual Habits of Mind

With a partner, take a few minutes to look over the ways to help students

identify and develop personal strategies. These are on pages 265-266. Divide

them between you, skim them, and then share the information with your

partner.

< Allow time for reading and sharing.>

<Put up Overhead 5.1 again.>

The third set of suggestions for helping students develop productive habits

of mind addresses the importance of creating a culture that encourages the

development and use of the habits of mind. Students will not learn to plan,

for example, if teachers do not give them long-term tasks. Similarly, it is

unlikely that they will learn to generate new ways of viewing a situation

that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions if their teachers only

accept one view and one right way of doing or seeing something. Therefore,

this section discusses ways in which to create a culture that nurtures andencourages the development of productive habits of mind.

Creating this kind of culture includes modeling the habits, displaying

posters or other representations of them, and explicitly focusing on them in

specific units or tasks. As explained on page 267, creating this culture does

not mean creating completely new activities. It often means simply

integrating the habits into daily routines and activities. Three suggestions

for doing this are provided on pages 267-268. Let’s consider each briefly.


<After you’ve reviewed Overhead 5.9, put up Overhead O.16 again. Then ask the following questions and elicit responses from the whole group after each question.>

1. How does debate help students develop the critical thinking habits

of mind?

<If participants have been solving structured academic problems throughout the training,

pose the following questions. If not, ask participants to solve a structured academic

problem (see Appendix B for sample problems), and then pose the questions.>

2. How does solving these kinds of problems provide opportunities for

students to become more aware of and develop the habits of creative

thinking?

3. How does having students set goals relate to the awareness and

development of the mental habits that exemplify self-regulated

thinking?

< Allow time for participants to identify habits of mind from each cluster that could

be reinforced and emphasized during these activities.>

Think/Pair/Share


Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.1Overhead

5.9Overhead

O.16Overhead



210 Trainer’s Manual Habits of Mind

In addition to integrating habits into these daily routines and activities, you

will find that long-term tasks that require students to use knowledge

meaningfully, as recommended in Dimension 4, also provide opportunities

for reinforcing these habits of mind. When engaged in these tasks, students

have a chance to plan, be clear, push the limits of their knowledge and

abilities, use necessary resources, persevere, generate and maintain standards,

and so forth.

The activities listed above (debate, solving academic problems, and setting

goals), as well as Dimension 4 tasks, are ongoing activities that can offer you

opportunities to communicate to students the importance of becoming

critical, creative, and self-regulated thinkers; these activities can also give

students opportunities to develop and practice the habits involved in each

type of thinking. The Teacher’s Manual provides other suggestions for

creating this culture. Take a couple of minutes to scan these ideas on pages

268 and 269.

< Put up Overhead 5.1 again.>

The fourth set of suggestions for helping students to develop productive

habits of mind (page 269) gives ideas for providing positive reinforcement to

students who exhibit the habits of mind. Reinforcing the habits, whether

informally or formally, communicates to students and parents that these

habits are valued and important.

Reinforcement may be as informal as telling a student who asks you to

repeat directions that you noticed that she sought clarity or telling a studentwho usually gives up when he doesn’t immediately get an answer that you

noticed that he persevered this time. Positive reinforcement also might be

more formal.


Some districts have replaced sections of their report cards called “study

habits” or “work habits” with sections that indicate their perceptions of

students’ strengths and weaknesses related to the habits of mind. Take a

couple of minutes to skim the strategies on pages 269-270 for positively

reinforcing the habits of mind.< Allow time for reading.>

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.1Overhead

5.10Overhead



211Trainer’s Manual Habits of Mind

< Put on Overhead 5.2 again.>

A major portion of the chapter on Dimension 5 is a resource for teachers

who are using the specific habits listed in this model. This section includes

• explanations of each habit,• examples of situations in which it might be beneficial to have each

habit, and

• examples of strategies recommended by people who exhibit each habit.


To become familiar with this section, as well as some of the specific habits,

we’re going to spend a few minutes reading and sharing about some of the

information by using a jigsaw process.

First, get into groups of three. Within your groups, choose an A, a B, and aC. A’s will focus on critical thinking; B’s on creative thinking; and C’s on

self-regulated thinking. Your job is to select one of the habits from your

category to major in, so to speak.


You will read (1) the explanation of that habit, (2) the examples of situations

in which it might be beneficial, (3) one or more of the strategies

recommended by people who exhibit the habit, and (4) one or more of the

classroom examples for your category from the selection on pages 270-273.

Notice how the teacher deals with the habit or habits of mind. What is yourreaction to his or her ideas? What else might be done? When everyone in

your group has finished, share the information, the classroom examples, and

your reactions to the examples. Then, if time permits, see if your group can

generate examples of situations in which any of the habits has been

beneficial or share strategies developed from your own experiences.

What comments or questions do you have about Dimension 5 or about this

section of the manual?

< Allow about 15-20 minutes for the jigsaw and any comments or questions from the

large group following the jigsaw.>

Jigsaw

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.2Overhead

5.11Overhead

5.12Overhead




Planning Activity

Closure

Planning

< Allow time for participants to study the planning guide.>

What questions or comments do you have about the planning guide or any

of the entries?

< Allow time for questions and comments.>

Now, working alone or with one or two others, identify a unit you are

planning or might plan in the future. What general and/or specific goals

and/or concerns might you have? Identify at least one productive habit of

mind you might focus on to address that goal or concern. Describe what you

might do.

< Allow time for participants to work and then to share as a large group.>



presented related to Dimension 5. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formats

for completing this portion of the training.>

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5



P u t t i n g I t A l l T o g e t h e r



Putting It All Together


6


This section of the training covers Chapter 6 of the Dimensions of Learning

Teacher’s Manual . After participants have explored each dimension in some

depth, they may perceive the model as being a series of fragmented pieces.The goal of this part of the training is to pull these “pieces” back together.


• that planning units of study is rarely a linear process; although it is

important to ask the key planning questions for each dimension, the

sequence of planning will vary greatly from person to person and

from unit to unit;

• that after setting goals for students in each dimension, teachers must

sequence instruction;

• that assessing each dimension of learning requires selecting from

among different types of assessment tools, such as forced-choice

items, essay questions, performance tasks and portfolios, teacher

observations, and student self-assessments;

• that assessment requires teachers to use specified criteria in order to

make judgments about students’ levels of performance;

• that grading is not a process of compiling scores but a process of

determining how well students have demonstrated their knowledge;

• that teacher-student conferences provide important opportunities for

communication, clarification, and support that can enhance students’

learning;

• how to sequence instruction; and

• how to assess and keep records of students’ performance.





<This chapter of the Teacher’s Manual contains a great deal of information.

Whenever possible, have participants read through Chapter 6, pages 303-328, before

coming to the training session.>


This final chapter of the Teacher’s Manual will help you to pull together the

dimensions that we have been examining separately. We will take a look at

the entire planning process as a unified whole and examine issues and

decisions to consider as you plan and implement curriculum units.


A word of caution at this point. Three of the five sections in this chapter—

Content, Sequencing Instruction, and Conferences—cover information with

which you probably are comfortable. However, two of the sections—

Assessment and Grading—make recommendations that you might perceiveas a significant departure from what you currently do as you assess and grade

students. Keep in mind that these are only recommendations; they do not

have to be followed in order to use the Dimensions of Learning model to

plan and implement curriculum units. These recommendations are included

because they are useful for schools and districts that are working with

standards and benchmarks.

Let’s begin by becoming familiar with the explanations and recommendations

in the first section of this chapter, Content (pages 303-309). This section

includes a review of the planning questions for each dimension as well as

suggestions for sequencing these questions as you plan the content for acurriculum unit. First, turn to pages 304-305, and review the entire list of

planning questions, which includes one set for each dimension.

< Allow time for participants to review the questions.>

Listing the questions like this allows you to review them together. However,

we do not mean to imply that you need to plan for each dimension in this

order. Turn to page 306, where you will see explanations of three commonly

used models for planning. Each of these models describes a different order in

which you might plan for the dimensions. Let’s look at these models on

pages 306-309.

We are going to explore these sections by using a jigsaw strategy. Organize

yourselves into groups of three, and assign someone to be an A, someone to

be a B, and someone to be a C. As we have done earlier in this training, each

of you will be given a section to read and then will be expected to share

information from your section with the other two members of your group.

O.3Overhead

6.1Overhead

Jigsaw






< Allow time for participants to organize into groups and to assign letters.>


If you are an A, read the section entitled “Model 1: Focus on Knowledge,”

starting on page 306. If you are a B, read “Model 2: Focus on Issues,”starting on page 307. If you are a C, read “Model 3: Focus on Student

Exploration,” starting on page 308. When your group is ready, you may

begin to share the information in your group.


You will notice that the order in which you plan for each dimension implies

where you want students to focus: on the knowledge, on issues, or on

exploration. Think a minute about these three models, and select the one that

best matches where you typically want students to focus. In other words, if

you had to select your preferred model right now, which of the three best

describes how you would plan? Why do you think you prefer that model?

<Take several answers.>

When you plan using the Dimensions of Learning model, you probably will

find that at different times and for different units you will plan in different

ways. Wherever you begin, however, it is important to know where you want

to focus your unit and to ask yourself the planning questions for each dimension.

Let’s skip the Assessment and Grading sections of the chapter for now and

look instead at the Sequencing Instruction section, which begins on page

322. All of the planning up to this point has been aimed at carefullyidentifying the knowledge that students will be learning and the experiences

that they will have in order to learn this knowledge. Before implementing

your unit, however, you also may want to decide how to sequence these

planned experiences. The order in which you plan for each dimension does

not necessarily indicate how you will sequence your instructional lessons.

Just because you planned Dimension 4 first, for example, does not mean that

students will be presented with Dimension 4 tasks at the beginning of the unit.

To understand the recommendations in this section, we first need to

understand the two types of classes that are recommended: presentation

classes and workshop classes. Take a couple of minutes to read thedescriptions of these two types of classes on pages 322-324.


Those of you who are accustomed to workshop classes commonly used in the

language arts probably found these descriptions to be very familiar. On pages

324-326, there are four suggested questions, which can guide you through

6.2Overhead





the decisions you need to make about the sequence of presentation and

workshop classes.


The first question focuses you on the decisions you made in Dimensions 1and 5. This reminds you to decide when you will use the activities and

strategies identified on the planning guides for these dimensions.

The second, third, and fourth questions require you to determine how many

presentation and workshop classes you will need and how you will integrate

these classes. Take a minute to examine the sequence of classes for the

Colorado Unit (Figure 6.9, page 326).


You will notice that the early part of the unit includes mainly presentation

classes. Gradually, workshop classes are added, until, finally, they dominate

the end of the unit. As explained, this is a common and recommended flow

of classes: more presentation classes at the beginning of the unit and more

workshop classes at the end of the unit. This implies that students are

increasingly using knowledge during workshop classes that they are acquiring

in presentation classes.

In order to get a clear picture of what is happening during these workshop

classes, it is important to understand the role of the teacher. In the description

of workshop classes on page 324, the section entitled The Activity Period

explains that while students are working on their projects, the teacher’s primaryrole is to coach students as they work and to have conferences with students.

The fifth section of this chapter, Conferences (pages 327-328), provides a

further explanation of this role. Take a minute to read this section now.


Now, I’d like you to form small groups by getting together with one or

two other people. One member of the group should be designated as the

“teacher”; the others are the “students.” Teachers, your job is to have a brief

conference with your students. Let’s make this conference have an “assessment

focus,” as described on page 328. Try to determine how well the studentsthink they have been learning the information presented in this workshop,

and then provide them with feedback on how well you think they have been

doing. You might not know each other well, so you may need to role-play

this activity. Whatever the case, be sure to identify the criteria you and the

students are using as you assess their performance and as they self-assess their

own performance.

6.3Overhead

6.4Overhead







Whether you were really doing this or doing this as a simulation through

role-play, what were some of the things you discovered by talking together

in your pair or small group? Were there any surprises? Are these the kinds of

things you discover when you have conferences with students?

<Take answers from several people.>

One reason that it is recommended that you plan to have workshop classes

during your unit is because they provide you with the opportunity to have

conferences with students. There is much you will find out about how well

students are learning and you will have an opportunity to give

individualized feedback and even instruction if you have one-on-one

conversations with individual students or interactions with small groups of

students. These conferences can be a major source of data that you can use to

assess students and to improve instruction.

Let’s spend some time now looking at the bigger picture of assessment and

grading. As mentioned earlier, some of the recommendations in these

sections might be fairly new to you. One last time, I am going to ask you to

take time to read. This time, read these two sections of Chapter 6 on pages

309-322. You need to read this all the way through in order to see the big

picture. We will then explore some parts of these sections in more depth.

<If participants have read these two sections before the training session, you can

modify the directions in the previous paragraph by asking them to review what they

have previously read. Although these two sections include quite a few pages, there aremany figures embedded in the text and it should not take them too long to read these

sections. Encourage participants to sit back, get comfortable, and take the opportunity

to read and reflect. It is critical that they understand the flow of the information

presented. Allow sufficient time for participants to complete the reading.>

As explained in these sections, the focus of assessment and grading is on

Dimensions 2, 3, 4, and 5. Let’s look at some of the recommendations for

assessment. It probably did not surprise you that different knowledge

requires different types of assessment. Take a look at Figure 6.1 on page 311.


Using the recommendations in the figure for types of assessment tools that

are used with specific types of knowledge, answer the following questions:

< Ask the questions below, and then call on different people for the answers.>

Individual Task


6.5Overhead





What type of assessment tool is best if I want to find out if students

• know what happened at the battle of Gettysburg?

<Answer: Any of the types of assessments can be used.>

• understand how health issues influence communities, families, andindividuals?

< Answer: Any type of assessment can be used, except forced choice.>

• can add whole numbers?

< Answer: Any of the types of assessment can be used.>

• tend to be clear and seek clarity?

< Answer: Any of the types of assessment can be used, except forced choice.>

Although some people prefer performance tasks and portfolios and others

prefer to rely on teacher observations and student self-assessments, it isimportant to consider all of the types of assessment techniques as you

determine which will provide you with the data you need to make

judgments about how students are doing.

On page 314, you read about the important role of teacher judgment in

determining students’ levels of performance. This perspective is based on the

belief that assessment cannot be seen as a process of compiling scores or

calculating averages. The planning process that has been recommended in

this manual emphasizes that we should help students not only acquire

knowledge, but extend, refine, and use knowledge meaningfully. Thisimplies that our goal is to help students increase their understanding of

declarative knowledge and to develop their proficiency in using procedural

knowledge. If, in fact, this is our goal, then we must assess students’

understanding and proficiency. This requires teachers to gather as much

evidence as possible and then to make judgments about students’ levels of

understanding and proficiency. These judgments are based on identified

criteria, as shown in the sample rubrics. Teachers apply these criteria, to the

extent possible, and make judgments about students’ levels of learning.

Our level of commitment to assessing students’ learning is demonstrated in

how we give grades. The grading section of this chapter recommends thatwe make a significant commitment to assessment by assigning and recording

grades that indicate students’ knowledge. What was your reaction to the

sample page from the grade book on page 318?






< Put up Overhead 6.6. Encourage comments and questions about the grade book, but

structure this discussion by putting up the Perspective Examination Matrix, Overhead

3.8E (from the section on analyzing perspectives, Dimension 3). Each time a comment

is made, refer to the matrix in order to reinforce participants who offer clear reasons

for their perspectives. When no reasons are offered for expressed opinions, encourage

participants to provide reasons. Some people will react by saying that it looks like too

much work. Others will probably support the grade book format either because they

already keep grades in this way or because they believe that teachers should. Others

may notice that keeping grades this way requires schools or districts to identify

benchmarks that could be used to organize grades in this way.>

As stated at the beginning of the training for Chapter 6, the

recommendations made in this chapter are not essential to implementing the

Dimensions of Learning model. Assessing and grading in the ways that are

suggested here represent a major commitment to using Dimensions of

Learning to maintain a focus on learning and knowledge as you plancurriculum, instruction, and assessment.

This is a good way to close this training for Dimensions of Learning.


Remember that the Dimensions of Learning model can be used in many

different ways. It is a model of learning that can influence instruction, staff

development, curriculum planning, and every part of a school system. No

matter how it is used, keep in mind that the authors hope that it will always

be seen as a way to study learning. If we increase our understanding of learning, then we make better decisions in districts, schools, and classrooms.



presented. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formats for completing this

portion of the training.>

O.20Overhead

Closure

3.8EOverhead

6.6Overhead



H a n d o u t s



A r e t h e r e a n y g o a l s o r

c o n c e r n s r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t s ’

a t t i t u d e s a n d p e r c e

p t i o n s

• i n g e n e r a l ?

• r e l a t e d t o t h i s s p e c i f i c u n i t ?

W h

a t w i l l b e d o n e t o a d d r e s s t h e s e g

o a l s o r c o n c e r n s ?

S p e c i f i c a l l y , w i l l a n y t h i n g b e

d o n e t o h e l p s t u d

e n t s …

C l a s s r o o m C l i m

a t e

❏

f e e l a c c e p t e d b y

t e a c h e r s a n d p e e r s ?

❏

e x p e r i e n c e a s e n s e o f

c o m f o r t a n d o r d e r ?

C l a s s r o o m T a s

k s

❏

p e r c e i v e t a s k s

a s

v a l u a b l e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g ?

❏

b e l i e v e t h e y h a v e

t h e a b i l i t y a n d

r e s o u r c e s

t o c o m p l e t e t a s k s ?

❏

u n d e r s t a n d a n

d b e

c l e a r a b o u t t a s k s ?

D e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b e d o n e .

D i m e n s i o n 1 P l a n n i n g G u i d e



W h a t d e c l a r a t i v e k n o w l e d g e

w i l l s t u d e n t s b e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

a c q u i r i n g a n d i n t e g

r a t i n g ?

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s u n i t ,

s t u d e n t s

w i l l k n o w o r u n d e r s t a n

d …

W h a t e x p e r i e n c e

s

o r a c t i v i t i e s w i l l b

e

u s e d t o h e l p s t u d e n

t s

a c q u i r e a n d i n t e g r a t e

t h i s k n o w l e d g e ?

W h a t s t r a t e g i e s w i l l

b e u s e d t o h e l p s t u d e n t s

c o n s t r u c t m e a n i n g

f o r , o r g a n i z e , a n d / o r

s t o r e t h i s k n o w l e d g e ?

D e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b e d o

n e .

D i m e n s i o n 2 ,

D e c

l a r a t i v e K n o w l e d g e P l a

n n i n g G u i d e



W h a t w i l l b e d o n e t o

h e l p s t u d e n t s c o n s t r u c t

m o d e l s f o r , s h

a p e , a n d

i n t e r n a l i z e t h e

k n o w l e d g e ?


W h a t p r o c e d u r a l k n o w l e d g e

w i l l s t u d e n t s b e i n t h e p

r o c e s s o f

a c q u i r i n g a n d i n t e g

r a t i n g ?

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s u n i t , s

t u d e n t s w i l l

b e a b l e t o …

D i m e n s i o n 2 ,

P r o c e d u r a l K n o w l e d g e P l a

n n i n g G u i d e



W h a t k n o w l e d g e w i l l s t u d e n t s b e

e x t e n d i n g a n d r e f i n

i n g ?

S p e c i f i c a l l y ,

t h e y w i l l b e e x t e n d i n g

a n d r e f i n i n g t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f …

W h a t r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s

w i l l s t u d e n t s b e u s i n g ?

❏

C o m p a r i n g

❏

C l a s s i f y i n g

❏

A b s t r a c t i n g

❏

I n d u c t i v e R e a

s o n i n g

❏

D e d u c t i v e R e a s o n i n g

❏

C o n s t r u c t i n g

S u p p o r t

❏

A n a l y z i n g E r r o r s

❏

A n a l y z i n g P e

r s p e c t i v e s

❏

O t h e r_______

__________



e x t e n d i n g a n d r e f i n

i n g ?



a n d r e f i n i n g t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f …



❏

C o m p a r i n g

❏


❏


❏

I n d u c t i v e R e a

s o n i n g

❏

D e d u c t i v e R e a s o n i n g

❏

C o n s t r u c t i n g

S u p p o r t

❏


❏

A n a l y z i n g P e

r s p e c t i v e s

❏

O t h e r_______

__________






u s i n g m e a n i n g f u l l y ?


t h e y w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n d a b i l i t y t o …


w i l l t h e y b e u s i n g ?

❏

O t h e r__________________


❏

D e c i s i o n M a k i n g

( s e l e c t i n g f r o m s e e m i n g l y

e q u a l a l t e r n a t i v e s o r

e x a m i n i n g

t h e d e c i s i o n s o f o t h e

r s )

❏

P r o b l e m S

o l v i n g

( s e e k i n g t o a c h i e v e a g o a l b y

o v e r c o m i n g c o n s t r a i n t s o r

l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s )

❏

I n v e n t i o n

( c r e a t i n g s o m e t h i n g t o m e e t a

n e e d o r i m p r o v e o n

a s i t u a t i o n )

❏

E x p e r i m e n t a l I n q u i r y

( g e n e r a t i n g a n e x p l a

n a t i o n

f o r a p h e n o m e n o n a

n d

t e s t i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n )

❏

I n v e s t i g a t i o n

( r e s o l v i n g c o n f u s i o n s o r

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o a

h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t , a h y

p o t h e t i c a l

p a s t o r f u t u r e e v e n t ,

o r t o t h e

d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

s o m e t h i n g )

❏

S y s t e m s A n a l y

s i s

( a n a l y z i n g t h e p a r t s

o f a

s y s t e m a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t )





C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g

❏

b e a c c u r a t e a n

d s e e k a c c u r a c y ?

❏

b e c l e a r a n d s e e k c l a r i t y ?

❏

m a i n t a i n a n o p

e n m i n d ?

❏

r e s t r a i n i m p u l s i v i t y ?

❏

t a k e a p o s i t i o n

w h e n t h e

s i t u a t i o n w a r r a

n t s i t ?

❏

r e s p o n d a p p r o

p r i a t e l y t o o t h e r s ’

f e e l i n g s a n d l e v e l o f k n o w l e d g e ?

C r e a t i v e T h i n k i n g

❏

p e r s e v e r e ?

❏

p u s h t h e l i m i t s o f t h e i r

k n o w l e d g e a n d a b i l i t i e s ?

❏

g e n e r a t e ,

t r u s t , a n d m a i n t a i n

t h e i r o w n s t a n d a r d s o f e v a l u a t i o n ?

❏

g e n e r a t e n e w w a y s o f v i e w i n g a

s i t u a t i o n o u t s i d

e t h e b o u n d a r i e s

o f s t a n d a r d c o n v e n t i o n s ?

S e l f - R e g u l a t e d

T h i n k i n g

❏

m o n i t o r t h e i r t h

i n k i n g ?

❏

p l a n a p p r o p r i a

t e l y ?

❏

i d e n t i f y n e c e s s a r y r e s o u r c e s ?

❏

r e s p o n d a p p r o

p r i a t e l y t o f e e d b a c k ?

❏

e v a l u a t e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r a c t i o n s ?

A r e t h e r e a n y g o a l s o r

c o n c e r n s

r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t s ’ h a

b i t s o f m i n d



S p e c i f i c a l l y , w i l l

a n y t h i n g b e

d o n e t o h e l p s t u d

e n t s …

W h a t w i l l b e d o n e t o a d d r e s s t h e s e g o a l s o r c o n c e r n s ?




The Better Mousetrap“In the early part of the 20th Century, the Animal Trap Company of America sold a five-cent mousetrap. For years, the president of

the company, Chester M. Woolworth, had tried to improve it, andin 1928 he succeeded.

Yet, he couldn’t sell it. One problem was that it sold for twelvecents—almost two and one-half times as much as its predecessor. Another is explained at page 12 by A. Kelley et al. in Venture Capital , a book published by the Management Institute of Boston

College (2nd ed. 1973):Mr. Woolworth failed to look carefully at the way theaverage family used a mousetrap. The mousetrap wasnormally purchased by the husband who set the trap at night after the children were in bed. In the morning, thehusband hurried off to work leaving the dead mouse in the

trap. The housewife did not want a dead mouse around allday so she would pick up the trap and dispose of themouse and the trap.

Unfortunately for Mr. Woolworth, the new trap looked tooexpensive to throw away. So, the wife was forced toremove the mouse and clean the trap. Obviously, the

average housewife felt much happier with the old five-cent trap which could be thrown away. While the husband might buy the improved trap, the wife did not want it to be used.Thus, sales of the improved mousetrap were very low.”

From: Field, T. G., Jr. (1996) “So You Have An Idea.”Franklin Pierce Law Center. Http://www.fplc.edu/tfield/idea.htm.

Invention



Patented November 18, 1879221,855

UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE

Improvement In Fire Escapes

Specification forming part of LettersPatent, dated November 18, 1879

Application filed March 26, 1879

Serial No. 660,248

Improvement in Fire Escapes

This invention relates to an improved fire escape or safety

device, by which a person may safely jump out of a

window of a burning building from any height, and land,

without injury and without the least damage, on the

ground; and it consists of a parachute attached, in suitablemanner, to the upper part of the body, in a combination

with overshoes having elastic bottom pads of suitable

thickness to take up the concussion with the ground.

Invention



A p p e n d i x e s / R e f e r e n c e s




Appendix A

Appendix A: Other Examples

of Modeling the Model

Below are examples of training activities for each of the five dimensions that

model the Dimensions of Learning model. After you have gained experience

and confidence in training, substitute your own examples.

Dimension 1

It is important to help participants feel welcome and accepted so that they

focus their energy on the training and are willing to openly share

experiences. The first hour or so of training is often when participants form

attitudes and perceptions that carry over into the remainder of the training.Therefore, you must begin to help participants establish positive attitudes

and perceptions from the opening minutes of the session. There are several

ways for you to do this:

• Personally greet as many participants as possible.

• Begin the training with brief warm-up activities.

• Ask participants to tell people at their tables about themselves,

emphasizing that they should be sure to include one thing that

most people don’t know about them.

• Provide each person with a list of interesting experiences (e.g.,

serving on a jury, going on a cruise, seeing a famous musician

perform, traveling overseas). Have participants find other people

in the room who have had one of the experiences and ask them

to sign their name next to the experiences they’ve had.




Appendix A

• As the training proceeds, acknowledge times when people might

feel frustrated or confused. Allow some discussion of the issue at

hand to reduce psychological blocks.

Dimension 2

Many of the activities for acquiring and integrating knowledge can be used

throughout the training to enhance participants’ understanding of the

model. For example:

• From time to time during the training, ask participants to develop

graphic organizers to represent what they have learned. For instance,

ask them to represent on paper the main issues presented in

Dimension 1 without using words.

• At the beginning of an especially difficult section, use the K-W-L strategy. (See the Teacher’s Manual , pages 55-56, for an

explanation of this strategy.)

• At selected points in the training after Dimension 2 has been

presented, have participants store some of the declarative

information they have learned using one of the techniques they

learned in the section on Dimension 2. (See pages 73-80 in the

Teacher’s Manual for storing techniques.)

Dimension 3

Activities from Dimension 3 can be used to extend and refine participants’

knowledge throughout the training. For example:

• When presenting important parts of the training, ask participants to

make comparisons. (See page 118 in the Teacher’s Manual for the

model for the process of comparing.) For example, you might ask

participants to compare declarative and procedural knowledge.

• Assign groups to compare staff development programs (such as those

focused on learning styles and cooperative learning) in terms of theextent to which they reflect the different aspects of the Dimensions

of Learning model.

• Have participants analyze their perspectives on educational issues

(such as the value of high school competency examinations) as they

naturally arise during training. (See pages 179-180 in the Teacher’s

Manual for the model for the process of analyzing perspectives.)




Appendix A

• Ask participants to use inductive reasoning to infer conclusions about

curriculum, instruction, or assessment based on their experiences with

the Dimensions of Learning model. (See pages 139-140 in the

Teacher’s Manual for the model for the process of inductive reasoning.)

Dimension 4

Using the Dimensions of Learning model to plan a unit of instruction is

participants’ primary activity for using knowledge meaningfully. In assisting

participants with this activity, the trainer should do the following:

• Point out that when teachers work on curriculum in districts, this

will be the activity for meaningfully using the knowledge that they

have learned relative to the Dimensions of Learning model.

• As participants engage in some of the tasks for the Dimension 4

processes, hold brief conferences to model conferencing during

workshop classes. (See pages 327-328 in the Teacher’s Manual for

descriptions of how conferencing may be used.)

Dimension 5

The use of effective habits of mind—critical, creative, and self-regulated

thinking—should be supported by the trainer throughout the trainingexperience:

• Note instances of participants’ use of the productive habits of mind,

and point them out as they occur.

• Periodically stop the training, and have participants review their own

use of important habits of mind. See Overheads O.17, O.18, and

O.19 in this manual for examples of self-assessment questions for the

habits of mind.




Appendix B

Appendix B:

Structured Problems

The seven problems described on the following pages can be

used as structured problems as suggested in the introduction

to this manual. Each takes no more than five minutes to

complete. The problems are tricky because they tend to

prompt people to make certain assumptions that, if followed,

would make the problems impossible to solve. Once people

think “outside” of their assumptions, the problems are

relatively easy. These problems have an “aha!” quality that

makes them fun to solve.

Each problem includes a statement of the assumption that

makes the problem tricky to solve, the correct answer to the

problem, and, if appropriate, a graphic representation of the

solution to the problem.



Problem #1

You have three steaks that you want to cook on a grill. Each steak takes

five minutes to cook on each side. You have a grill that can cook only

two steaks at a time. What is the shortest amount of time that it willtake to cook all three steaks?

Assumption: Immediately after one side of a steak is cooked, the other

side must be cooked.

Answer: 15 minutes

#1

A

A

C

C

B

B

#2

5 minutessteaks A, B, C

grill positions #1, #2

5 minutes

5 minutes

15 minutesTOTAL:



Problem #2

You have four separate chains (A, B, C, D), each with three links (see Figure A

below). You want to connect them so that you have one continuous chain with

no clasp (see Figure B). The jeweler tells you that it will cost $2 to open a link

and $3 to close a link. How can you combine the four chains in such a way as toobtain one continuous chain and spend only $15?

Assumption: Each chain must be linked to the end of another chain.

Answer: Use the three links in one chain (e.g., chain D) as the links or fasteners

for the other three chains.

A CA1 C1

A2 C2

A3 C3

B1 B1 B1

BStep #2:

D1 D2

D3

A

A1

A2

A3

B1

B2

B3

C1

C2

C3

B C DStep #1:

D1

D2

D3

Figure B

A B C D

Figure A



Problem #3

You have 24 quarters, one of which is defective and weighs more than

the others. You also have a balance score (see figure below), which will

tell you which of two stacks of coins is heavier. It will not provide you

with information about their actual weight. How can you identify the

heavy coin using the balance scale only three times?

Assumption: You must break the pile of coins into two groups to use

the balance scale.

Answer: First break the 24 coins into three piles of 8 coins. Put two

piles on a balance scale. If these balance, then the heavy coin is in the

third pile of 8. If they do not balance, then the heavy coin is in the pile

of 8 that is heaviest on the balance scale. Next, break the heavy pile

into three piles (3, 3, 2). Place the two piles of 3 coins on the balance

scale. If they balance, the heavy coin is in the pile of 2 coins. If they

don’t, then the heavy coin is in the pile of 3 coins that is heaviest on

the scale. Either break the pile of 3 coins in three piles (1, 1, 1), or

break the pile of 2 coins into two piles (1, 1) and use the scale for a

third time.



Problem #4

Arrange 10 dots so that they form five straights rows of four dots each.

Assumption: A dot cannot be in more than one row, and rows must be

parallel.

Answer:

Problem #5

You have 10 glasses, 5 of which are filled with chocolate milk and 5 of

which are empty (see Figure A). Moving only 2 glasses, arrange the

glasses so they alternate between those containing chocolate milk and

those that are empty (see Figure B).

Assumption: When you move a glass, you change its position only.

Answer: Empty the milk in glass #2 into glass #9, and empty the milkin glass #4 into glass #7.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure BFigure A



Problem #6

Using six wooden matches, construct four equilateral triangles (equal sides

and equal angles). Every triangle must be connected to every other triangle.

Assumption: The figure must be two-dimensional.

Answer: Construct a three-dimensional figure.

Problem #7

Divide the area shown below into four equal parts.

Assumption: The figure will be divided by four straight lines.

Answer:

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;




References

Bennett, B., Rolheiser-Bennett, C., & Stevahn, L. (1991). Cooperative

Learning: Where Heart Meets Mind . Toronto: Educational Connections.

Field, T. G., Jr. (1996). “So You Have An Idea.” Franklin Pierce Law Center.

http://www.fplc.edu/tfield/idea.htm.

Fowlie, W. (1977). A Journal of Rehearsals: A Memoir . Durman, NC: Duke

University Press.

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., Roy, P., & Holubec, E. (1984). Circles of Learning:

Cooperation in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development.

Jones, B. F., Tinzmann, M., & Thelen, J. (1990). Can Music Hurt Me?

Teacher Edition. Breakthrough Strategies for Thinking Series.

Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.

Joyce, B., Murphy, C., Showers, B., & Murphy, J. (1989). “School Renewal as

Cultural Change.” Educational Leadership 47, 3: 70-77.

Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (1986). Models of Teaching . Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Lipman, M., Sharp, A.M., & Oscanyan, F. S. (1980). Philosophy in the

Classroom (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Louis, K. S., & Miles, M. (1990). Improving the Urban High School: What

Works and Why. NY: Teacher’s College Press.

Marzano, R. J. (1992). A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions

of Learning . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R. S., Hughes, C. S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B. Z.,

Rankin, S. C., & Suhor, C. (1988). Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework

for Curriculum and Instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development.




Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., Arredondo, D. E., Blackburn, G. J.,

Brandt, R. S., Moffett, C. A., Paynter, D. E., Pollock, J. E., & Whisler,

J. S. (1997). Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual (2nd ed.).

Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Moffet, C. (May 1991). Telephone interview with Carlene Murphy.

Mullis, I. V. S., Owen, E. H., & Phillips, G. W. (1990). America’s Challenge:

Accelerating Academic Achievement (A Summary of Findings from 20 Years of

NAEP). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Ponte, L. (1991, Feb.). “Why Our Hair Turns Gray.” Reader’s Digest .

“Silk, the Queen of Textiles.” (1984, Jan.) National Geographic .

References



O v e r h e a d s



O v e r v i e w


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 278/484Overview Overhead O.1


Students’

Thinking and Learning

S t u d e n t s ’

T h i n

k i n g

a n d

L e a r n i n

g

S t u d e nt s ’

T h i nk i n g an d L e ar ni n g

InstructionalStrategies

andPrograms



InstructionalStrategies and

Programs

Instructional

Strategies andPrograms

I n s t r u c t i o n a l

S t r a t e g i e s a n d

P r o g r a m s

I n s t r u c t i on al

S t r at e gi e s an d

P r o gr am s

Students’Thinking

and

Learning



H a b i ts of M i n d

A t t i t u d e s a n

dP e r c e

p t i o

n s

Use KnowledgeMeaningfully

Extend andRefine Knowledge

Acquireand IntegrateKnowledge




A t t i t

u d e s a nd P e r c e p t i o

n s




Overview Overhead O.4



• Do I feel accepted?

• Am I comfortable?

• Am I safe?

• Is this information useful

or interesting to me?

• Can I do this?

• Do I know what isexpected?




Attitudes and Perceptions

I. About Classroom Climate

• Feel accepted by teachers and peers

• Experience a sense of comfort andorder

II. About Classroom Tasks

• Perceive tasks as valuable and

interesting

• Believe they have the ability andresources to complete tasks

• Understand and be clear about tasks





dP e r c e

p t i o

n s







Acquire & Integrate

Knowledge

Declarative

Construct Meaning

Organize

Store

Procedural

Construct Models

Shape

Internalize



The procedure is actually quite simple. First, you

arrange items into different groups. Of course, one

pile may be sufficient depending on how much

there is to do. If you have to go somewhere elsedue to a lack of facilities, that is the next step;

otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important

not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too

few things at once than too many. In the short run,this may not seem important, but complications can

easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.

At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated.

Soon, however, it will become just another facet of

life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity

for this task in the immediate future, but then, one

never can tell.

After the procedure is complete, you arrange the

materials into different groups again. Then you can

put them into their appropriate places. Eventually,

they will be used again, and the whole cycle will then

have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.





dP e r c e

p t i o

n s







Extend & RefineKnowledge

Comparing

Classifying

Abstracting

Inductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning


Analyzing Errors





A t t i t u d e s a

ndP e r c e

p t i o

n s








Decision Making

Problem Solving

InventionExperimental Inquiry

Investigation

Systems Analysis



H a b i ts of

M i n d

A t t i t u d e s

a nd P e r c e

p t i o

n s







Habits of Mind

Critical Thinking• Be accurate and seek accuracy • Be clear and seek clarity • Maintain an open mind• Restrain impulsivity

• Take a position when the situation warrants it • Respond appropriately to others’ feelings and level

of knowledge

Creative Thinking• Persevere

• Push the limits of your knowledge and abilities• Generate, trust, and maintain your own standardsof evaluation

• Generate new ways of viewing situations that areoutside the boundaries of standard conventions

Self-Regulated Thinking• Monitor your own thinking• Plan appropriately • Identify and use necessary resources• Respond appropriately to feedback • Evaluate the effectiveness of your actions



1. Am I actively seeking accuracy in the information I am receiving?not active very active

2. Am I actively seeking clarity in the information I am receiving?not active very active

3. Am I maintaining an open mind about information I amreceiving?

not open very open

4. Am I stopping to think before I speak or act? Am I restrainingimpulsivity?

not stopping stopping

5. Am I actively taking and defending positions when such action is warranted?

not active very active

6. Am I responding appropriately to the feelings and level ofknowledge of others?

not responding responding

appropriately appropriately

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4




1. Am I persevering even when the task becomes difficult, or am I withdrawing?

withdrawing persevering

2. Am I pushing myself to my limits, or am I coasting?coasting pushing

3. Am I continually identifying standards that I want to meet?not continually

identifying identifying

4. Am I continually trying to see the situation in new and unique ways?not continually

trying trying

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4



1. Am I aware of my thinking about what I am trying toaccomplish?

not aware very aware

2. Have I made a plan for what I want to accomplish?no plan complete plan

3. Have I collected all of the resources that I need? all necessary

no resources resources

4. Am I seeking out and responding appropriately to feedback

about my actions?not responding responding

appropriately appropriately

5. Am I evaluating how well this is going and what I would do

differently next time? always

not evaluating evaluating

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4



Uses of Dimensions of Learning

• A Resource for InstructionalStrategies

• A Framework for PlanningStaff Development

• A Structure for PlanningCurriculum and Assessment

• A Focus for Systemic Reform




Attitudes & PerceptionsI. Classroom Climate

A. Acceptance by Teachers and PeersB. Comfort and Order

II. Classroom Tasks A. Value and Interest B Ability and ResourcesC. Clarity

Acquire & Integrate KnowledgeI. Declarative A. Construct MeaningB. OrganizeC. Store

II. Procedural A. Construct ModelsB. ShapeC. Internalize


ComparingClassifying AbstractingInductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningConstructing Support Analyzing Errors Analyzing Perspectives

Use Knowledge Meaningfully Decision Making

Problem SolvingInventionExperimental Inquiry InvestigationSystems Analysis

Habits of MindCritical ThinkingCreative ThinkingSelf-Regulated Thinking

Resources for Improvement

Dimensions of Learning Outline



D i m e n s i o n 1



How Might These Behaviors Affect Attitudes and Perceptions?

■ The teacher asks a student how his baseball game went the previous weekend.

■ The teacher describes what a project might look like when completed.

■ The student comes early to school to clean out herdesk.

■ The teacher places beanbag chairs in the classroomfor students to use while reading.

■ The teacher posts classroom rules and procedureson a chart.

■ The student reminds himself that even if he becomesa professional athlete, he’ll need math skills.

■ The teacher organizes students into cooperativegroups.

■ The teacher describes how the information studentsare learning might be useful in their day-to-day live

Dimension 1 Overhead 1.1



Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Climate1. Help students understand that attitudes and perceptions relatedto classroom climate influence learning.

2. Establish a relationship with each student in the class.

3. Monitor and attend to your own attitudes.

4. Engage in equitable and positive classroom behavior.

5. Recognize and provide for students’ individual differences.6. Respond positively to students’ incorrect responses or lack of

response.

7. Vary the positive reinforcement offered when students give thecorrect response.

8. Structure opportunities for students to work with peers.

9. Provide opportunities for students to get to know and accept each other.

10. Help students develop their ability to use their own strategies forgaining acceptance from their teachers and peers.

11. Frequently and systematically use activities that involve physicalmovement.

12. Introduce the concept of “bracketing.”13. Establish and communicate classroom rules and procedures.

14. Be aware of malicious teasing or threats inside or outside of theclassroom and take steps to stop such behavior.

15. Have students identify their own standards for comfort andorder.




Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Tasks1. Help students understand that learning is influenced by attitudes and perceptions related to classroom tasks.

2. Establish a sense of academic trust.

3. Help students understand how specific knowledge is valuable.

4. Use a variety of ways to engage students in classroom tasks.5. Create classroom tasks that relate to students’ interests and

goals.

6. Provide appropriate feedback.

7. Teach students to use positive self-talk.

8. Help students recognize that they have the abilities tocomplete a particular task.

9. Help students understand that believing in their ability tocomplete a task includes believing that they have the ability to get the help and the resources needed.

10. Help students be clear about the directions and demands of

the task.

11. Provide students with clarity about the knowledge that thetask addresses.

12. Provide students with clear expectations of performancelevels for tasks.




Vary Your Response to Students’Incorrect Answers

1. What is the most frequently brokenbone in the body?(The clavicle [the collar bone])

2. Spell broccoli.

3. What do you call a baby rabbit?(A kitten)

4. What is the name of the first shot in abilliards game?(The break)

5. What is Queen Elizabeth’s surname?(Windsor)




Vary Your Response to Students’Incorrect Answers

6. The city of Singapore is in what country?(Singapore)

7. What is the second tallest mountain in

the world?(K2. It is next to Everest.)

8. How many items are in a gross?

(144)

9. What book did Ken Kesey write that was turned into an Oscar Award- winning movie?

(One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest )

10. Spell Albuquerque.




Vary Your Response to Students’Correct Answers

1. Explain at least one cause of the Civil War.

2. Solve the following: 3 x 4 + 8 ÷ 2 = _____.

3. Identify an influential author (or scientist,artist, or athlete) of the 20th century, andexplain in what way he or she wasinfluential.

4. What is censorship?

5. __________ is to a tree as ___________isto a person.

Complete this analogy. Try not to use themost obvious relationships, such as,“Branch is to a tree as arm is to a person.”




Planning: Dimension 1

What will be done to help studentsdevelop positive attitudes and perceptions?

Step 1 Are there any goals or concerns relatedto students’ attitudes and perceptions in

general? Related to this specific unit?Step 2 What will be done to address these goals

or concerns?

Step 2a: Specifically, will anything be done to help

students…Classroom Climate• feel accepted by teachers and peers?• experience a sense of comfort and order?

Classroom Tasks

• perceive tasks as valuable and interesting?• believe they have the ability and resources

to complete tasks?• understand and be clear about tasks?

Step 2b: Describe what will be done.Dimension 1 Overhead 1.P1


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 308/484Dimension 1 Overhead 1.P2

D i m e n s i o n 1

P l a n n i n g G u i d e

U n i t : C o l o r a

d o

A r e t h e r e a n y g

o a l s o r

c o n c e r n s r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t s ’

a t t i t u d e s a n d

p e r c e p t i o n s



W h a t w i l l b e d o n e t o a d d r e s s t h e s e g o a l s o r c o n c e r n s ?

S p e c i f i c a l l y , w i l l a n y t h i n g b e

d o n e t o h e l p s t u d e n t s …

C l a s s r o o m

C l i m a t e

❏

f e e l a c c e

p t e d b y

t e a c h e r s

a n d p e e r s ?

❏

e x p e r i e n

c e a s e n s e o f

c o m f o r t a n d o r d e r ?

C l a s s r o o m

T a s k s

❏

p e r c e i v e

t a s k s a s

v a l u a b l e

a n d i n t e r e s t i n g ?

❏

b e l i e v e t h e y h a v e

t h e a b i l i t y a n d r e s o u r c e s

t o c o m p l e t e t a s k s ?

❏

u n d e r s t a

n d a n d b e

c l e a r a b o u t t a s k s ?


I t h

i n k I h a v e

b e e n

i n a r u t

l a t e l y

w h e n r e s p o n d i n g

b o t h t o s t u

d e n t s

i n c o r r e c t a n s w e r s a n

d t o t h e i r

c o r r e c t o r t h o u g

h t f u

l a n s w e r s .

T h e

l a s t

f i e l d t r i p w a s n o t

f u n

f o r

a n y o n e ;

i t s e e m

e d u n o r g a n

i z e d a n

d

m a n y r u

l e s f o r

b u s

b e h a v

i o r w e r e

f o r g o t t e n .

I a m g o i n g t o w o r k o n s l o w

i n g

d o w n a n

d g

i v i n g

s t u d e n t s a

c h a n c e t o a n s w

e r m y q u e s t i o n s ;

I n e e d t o

d o m o r e

r e s t a t i n g a n

d

r e p h r a s i n g o f t

h e q u e s t i o n s .

I w

i l l g o o v e r t h e r u

l e s o f

b u s

b e h a v

i o r a n

d t h e g

e n e r a

l r u

l e s

f o r f i e l d t r i p s ;

I t h

i n k I ’ l l h a v e s t u

d e n t s g e n e r a t e s o m e a

d d i t i o n a

l

r u l e s a n

d s u g g e s t i o n s

f o r m a

k i n g t h e

f i e l d t r i p s u c c e s s f u

l .

✓ ✓

S t u

d e n t s m

i g h t

b e g e t t i n g t i r e d

o f s t u

d y

i n g

C o

l o r a d o .

✓

T h e a s s i g n m e n t s w

i l l g

i v e s t u

d e n t s t h e o p

p o r t u n i t y t o a

p p l y

k n o w

l e d g e t o r e g

i o n s o f t h e i r c h o i c e .

S

t e

t e



D i m e n s i o n 2



1. Think about the field of science. If youlisted the declarative knowledge and theprocedural knowledge in science, whichlist would be longer?

2. If you were trying to determine how wellI understand music, why might I

justifiably object to your assessing my understanding by asking me to sing?

3. A graduate student complained, “Ireceived an A in my statistics course. In

fact, I think I could pass some of thosesame tests right now. However, when Istarted to plan data analysis for my dissertation, I had no idea how to set upmy statistical study; that is, I didn’t know

which of the formulas to use.” What typeof knowledge did the student lack? How could this happen, given that the student received an A in the course?

Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.1



Descriptions

Vocabulary Terms

Facts

Time Sequences

Process/Cause-Effect

Relationships

Episodes

Generalizations/Principles

Concepts




Time-Sequence Pattern

E v e n t

E v e n t

E v e n t

E v e n t

E v e n t

E v e n t

Fact Fact

Fact

Fact

Fact

Topic

Descriptive Pattern

Episode Pattern

person person

EFFECTCAUSE

person

Episode

time

place

duration

Process/Cause-Effect Pattern

Effect




Concept

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Characteristic

Characteristic

Characteristic

Concept Pattern

Generalization/Principle

Example

Example

Example

Generalization/PrinciplePattern




Specific

Students will know

1. the major events in thebook 1984 ;

2. that people in England havedifferent types of houses

and eat different food than we do;

3. that one cause of the Civil War was that people wereoutraged by the oppression

suffered by slaves in theSouth;

4. that diabetes occurs whenthe body cannot adequately metabolize glucose in theblood; and

5. that bar graphs are good ways of showing how something has changedover time.

General

Students will understand that

1. literature can both reflect and have an impact onsociety;

2. where you live influenceshow you live;

3. when oppression—social,economic, or political—meets resistance, conflict

results;

4. most health problems result from a loss of the balance,or homeostasis, in a systemof the body; and

5. graphs and equations areboth ways of depictingrelationships among data.



http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 316/484Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.6

Construct Meaning

Store

Organize

Construct Models

Shape Internalize






Construct Meaning

Link new information to prior knowledge.

OrganizeIdentify patterns in the information.

StoreConsciously store the information inmemory.

Construct Meaning

Store

Organize



Silk

Of the dozen platters artfully arranged on the

luncheon table, only one commanded my attention—and apprehension—a dish ofsilkworms. Minutes before at the . . . ScientificResearch Institute near Dandong, I had watched a golden yellow silkworm crawlacross the back of my hand. Now it was onmy plate for lunch. . . . The eyes of my luncheon companions shift between me andthe shiny brown beast, the size of a medium

shrimp, on the plate in front of me. Clutchingit with my chopsticks, I took a crunchy bite. A smooth, warm custard with a nutty flavorspilled over my tongue. I noticed my dinner

partners spitting shells of the silkworm pupaeon the tablecloth and the floor. I swallowedthe thing whole.

—from “Silk, the Queen of Textiles”

National Geographic (January 1984)




Why Our Hair Turns Gray

When hair is still forming, it is impregnated

with thousands of tiny packets of melaninpigment. Cells called melanocytes produceand blend only two basic “paints” to producethe exotic palette of different colors we see inhuman hair. . . . One pigment, eumelanin,tints our locks deep black to the lightest brown. The other, pheomelanin, turns the hairblond to golden brown or red.

As we pass our twenties, melanocyteproduction slows down. Emerging hairs,possessing only a tiny amount of their formerpigment, begin to appear gray. When themelanocytes go completely dormant, hair

grows out with no pigment at all and takeson the natural color of hair protein: white.

—Lowell Ponte

Reader’s Digest (February 1991)




K-W-L


What I KNOW What I WANT

to Know

What I

LEARNED



EXAMPLES

treehouse

bedroom

backyard

streetcar

butterfly

NONEXAMPLES

kitchen

computer

lightning

engine

tornado

Attributes:

Concept:



NonexamplesExamples

Attributes:

Concept:



How Do You Hear Sounds?

Do you know how you hear sounds? When you hear,

you use more than just the part of your ear that you seeon your head. Some parts of your ear are deep inside of your head, and those parts, along with your outer ear,help your brain to hear.

Pretend you are playing a drum. When you strike it, thespot you hit moves back and forth very quickly. That movement is called vibration. You can’t see it, but if youput your hand on the spot you just hit, you can feel it forjust an instant.

The vibration shakes the air and makes an invisible wave of sound. Your outer ear, the part you can see,collects the waves and passes them through a channel to

your eardrum. Then your eardrum vibrates and sendsthe sounds deeper inside your head to your inner ear.

When the sound wave gets to your inner ear, it movestiny hair cells. A healthy ear has over 15,000 hair cells.

When the hair cells move, they send signals to yourbrain to tell it that you are hearing a drum.

—from Jones, Tinzmann, & Thelen

Can Music Hurt Me? (1990)




Noise Can Harm You

Louder sounds do more serious damage. Because

they can be as loud as 130 decibels, live rock concerts are dangerous to listen to for more thantwo hours. Some doctors think you couldpermanently lose some of your hearing after goingto just 10 live rock concerts.

Sounds that are over 140 decibels can even make your ears hurt. These sounds can damage yourhearing quickly if you are close to the source of thesounds. One of these sounds is a firecrackerexplosion.

Noise can do more than hurt your ears. If you hearnoise all the time, you can feel cranky. And anythingthat makes you feel cranky for very long is not goodfor your body. Listening to lots of noise can give youa headache and an upset stomach. You can become

so upset that you can’t sleep well. Constant noise at school will make it harder for you to study and learn.

—from Jones, Tinzmann, & Thelen

Can Music Hurt Me? (1990)




Generate a Symbol or Substitute


Australia

Asia

Europe

North America

South America

Africa

Antarctica



one

twothree

four

five

six

seven

eight

nineten

bun

shoetree

door

hive

sticks

heaven

gate

linehen



Planning: Dimension 2,


What will be done to help students acquireand integrate declarative knowledge?

STEP 1 What declarative knowledge will

students be in the process of acquiringand integrating? As a result of this unit,students will know or understand…

STEP 2 What experiences or activities will

be used to help students acquireand integrate this knowledge?

STEP 3 What strategies will be used to helpstudents construct meaning for,

organize, and/or store this knowledge?

STEP 4 Describe what will be done.

Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.P1


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 329/484Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.P2

W h a t d e c l a r

a t i v e k n o w l e d g e

w i l l s t u d e n t s b

e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

a c q u i r i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g ?

A s a r e s u l t o f

t h i s u n i t , s t u d e n t s

w i l l k n o w o r u

n d e r s t a n d . . .

W h a t e x p e

r i e n c e s

o r a c t i v i t i e

s w i l l b e

u s e d t o h e l p

s t u d e n t s

a c q u i r e a n d

i n t e g r a t e

t h i s k n o w l e d g e ?

W h a t s t r a t e g i e s w i l l

b e u s e d t o h e l p s t u d e n t s

c o n s t r u c t m e a n i n g

f o r , o r g a n i z e , a n d / o r

s t o r e t h i s k n o w l e d g e ?

D e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b

e d o n e .

T e x t , p p . 8 -

1 0

F i l m : “ F r o m

S e a

t o S h i n i n g

S e a ”

R e a d p h y s i c a l m a p s

I n d e p e n d e n t

s t u d y :

R e g i o n a l c a k e

K - W - L

P h y s i c a l / p i c t o g r a p h i c

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

O n a c l a s s K - W - L c h a r t , w e a l l w

i l l g e n e r a t e t h e

K a n d t h e W r e l a t e d t o t o p o g r a p h y . W e w i l l t h e n r e a d

t h e t e x t , w a t c h t h e f i l m , a n d r e a d

p h y s i c a l m a p s .

A f t e r e a c h e x p e r i e n c e , w e w i l l f i l l

o u t t h e L o f t h e

c h a r t . W e w i l l u s e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e K - W - L

t o s t a r t a c l a s s p i c t o g r a p h o f e x a m

p l e s o f t o p o g r a p h y .

E a c h s t u d e n t w i l l m a k e a c a k e d e p i c t i n g t o p o g r a p h y

f r o m a r e g i o n o f h i s o r h e r c h o i c e . S t u d e n t s w i l l f i n d

i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A

f t e r t h e r e g i o n a l c a k e

a s s i g n m e n t , a s a c l a s s , w e w i l l a d

d t o o u r p i c t o g r a p h .

F i l m : “ F r o m

S e a

t o S h i n i n g

S e a ”

R e a d n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e m a p s

F i e l d T r i p :

A r g o G o l d M i n e

3 - m i n u t e p a u s e

U s e a l l s e n s e s

P i c t o g r a p h

S e v e r a l t i m e s d u r i n g t h e f i l m , I w

i l l s t o p a n d a s k

s t u d e n t s t o i d e n t i f y o n e t y p e o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e . A f t e r

t h e f i l m , I w i l l a s k t h e m t o t r y t o

c r e a t e m e n t a l

p i c t u r e s o f e x a m p l e s o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d i d e n t i f y

w h a t t h e y s e e , s m e l l , f e e l , e t c . W e t h e n w i l l s t a r t o u r

p i c t o g r a p h s o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s - a

c l a s s o n e a n d

i n d i v i d u a l o n e s . A f t e r r e a d i n g t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e

m a p s , w e w i l l a d d i n f o r m a t i o n t o

t h e p i c t o g r a p h s .

D u r i n g t h e f i e l d t r i p , s t u d e n t s w i l l h a v e t h e i r

p i c t o g r a p h s w i t h t h e m s o t h e y c a n

a d d e x a m p l e s o f t h e

n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t w e o b s e r v e .

S t e p

1

S t e p

2

S t e p

3

S t e p

4

C o n c e p t : T o p o g r a p h y

— N a t u r a l

a n d a r t i f i c i a l

f e a t u r e s i n c l u d i n g l a n d f o r m s ,

b o d i e s o f w a

t e r , r o a d s , b r

i d g e s , e t c .

F a c t s d e s c r i b i n g C o l o r a d o ’ s

t o p o g r a p h y w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e

R o c k y M o u n t a i n s , s a n d d u n e s ,

r i v e r s , p l a i n s , p l a t e a u s ,

c a n y o n s .

C o n c e p t : N a

t u r a l R e s o u r c e s

— M a t e r i a l s f o u n d i n n a t u r e

t h a t a r e u s e f u l , n e c e s s a r y , o r

a t t r a c t i v e .

F a c t s d e s c r i b i n g C o l o r a d o ’ s

n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s w i l l d e a l

w i t h s n o w , g o l d , s o i l ,

s u n s h i n e , f o r e s t s , o

i l ,

m o u n t a i n

s .

D i m e

n s i o n 2 P l a n n i n g G u i d e

: D e c l a r a t i v e K n o w l e d g e

U n i t : C o l o r a d o



Knowledge for Colorado Unit Partial Brainstormed List

The Colorado Gold Rush

The history of the development of major citiesand towns

The geographical features of Colorado: mountains,

rivers, plains (Names of mountain ranges)

Colorado’s culture of outdoor recreation:skiing, hunting, hiking, fishing, camping

The Native American culture and heritage

Famous Coloradans: Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike

Climate: weather is dry, large amount of snowfallin mountains

Denver’s history

Influence of solar industry

Western/cowboy culture

Anasazi Indians




Identify any organizationalpatterns that are importantin this unit:

Identify the important declarative knowledge that will be organizedinto these patterns.

When necessary, identify any additional or specific knowledge thatprovides support for, examples of, or further explanations of moregeneral knowledge.

Concepts?

Generalizations/principles?

Episodes?

Processes/cause-effects?

Time sequences?

Descriptions: facts,vocabulary terms?

Topography, natural resources, climate, culture

—facts about Colorado that are examples of each of these concepts

Topography, natural resources, and climate influence the culture of

a region.

—examples from Colorado (e.g., Mountains and snow influence

winter sports culture.)

Story of the Colorado Gold Rush, 1859-1900

Facts describing how Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike, and Alferd

Packer interacted with their environments

Vocabulary terms: tourism, urban

Step 1What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating ? As aresult of this unit, students will know or understand. . . . (Use worksheet below to answer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado Unit Declarative Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks




C o l o r a d o

p l a t e a u , u r b a n , r u r a l

t o u r i s m ,

V o c a b u l a r y T e r m s

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n

s / P r i n c i p l e s

T i m e S e q u e n c e s

F a c t s

U n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s , a n d c l i m

a t e i n f l u e n c e t h e

c u l t u r e o f a r e g i o n .

U n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s , a n d c l i m

a t e i n f l u e n c e

s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s .

( U n i t T i t l e )

K n o w s f a c t s d e s c r i b i n g M o l l y

B r o w n ,

Z e b u l o n P i k e , a n d A l f e r d P a c k e r .

C o n c e p

t s

U n d e r s t a n d s t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s

,

c l i m a t e , c u l t u r e .

U n d e r s t a n d s r e n e w a b l e , n o n r e n e w a b l e ,

f l o w r e s o u

r c e s .

K n o w s p r o c e s s b y w h i c h f o s s i l f u e l s a r e c r e a t e d .

K n o w s f a c t s a b o u t C o l o r a d o ’ s r e n e w a b l e ( e . g . ,

t i m b e r ) ,

n o n r e n e w a b l e ( e . g . , g o l d , o i l ) , a n d f l o w

r e s o u r c e s

( e . g . , w

i n d , s u n s h i n e ) .

K n o w s f a

c t s a b o u t C o l o r a d o t h a t a r e

e x a m p l e s

o f e a c h o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s .

K n o w s e x a m p l e s f r o m C o l o r a d o ( e . g . ,

m o u n t a i n s a n d s n o w c a u s e w i n t e r s p o r t s

e m p h a s i s ; s u n s h i n e , r i v e r s , a n d m o u n t a i n s

c a u s e o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n ; p l a i n s c r e a t e

r a n c h i n g , c a u s i n g

W e s t e r n c u l t u r e ) .

K n o w s e x a m p l e s f r o m C o l o r a d o ( e . g . ,

m o u n t a i n s , g o l d , a

n d h o t s p r i n g s

c o n t r i b u t e d t o s e t t l e m e n t o f C o l o r a d o

S p r i n g s ) .

K n o w s t h e s t o r y o f t h e C o l o r a d o G o l d R u s h ,

1 8 5 9 - 1 9 0 0 .

U n i t P l a n n i n g G r a p h i c : C o l o r a d o

U n i t

D

e c l a r a t i v e K n o w l e d g e ( W i t h o u t S t a n d a r d s a n d B e n c h m a r k s )



Identify any organizationalpatterns that are importantin this unit:

For each benchmark, identify the important declarative knowledgethat will be organized into these patterns.

When necessary, identify any additional or specific knowledge thatprovides support for, examples of, or further explanations of moregeneral knowledge.

Concepts?

Generalizations/principles?

Episodes?

Processes/cause-effects?

Time sequences?

Descriptions: facts,vocabulary terms?

Benchmark: Understands the interactions between

humans and their physical environment within a region.

Topography, natural resources, climate, culture —facts about Colorado that are examples of each of these concepts

Topography, natural resources, and climate influence the culture of

a region.

—examples from Colorado (e.g., Mountains and snow influence

winter sports culture.)

Story of the Colorado Gold Rush, 1859-1900

Facts describing how Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike, and Alferd

Packer interacted with their environments.

Vocabulary terms: tourism, urban

Step 1What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating ? As aresult of this unit, students will know or understand. . . . (Use worksheet below to answer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado Unit Declarative Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks




C o l o r a d o

O t h e r d e c l a r a t i v e k

n o w l e d g e n o t

r e l a t e d t o b e n c h m a

r k s :

K n o w s p r o c e s s b y w h i c h f o s s i l f u e l s a r e c r e a t e d .

C o n c e p t s : U n d e r s t a n d s r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e s , n o n r e n e w a b l e

r e s o u r c e s , a n d f l o w r e s o u r c e s .

( U n i t T i t l e )

U n i t P l a n n i n g G r a p h i c : C o l o r a d o U n i t

D e c l a r a t i v e K n o w l e d g e

( W i t h S t a n d a r d

s a n d B e n c h m a r k s )

K n o w s t h e s t o r y o f t h e C o l o r a d o G o l d R u s h ,

1 8 5 9 - 1

9 0 0 .

C o n c e p t s : U n d e r s t a n d s t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s , c l i m a t e , c u l t u r e .

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s / P r i n c i p l e s : U n d e r s t a n d s t h a t

t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , a n d c l i m a t e

i n f l u e n c e t h e c u l t u r e o f a r e g i o n .

F a c t s : K n o w s h o w M o l l y B

r o w n , Z e b u l o n P i k e ,

A l f r e d P a c k e r s i n t e r a c t e d w

i t h t h e i r p h y s i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t s .

V o c a b u l a r y T e r m s : t o u r i s m ,

p l a t e a u

K n o w s f a c t s a b o u t C o l o r a d o t h a t a r e e x a m p l e s

o f e a c h o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s .

K n o w s e x a m p l e s f r o m C o l o r a d o ( e . g . , m o u n t a i n s

a n d s n o w i n f l u e n c e w i n t e r s p o r t s c u l t u r e ) .

G e o g r a p h y S t a n d a r d

1 ,

B e n c h m a r k 2 ( D ) :

U n d e r s t a n d s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g

h u m a n s a n d t h e i r p h y

s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t

w i t h i n a r e g i o n .

G

e o g r a p h y S t a n d a r d 2 ,

B e n c h m

a r k 5 ( D ) :

U

n d e r s t a n d s t h e r e a s o n s f o r h u m

a n

m

o v e m e n t w i t h i n a n d a m o n g r e g

i o n s .

G

e n e r a l i z a t i o n s / P r i n c i p l e s : U n d e r s t a

n d s t h a t

t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , a n d c l i m a t e

i n

f l u e n c e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s .

V

o c a b u l a r y T e r m s : u r b a n , r u r a l

K n o w s e x a m p l e s f r o m C o l o r a d o ( e . g . , m

o u n t a i n s ,

g o l d , a n d h o t s p r i n g s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t

o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s ) .

G e o g r a p h y S t a n d a r d 3

, B e n c h m a r k 2 ( D ) :

U n d e r s t a n d s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d l o c a t i o n s o f

r e n e w a b l e a n d n o n r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e s .

K n o w s f a c t s a b o u t C o l o r a d o ’ s r e n e w a b l e ( e . g . , t i m b e r ) ,

n o n r e n e w a b l e ( e . g . , g o l d , o i l ) , a n d f l o w r e s o u r c e s ( e . g . ,

w i n d , s u n s h i n e ) .


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 335/484Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.18

Time spent learningDeclarative Knowledge

Time spent learningProcedural Knowledge

Construct Meaning Construct Models

Store Internalize

Organize Shape




Construct ModelsEnvision the steps of the process.

ShapeModify, adapt, and increaseunderstanding of the process.

InternalizePractice to achieve automaticity andfluency.

Construct Models

Shape Internalize



1. Grasp one chopstick in the valley

between the thumb and forefinger.

2. Stabilize this chopstick with theupper part of the thumb and the

lower part of the ring finger.

3. Place other chopstick between tipsof thumb and forefinger. Do NOT

stabilize it. Rest chopstick on end of

middle finger.4. Adjust small ends of chopsticks to

make them even.

5. Move second chopstick back andforth, making small ends touch.

6. Use step 5 to grasp a bite of food.

Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.20



Practice Chart

1.

2.

3.

Large Items Small Items

Trial

(30 seconds each)

Number of items picked up and

moved 12 inches without dropping




Jigsaw Assignments

A. CONSTRUCT MODELS. Readstrategies 1-5, pages 94-96.Then read the second classroomexample, page 104—Ms. Hallfield.

B. SHAPE. Read strategies 1-4,pages 97-100. Then read the

third classroom example, page105—Coach Elway.

C. INTERNALIZE. Read strategies

1-3, pages 101-103. Then readthe fourth classroom example,page 105—Mrs. Cliburn.



Construct Models forProcedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand the importance ofconstructing models for proceduralknowledge.

2. Use a think-aloud process to demonstrate anew skill or process.

3. Provide or construct with students a written or

graphic representation of the skill or processthey are learning.

4. Help students see how the skill or processthey are learning is similar to and different

from other skills or processes.

5. Teach students to mentally rehearse the stepsinvolved in a skill or process.




Shape Procedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand theimportance of shaping procedural

knowledge.

2. Demonstrate and create opportunities

for students to practice using the

important variations of the skill or

process.

3. Point out common errors and pitfalls.

4. Help students develop the conceptualunderstanding necessary to use the

skill or process.




Internalize Procedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand the

importance of internalizing

procedural knowledge.

2. Help students set up a practice

schedule.

3. Have students chart and report on

their speed and/or accuracy when

practicing new skills or processes.




Planning: Dimension 2,


What will be done to help students acquireand integrate procedural knowledge?

STEP 1 What procedural knowledge will

students be in the process of acquiringand integrating? As a result of this unit,students will be able to…

STEP 2 What strategies will be used to helpstudents construct models for, shape,and/or internalize this knowledge?


Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.P8


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 344/484Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.P9

W h a t w i l l b e d o n e t o

h e l p s t u d

e n t s c o n s t r u c t

m o d e l s

f o r , s h a p e , a n d

i n t e r n a l i z e t h e k n o w l e d g e ?

D e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b e d o n e

.

W h a t p r o c e d

u r a l k n o w l e d g e

w i l l s t u d e n t s b

e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

a c q u i r i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g ?

A s a r e s u l t o f

t h i s u n i t , s t u d e n t s w i l l

b e a b l e t o . . .

r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t p h y s i c a l

m a p s .

r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e m a p s .

I w i l l t a l k t h r o u g h t h e s t e p s o f r e a d i n g a m a p ,

d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e s t e p s w i t h e a c h t y p e . I w i l l g i v e

t h e m a s e t o f w r i t t e n s t e p s f o r r e a d i n g a n y m

a p .

W o r k i n g i n

g r o u p s , s t u d e n t s w i l l r e c e i v e s e v e r a l v a r i a t i o n s

i n f o r m a t ( t a k e n f r o m d i f f e r e n t t e x t b o o k s ) f o r b o t h p h y s i c a l

a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a p s . T h e r e w i l l b e q u

e s t i o n s f o r t h e

g r o u p a n d t h e n f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s t o a n s w e r a s a w a y

o f b e c o m i n g f a m i l i a r w i t h e a c h v a r i a t i o n . T

h i s a s s i g n m e n t

a l s o w i l l r e i n f o r c e t h e l e a r n i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t s o f t o p o g r a p h y

a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s .

S t e p

1

S t e p

2

S t e p

3

N o t e : T h e s e s t r a t e g i e s

w i l l b e u

s e d t o t e a c h

b o t h t y p e s o f m a p s .

T h i n k - a

l o u d

S e t o f w r i t t e n s t e p s

P r a c t i c e

w i t h v a r i a t i o n s

I n t e r n a l i z i n g i s n o t a

g o a l .

D i m e n s i o n 2 P l a n n i n g G u i d e : P r o c

e d u r a l K n o w l e d g e

U n i t : C o l o r a d o



read and interpret physical maps

read and interpret natural resource maps

Skills/Processes (P)

Knows how to read and interpret

physical and natural resource maps

Colorado

Identify the important procedural knowledge (skills and processes).

When necessary, identify specific skills that support more general processes.

What procedural knowledge (skills and processes) will students be in the process of acquiring

and integrating ? As a result of this unit, students will be able to. . . . (Use worksheet below toanswer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado Unit Procedural Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks

Unit Planning Graphic: Colorado Unit Procedural Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks




Sample Worksheet: Colorado Unit Procedural Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks

Unit Planning Graphic: Colorado Unit Procedural Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks

Benchmark: Uses thematic maps

Colorado

Knows how to read and interpret physical maps

Knows how to read and interpret natural resource

maps

Geography Standard 6, Benchmark 1(P):Uses thematic maps

For each benchmark, identify the important procedural knowledge (skills and processes).

When necessary, identify specific skills that support more general processes.

read and interpret physical maps

read and interpret natural resource maps

What procedural knowledge (skills and processes) will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating ? As a result of this unit, students will be able to. . . . (Use worksheet below toanswer this question.)



http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 347/484Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.P12

Content knowledgeto which students areexposed in the unit

Knowledge that is targeted on unit planning guide



D i m e n s i o n 3


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 350/484Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0A

CIVIL WAR

CIVIL WAR

STATES’

RIGHTS

VIETNAM

WAR


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 351/484Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0B

“We learn by

doing,if

wereflect on what

we have done.”

—John Dewey


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 352/484Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0C

Organizational Format for EachReasoning Process

I. A brief introduction to the process.

II. Five sections with suggestions for teaching the

process:

1. Help students understand the process.

2. Give students a model for the process, and

create opportunities for them to practice using

the process.

3. As students study and use the process, help

them focus on critical steps and difficult aspectsof the process.

4. Provide students with graphic organizers or

representations of the model to help them

understand and use the process.

5. Use teacher-structured and student-structured

tasks.

III. Classroom Examples



Comparing

The process of identifyingand articulating similaritiesand differences among items.

1. Select the items you want tocompare.

2. Select the characteristics of theitems on which you want to base your comparison.

3. Explain how the items are similarand different with respect to thecharacteristics you selected.

Comparing Overhead 3.1A



Comparing

The process of describinghow things are the sameand different.

1. What do I want to compare?

2. What is it about them that I want to compare?

3. How are they the same?How are they different?

Comparing Overhead 3.1B



I t e m s t o b e c o m p a r e d

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

# 1

# 2

# 3

1 .

S i m i l a r i t i e s

2 .


3 .


4 .


D i f f e r e

n c e s

D i f f e r e

n c e s

D i f f e r e

n c e s

D i f f e r e

n c e s

Comparing Overhead 3.1C



Key Points: Comparing

1. Because the process of comparing can be

overused, it is important to ask if it is the

best process to use to help students extend

and refine the identified content knowledge.

2. Students need extensive modeling, practice,

and feedback in order to become skilled at

identifying meaningful and interesting

characteristics to use in comparison tasks.

3. Students should understand that the purpose

of doing a comparison task is to extend and

refine knowledge. A question such as “What

did you discover?” helps to reinforce this

understanding.

Comparing Overhead 3.1D



1. Football Baseball Chess Golf

Chances of players

suffering from seriousinjury

Average annualcompensation

Percentage of womenplaying competitively

Average number of years players cancompete

2. Football Baseball Chess Golf

Size of crowdsattending events

Chances of playersappearing on a Wheaties box

Numbers of people watching or listening via the media

Chances of high schoolplayers winning ascholarship

Comparing Overhead 3.1E



Venn Diagrams

Engla dUnit d tat

Labor Day

Memorial Day

Fourth of July

Christmas

Easter

Birthdays

Boxing Day

Queen’s

Birthday Guy FawkesDay

I S A L B ATI

n ln t ta

BeefPeanut Butter

Popcorn

PotatoesBacon

Eggs

Lamb

Asian Food

Steak andKidney Pie

OO

Comparing Overhead 3.1F



Exercise: Life and Death

Would you classify the following as living, dead,or ? Explain.

Living Dead ?

1. Mummies

2. Fossils

3. Lightning

4. Bacteria5. Seaweed

6. The Loch Ness Monster

7. Thoughts

8. Coral reefs

9. Petrified wood

10. Ghosts

11. Active volcanos

12. The sun

13. Fingernails14. Pearls

15. Blood

From: Philosophy in the Classroom (1980)Lipman, Sharp, and Oscanyan

Classifying Overhead 3.2A



Blue Purple Red Yellow

Classifying Overhead 3.2B



Hamlet Huckleberry FinnWhere the Red Fern Grows

The Scarlet Letter The Grass Is Always Greener

over the Septic TankTo Kill a Mockingbird1984

Catcher in the Rye A Tale of Two CitiesThe Outsiders

Hollywood WivesThe Hobbit

The Grapes of WrathDimensions of Learning Crime and Punishment Gone with the WindDeath of a Salesman

IacoccaWuthering Heights

Moby DickThe Accidental Tourist

Classifying Overhead 3.2C



Classifying

The process of grouping thingsinto definable categories on thebasis of their attributes.

1. Identify the items you want to classify.

2. Select what seems to be an important item, describe itskey attributes, and identify other items that have thesame attributes.

3. Create the category by specifying the attribute(s) that theitems must have for membership in the category.

4. Select another item, describe its key attributes, andidentify other items that have the same attributes.

5. Create this second category by specifying the attribute(s)that the items must have for membership in the category.

6. Repeat the previous two steps until all items are classified

and the specific attributes have been identified formembership in each category.

7. If necessary, combine categories or split them into smallercategories and specify the attribute(s) that determinemembership in the category.

Classifying Overhead 3.2D



Classifying

The process of grouping thingsthat are alike into categories.

1. What do I want to classify?2. What things are alike and could be

put into a group?

3. How are these things alike?4. What other groups can I make and

how are the things alikein each group?

5. Does everything now fit into a group?

6. Would it be better to split up any ofthe groups or put any groups together?

Classifying Overhead 3.2E



Key Points: Classifying

1. Categories should be related to oneanother or parallel.

2. It is important to focus on attributesthat are important and meaningful to

the content.

3. Students must understand the definingcharacteristics of the categories wellenough to justify placement of theitems–which gets more difficult withcomplex content.

4. Having students classify and then

reclassify is a key to helping them noticeunique distinctions and connections that they might not have noticed had they classified the items only once.

Classifying Overhead 3.2F



Geography Terms

Classifying Overhead 3.2G

basinbay

canal

canyon

capechannel

continent

delta

dividefall line

fjord

foothill

glaciergulf

harborhighland

hill

isthmus

lowlandmarsh

mesa

mountain

rangemouth

(of a river)

peak

peninsulaplain

plateauport

prairie

rain forest

reservoirsource

(of a river)

strait

streamswamp

tributary

tundra

valley volcano


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 366/484Classifying Overhead 3.2H



When C. L. Sholes was inventing a typewriting machine

in the early 1870s, he found that the machine jammed if

he typed too fast. So he deliberately arranged the

position of the letters in a way that forced typists to

work slowly. Nevertheless, Sholes’s typewriter design

was still a great improvement over earlier models, and

so it was soon in use all over the world.

Today, although typewriters have been improved in

many ways, nearly all of them have keyboards like theone Sholes devised in 1872. The letter arrangement is

called QWERT, after the five left-hand keys in the top

letter row. You can see QWERT keyboards on computer

consoles as well as on typewriters. Unfortunately, the

QWERT arrangement slows typing, encourages errors,and causes greater fatigue than another arrangement

devised by August Dvorak in 1930, which has proved in

several tests to be much faster and more accurate than

QWERT.

Millions of people have learned the QWERT keyboard,

however, and it is being taught to students in schools

right now. So it seems that we will continue to live with

this 19th-century mistake.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3A



Abstracting

The process of identifying andarticulating the underlying themeor general pattern of information.

1. Identify what is considered important orbasic to the information or situation with which you are working.

2. Write that basic information in a more

general form by • replacing words referring to specific things

with words referring to more generalthings, and

• summarizing information wheneverpossible.

3. Find new information or a situation to whichthe general pattern applies.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3B



Abstracting

The process of finding andexplaining general patterns in

specific information or situations.

1. What is important here?

2. How can I say the samething in a more general

way?

3. What else has the samegeneral pattern?

Abstracting Overhead 3.3C



t

r

l

t

Abstracting Overhead 3.3D



Step 1:

Specific/Literal

C.L. Sholes invented akeyboard, QWERT, that

would slow down typists,thus solving the problemof the keys sticking.

Typewriter keys stoppedsticking.

Another keyboard wasinvented that was shown

to be superior to QWERT.

QWERT is still useddespite the fact that keys

no longer stick andanother keyboardconfiguration was shownto be better.

Step 2:

General/Abstract

Someone invented/createdsomething to address anissue/problem.

The issue/problem went away.

Something else wasinvented that was shown

to be superior to theoriginal invention.

The original invention isstill used/accepted even

though the issue/problemis no longer present andsomething new is shownto be better.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3E



The Emperor’s New ClothesThere once was an emperor who loved new clothes. One day two swindlers convinced him that they could make him very

special clothes that would be invisible to anyone foolish orunfit for office. The emperor placed an order immediately,thinking that he would now be able to distinguish wise menfrom foolish men.

As the swindlers set up their looms and began to work, many people stopped to see the fabric they were weaving.

Each person, afraid to admit that he or she could see nofabric, raved about the beautiful color and texture.

Finally, one morning the clothes were ready. The swindlerspresented them to the emperor and pretended to dress himand put imaginary final touches on each piece. The emperor,

staring at himself naked in the mirror, agreed that they werethe finest clothes he’d ever seen.

The emperor’s subjects had gathered from far and wide to view the new clothes they had all heard so much about. As theemperor marched through the streets, people talked of how beautiful the clothes were. Then, a little boy, not knowing that

he would seem foolish if he could not see the clothes, shoutedout, “The emperor has nothing on!” Soon, everyone joined in,“The emperor is naked!”

The emperor now felt foolish, but he held his head high andtried to maintain his dignity. The crowd laughed and laughed.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3F



Step 1:

Specific/Literal

An emperor who loved the

way he looked in new clothes was convinced by twoswindlers that they could makehim special clothes that wouldbe invisible to anyone foolishor unfit for office.

People who watched theswindlers work raved about the color and texture of thefabric, afraid to admit they could see nothing.

When the clothes were ready,the naked emperor paradedthrough the streets to show offhis new clothes.

A little boy shouted, “The

emperor has nothing on!”

Even though everyone thenlaughed at the emperor, hecontinued to pretend that hehad on clothes.

Step 2:

General/Abstract

A person in power with a flaw

or an obsession is takenadvantage of by someone whopromises something unrealistic.

Other people see that what was delivered is not what waspromised but are afraid orreluctant to speak out.

The person in power, becauseof his flaw or obsession,refuses to acknowledge thereality of the situation.

An innocent person exposes

the truth.

Even though all of the otherpeople now speak out, theperson in power still refuses toacknowledge the truth.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3G



Key Points: Abstracting

1. Step 1 of the process–identifying theimportant or basic literal information–is often the most challenging forstudents. They will need many opportunities to practice this step.

2. Students often have questions about how general the language in theabstract pattern should be. The level of

generality that’s appropriate dependson the content and purpose of theassignment.

3. As students apply a general pattern to

new specifics and identify the obviousconnections, encourage them to makeconnections that are less obvious andmore interesting.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3H



Step 1:

Specific/Literal

Cinderella lived with her wicked stepmother andspoiled stepsisters, all of

whom disliked her and were jealous of beauty.

The king announced that there would be a gloriousball held to find a princessfor his son, the handsomeprince.

The stepmother arrangedfor her daughters to go tothe ball but would not let Cinderella attend.

A fairy godmother arrivedand provided Cinderella

with everything sheneeded to go to the ball.

Step 2:

Too General?

A person lived with somemean people.

There was a party.

The person could not go tothe party.

Someone helped theperson go to the party.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3I



InductiveReasoning

The process of inferring unknowngeneralizations or principles frominformation or observations.

1. Focus on specific pieces of information orobservations. Try not to assume anything.

2. Look for patterns or connections in theinformation you have identified.

3. Make a general statement that explainsthe patterns or connections you have

observed.4. Make more observations to see if your

generalization holds up; if it does not,change it as necessary.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4A



InductiveReasoning

The process of making generalconclusions from specific informationor observations.

1. What specific information do I have?

2. What connections or patterns can Ifind?

3. What general conclusions orpredictions can I make?

4. When I get more information, do Ineed to change my generalconclusions or predictions?

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4B



What Conclusions Can You Draw?

Soap operas generally involve births, deaths,

affairs, marriages, divorces, murders, and lies.

The most common types of productsadvertised during soap operas arehousehold cleaning products and health care

products.

Many people who watch soap operas report that no matter how many episodes they havemissed, it is easy to pick up on the story line.

Many people who work all day record thesoap operas on their VCRs and watch themin the evening.

The soap opera format was once limited todaytime television but is now common inprime time.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4C



Key Points:

Inductive Reasoning

1. Students should make sure theirconclusions are not just restatementsof the information, descriptions of

observations, or opinions.2. Students should make sure they use

observations and information to maketheir conclusions and avoid using

assumptions and opinions.

3. Valid conclusions need to be supported with as many observations or as much

specific information as possible.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4D



C o

n c l u s i o n

O b s e r v a t i o

n

O b s e

r v a t i o n

O b s e r v

a t i o n

O b s e r v a t i o n

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4E



Whogoverns?

How aredecisionsmade?

What aresome early examples?

CONCLUSIONS

Democracy

Republic

Monarchy

Dictatorship

CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4F



DeductiveReasoning

The process of using generalizationsand principles to infer unstated conclusionsabout specific information or situations.

1. Identify the specific situation that is beingconsidered or studied.

2. Identify the generalizations or principles that

apply to the specific situation.

3. Make sure that the specific situation meetsthe conditions that have to be in place forthose generalizations or principles to apply.

4. If the generalizations or principles do apply,identify what is known about the specificsituation, that is, what conclusions can bedrawn or what predictions can be made.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5A



DeductiveReasoning

The process of using generalstatements to come to conclusionsabout specific information or situations.

1. What specific topic am I studying?

2. What general information do I already have that might help me understand my specific topic?

3. Am I sure the general informationapplies to the specific topic I am

studying?4. If it does, how did the general

information help me understand thespecific topic?

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5B



1 ec c s t at top c

4. o c s on Pre c o t

rl

s pe s

a ra zat r p

C iti ap f r e t /pr c e p l

es? o?

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5C



r

c p e

o r

e e r a l a

s

n d t

t

o

d

k e t e

c

e a

a

f t e

r

c

l e o r

e e r a

t

y

c

c u d e

p e

t

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5D



Key Points:

Deductive Reasoning

1. Be sure that the curriculum specifiesgeneralizations and principles that students need to understand.

2. Make sure that students can state theconditions necessary for generalizationsand principles to apply.

3. Consider carefully whether studentsshould be discovering a generalizationor principle or whether they should betaught generalizations and principles

and asked to apply them in many different situations.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5E



1. All beans are vegetables. Some vegetablesare green. Therefore . . .a. Some beans are green.

b. All beans are green.c. Some things that are green are beans.d. None of the above.

2. If your baby does not cry a lot, you should not

worry. Joan’s baby cries a lot. Therefore . . .a. Joan should worry.b. Joan should not worry.c. Joan should cry a lot.

d. None of the above.

3. Richard eats more than Keisha but less than Alejandro. Ted eats more than Richard andKeisha. Therefore . . .

a. Ted eats more than Alejandro.b. Ted eats less than Alejandro.c. Ted eats too much.d. None of the above.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5F



a. All men are mortal.

b. Plato is a man.

c. Therefore, Plato is mortal.

a. All commercial airlines have

a fire extinguisher on board.b. The airplane I am on is a

commercial airplane.

c. Therefore, this airplane has afire extinguisher on board.

a. All bees have stingers.

b. That is a bee.c. Therefore, that has a stinger.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5G



1. Help students see hiddencategorical syllogisms in their

reasoning and that of others.

2. Provide students with a

graphic way of representingsyllogisms.

3. Present students with the

various forms of valid andinvalid categorical syllogisms.

4. Have students examine the

truth of the premises incategorical syllogisms.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5H



STATEMENT

Oh, you say Mary wrotethis report? Then we don’t have to worry; it will beaccurate.

I know this is going to bea bad day. I have had twogood days in a row.

I can’t wait to get to thebeach in Mexico. I amgoing to just sit in the

warm sand and order amargarita.

SYLLOGISM

a. All reports that Mary writes are accurate.

b. This is a report that Mary wrote.

c. This is accurate.

a. All days that follow twogood days are baddays.

b. This is a day that follows two good days.

c. This will be a bad day.

a. All beaches in Mexicoare places I can order amargarita.

b. The beach I am goingto is a beach in Mexico.

c. The beach I am goingis a place I can ordera margarita.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5I



STATEMENT

She obviously has morefun; she’s a blonde.

They will vote in favor of

the child-care bill becausethey have children.

You didn’t do well on thistest because you just don’t care.

SYLLOGISM

a. All blondes are people whohave more fun.

b. She is a blonde.

c. She is a person who hasmore fun.

a. All people who have

children are people who will vote for the child-carebill.

b. They are people who havechildren.

c. They are people who will vote for the child-care bill.

a. All students who didn’t do well on the test are students who don’t care.

b. You are a person whodidn’t do well on the test.

c. You are a person whodoesn’t care.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5J



Constructing

Support

The process of building systems ofsupport for assertions.

1. Identify whether you are stating factsor opinions.

2. If you are stating an opinion,determine whether the situation

warrants support.

3. When the situation warrants it,

construct a supportive argument through the use of a variety of devices,such as facts, evidence, examples, orappeals.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6A



Constructing

Support

The process of providingsupport for statements.

1. Am I stating a fact or anopinion?

2. If I am stating an opinion, do Ineed to offer support?

3. What will I include (Facts?Examples? Evidence? Appeals?) when I provide my support?

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6B



Key Points:


1. Students should understand thedifference between facts and opinions.

2. Students should understand devicesused to construct an argument: facts,evidence, examples, and appeals. They should also understand the four typesof appeals: personality, tradition or

accepted beliefs, rhetoric, and reason.

3. Students should understand the fourcomponents of an appeal to reason:

evidence, claim, elaboration, andqualifier.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6C



Heart bypass surgery is one of the

most common medical procedures

performed on patients 65 years of age

or older. Clearly, it is used far too

often. In 1990, in Colorado alone, 600

patients underwent bypass surgery,making it an incredible 37th among

the 50 most common reasons for

hospitalization. Total hospital chargesfor this one procedure reached a

whopping $22 million. These shocking

facts definitely indicate that hospitals

are making money at the expense of

unsuspecting elderly patients.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6D



Components of a Well-Structured

Appeal to Reason

EVIDENCE. Information that leads to a claim.For example, “Last night five crimes were

committed within two blocks of one another.”

CLAIM. The assertion that something is true. Forexample, “The crime rate in our city is escalating

dramatically.”

ELABORATION. Examples of or explanations for

the claim. For example, “The dramatic increasecan be seen by examining the crime rates in the

downtown area over the past twenty years.”

QUALIFIER. A restriction on the claim orevidence counter to the claim. For example,

“The crime rate has stabilized in some areas,

however.”

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6E



An Appeal to Reason

EVIDENCE. In 1996 large, scheduled U.S. carriers flew an

average of 14 million miles per day without incident. From

a statistical perspective, according to the Federal Aviation

Administration’s Safety Office if you boarded an airliner

daily, you would have to fly an average of 21,000 years

before dying in a crash.

CLAIM. Air travel is the safest mode of transportation.

ELABORATION. Each year, over 40,000 people are killed

in motor vehicle accidents, whereas only 200-300 people

are killed in airplane accidents.

Each year, approximately 12,000 people die from falls and4,000 drown.

QUALIFIERS. These statistics only apply to U.S. carriers.

Africa has become a trouble spot, and Asia, South

America, and Central America also have poor airplanesafety records.

All aircraft older than 20 years must be inspected more

often than those planes less than 20 years old.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6F



Nearly one-fifth of eighth graders and one-third oftwelfth graders admit that they smoke cigarettes.

Addiction to drugs, cigarettes, and alcohol is thought toaccount for, either directly or indirectly, a third of all

hospital admissions, a quarter of all deaths, and themajority of serious crimes. Yet research has shown that drug addiction can be prevented and cured successfully.

All of this suggests that a larger proportion of money spent in the war on drugs should be directed towardprevention and treatment.

Two-thirds of the $15 billion spent on the war on drugsfunds efforts to catch and prosecute those who engage inthe illegal production and sale of drugs. Only one-thirdof the money goes to prevention and treatment. Onereason for this is the misperception that treatment of

drug addiction is unsuccessful. In fact, the failure rate isno greater than, for example, the failure rate of peopletreated for diabetes and hypertension who do not follow their diet, exercise, and medication regimens. Recent breakthroughs in medical research suggest that if moreresources were spent on research, cures and treatments

for drug addiction could be even more successful.This is not to suggest that we should stop prosecutingcriminals who are trafficking illegal drugs. However,there is strong evidence to suggest that the emphasisshould be shifted to prevention and cure.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6G



Drug use is out of control in this country. The war ondrugs has failed miserably. This is probably becauseof the emphasis on prosecuting criminals. In fact, two-thirds of the $15 billion spent for the war on drugs isdirected toward making it a criminal matter. Weshould spend less money on the criminals and moreon the prevention and cure of drug addiction.

The main reason that drugs are such a problem is

that lawyers have become involved. All that money spent prosecuting criminals involved in drugtrafficking actually goes into the pockets of lawyerseager to make a buck. Even more money goes to theshyster lawyers who defend these scum drug

traffickers, often successfully getting them acquittedon technicalities. All of this money should go insteadinto medical research to help prevent and cure drugaddiction.

This is not to suggest that we should stop punishing

criminals who sell drugs to our children. But weshould skip the lengthy trials and just throw theseguys in jail. Medical researchers can then get all that money, not lawyers.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6H



A p p e a l t h r o u g h

p e r s o n a l i t y


t r a d i t i o n o r

a c c e p t e d b e l i e f s


r h e t o r i c

A p p e a l t h r o u g h r e a s o n

E v i d e n c e :

C l a i m :

E l a b o r a t i o n :

Q u a l i f i e r :

O

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6I



1. How can you reasonably object to the new

curricular proposal? After all, it’s supported by

the president, the provost, and all of the top

administrators.

2. Every nation has the sovereign right to control

the flow of people into its country, and most

nations do so rigidly. Only the United States has

a lax immigration policy.

3. Who can excuse the brutal slaughter of innocent

baby seals by greedy killers anxious to sell the

pelts to furriers catering to the idle rich?

4. The idea that is prevalent throughout the United

States is that the people of Northern Ireland do

not want to be part of Great Britain. This is false.

Anyone advancing such views is either totally

ignorant of the facts or deliberately irresponsibleand mischievous.

5. No medical evidence or scientific endorsement

has proved any other cigarette superior to Sussex.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7A



Analyzing Errors

The process of identifyingand articulating errors in thinking.

1. Determine if the information beingpresented is important or is intended toinfluence your beliefs or actions.

2. If the information is important or intended

to influence you, identify statements orclaims that are unusual, violate what youknow to be true, or seem wrong.

3. Look for errors in the thinking underlying

the statements or claims you have identified.

4. If you find errors, seek clarification or moreaccurate information.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7B



Analyzing Errors

The process of finding anddescribing errors in thinking.

1. Is the information I am receivingimportant or does it try to influencemy thinking or my actions?

2. Does something seem wrong withany of the information?

3. What is wrong?

4. How can I get more or betterinformation?

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7C



Types of Errors in Thinking

Faulty Logica. Contradiction

b. Accident

c. False cause

d. Begging the question (circularity)

e. Evading the issue

f. Arguing from ignorance

g. Composition and division

Attacksh. Poisoning the well

i. Arguing against the person

j. Appealing to force

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7D



Types of Errors in Thinking

Weak Referencesk. Using sources that reflect habitual and

confirmatory biases

l. Using sources that lack credibility

m. Appealing to authority

n. Appealing to the people

o. Appealing to emotion

Misinformation

p. Confusing the facts

q. Misapplying a concept or generalization

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7E



Key Points:

Analyzing Errors

1. Students need to be reinforced forattending to possible errors in thethinking underlying information that is

trying to influence them in some way.2. Students will be able to recognize

errors more easily if they becomefamiliar with specific types of errors

that commonly occur in information.

3. It is important to emphasize that there are times and situations in whichit is appropriate not to analyze errorsin information. For example, it isappropriate to accept some things asa matter of faith or trust.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7F



I n f o r m a t i o n

:

I

o n

r a r

n

s a o

W h a t i s w r o n g w i t h t h e t h i n k i n g u n d e r l y

i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ?

D o e s a n y t h i n g

s e e m w r o n g ?

M i s i n f o r m a t i o n ?

A t t a c k s ?

W

e a k r e f e r e n c e s ?

F a u l t y l o g i c ?

A s k f o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n .

S t o p

a n a l y s i s

S

t o p

a n a l y s i s

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7G



Analyzing

Perspectives

The process of identifying multipleperspectives on an issue and examiningthe reasons or logic behind each.

1. When you are examining an issue about which people disagree, first identify andclearly articulate one perspective.

2. Once you have identified a perspective,try to determine the reasons or logicbehind it.

3. Next, identify and clearly articulate adifferent perspective.

4. Try to describe the reasons or logicbehind the different perspective.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8A



Analyzing

Perspectives

The process of describing reasonsfor different points of view.

1. What is one point of view?

2. What are the reasons for thispoint of view?

3. What is another point of view?

4. What might be some reasonsfor this other point of view?

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8B



Around the time of the 50th anniversary

of the bombing of Hiroshima, someone

suggested that the Enola Gay (the plane

that carried the atomic bomb) be

displayed in the Smithsonian Institute.

Various groups—for example, human

rights groups, U.S. military leaders, air

travel aficionados—wanted the plane tobe on display but for very different

reasons.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8C



Key Points:


1. Students should be held accountablefor understanding and clearly articulating reasons for perspectives.

2. Students should understandtwo concepts: reasons and logic.

3. Students should understand that

most issues have multiple perspectives.4. Students should keep the focus on

honing their skills of analysis ratherthan on changing people’s viewpoints.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8D



Statement orConcept

Assigned Value

Reasoning or LogicBehind My Value

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8E

Perspective Examination Matrix



Issue

Personal perspective

Reasons/logic behind my personal perspective

Different perspective

Reasons/logic behinddifferent perspective

Conclusion/awareness

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8F

Conflict Clarification Matrix




What will be done to help students extend andrefine knowledge?

STEP 1 What knowledge will students beextending and refining? Specifically,students will be extending and refiningtheir understanding of…

STEP 2 What reasoning process will studentsbe using?


Dimension 3 Overhead 3.P1




U n i t :

C o l o r a d o

S e v e r a l t i m e s d u r i n g t h i s u n i t w e w i l l , a s a c l a s s , s e l e c t a r t i c l e s f r o m

“ U S A T o d a y ” t h a t r e f l

e c t t h e c u l t u r e o f a p l a c e w i t h w h i c h w e a r e

u n f a m i l i a r . B a s e d o n w

h a t w e l e a r n f r o m t h e a r t i c l e a b o u t t h e

c u l t u r e o f

t h e p l a c e ( e . g . ,

i s s u e s o r

p r o b l e m s p e o p l e f a c e , t h e i r c e l e b r a t i o n s ) , w e w i l l

t r y t o i n d u c e s p e c i f i c f a c

t s a b o u t t h e t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r

c e s , a n d

c l i m a t e o f t h e l o c a t i o n .

W h a t k n o w l e d g e w i l l s

t u d e n t s b e

e x t e n d i n g

a n d

r e f i n i n g ?



a n d r e f i n i n g t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f . . .

W h a t r e a s o n i n g p

r o c e s s


❏

C o m p a r i n g

❏


❏


❏

I n d u c t i v e R e a s o n i n g

❏

D e d u c t i v e R e a

s o n i n g

❏

C o n s t r u c t i n g S

u p p o r t

❏


❏

A n a l y z i n g P e r s p e c t i v e s

❏

O t h e r________

_________

D

e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b e d o n e .


t u d e n t s b e

e x t e n d i n g

a n d

r e f i n i n g ?



a n d r e f i n i n g t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f . . .

W h a t r e a s o n i n g p

r o c e s s


❏

C o m p a r i n g

❏


❏


❏

I n d u c t i v e R e a s o n i n g

❏

D e d u c t i v e R e a

s o n i n g

❏

C o n s t r u c t i n g S

u p p o r t

❏


❏

A n a l y z i n g P e r s p e c t i v e s

❏

O t h e r________

_________

D

e s c r i b e w h a t w i l l b e d o n e .

T o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e

s o u r c e s , a n d

c l i m a t e i n f l u e n c e s e t t l e m

e n t p a t t e r n s

i n a r e g i o n .

S o f a r w e h a v e b e e n f o c u

s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w t o p o g r a p h y ,

n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s , a n d c l i m a t e i n

f l u e n c e t h e “ a p p e a r a n c e ” o f s e t t l e m e n t s .

S h i f t

y o u r f o c u s n o w a n d e x a m i n e h o w t h e s e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e

“ d i s a p p e a r a n c e ” o f s e t t l e m e n t s .

Y o u w i l l b e g i v e n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e p o p u l a t i o n s t h r i v e d a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d ( e . g . ,

A n a s a z i I n d i a n s , s e v e r a l g h o s t t o w n s , d i n o s a u r s , a n d t h e “ d u s

t b o w l ” )

a n d t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r d e m i s e . C l a s s i f y e a c h d e s c r i p t i o n a c c o r

d i n g t o

w h e t h e r t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e h a d m o r e t o d o w i t h

t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , o r c l i m a t e .

I f m o r e t h a n o n e p o s s i b l e

r e a s o n i s g i v e n , y o u m a y h a v e t o p l a c e t h e e x a m p l e i n m o r e t h a n o n e

c a t e g o r y .

T o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , a n d

c l i m a t e i n f l u e n c e t h e c u l t u r e o f a

r e g i o n .

✓ ✓

S t e p 1

S t e p 2

S t e p 3



Stimulus QuestionsComparing• Would it be useful to show how things are similar and/or

different?

• Would it be useful for students to focus on identifying how similar things are different and how different things aresimilar?

• Would it be helpful to have students describe how comparing

things affects their knowledge or opinions related to thosethings?

Classifying• Would it be helpful to have students group things?

• Would it be beneficial for students to generate a number of

ways to group the same list of things?

Abstracting• Is there an abstract pattern that could be applied?

• Could something complex or unfamiliar be understood betterby generating an abstract pattern and applying it to

something simple or more familiar?• Are there seemingly different things that could be connected

through the generation of an abstract pattern?




Inductive Reasoning• Are there important unstated conclusions that could be

generated from observations or facts?

• Are there situations for which probable or likely conclusions

could be generated?

• Are there issues or situations for which students couldexamine the inductive reasoning used?

Deductive Reasoning• Are there generalizations (or rules or principles) that could be

applied to reach conclusions and make predictions?• Are there topics or issues for which students could examine

the validity of the deductive reasoning used?

Constructing Support • Are there important claims to be refuted or supported?

• Would it be important to examine existing arguments that support or refute a claim?

Analyzing Errors• Are there situations in which it would be beneficial to identify

errors in reasoning?

Analyzing Perspectives• Would it be useful to identify and understand the reasoning or

logic behind a perspective on a topic or issue?

• Would it be useful to analyze opposing perspectives on atopic or issue?




D i m e n s i o n 4


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 420/484Dimension 4 Overhead 4.0A

Organizational Format for EachReasoning Process

I. A brief introduction to the process.

II. Five sections with suggestions for teaching the

process:

1. Help students understand the process.

2. Give students a model for the process, and

create opportunities for them to practice using

the process.

3. As students study and use the process, help

them focus on critical steps and difficult aspectsof the process.

4. Provide students with graphic organizers or

representations of the model to help them

understand and use the process.

5. Use teacher-structured and student-structured

tasks.

III. Classroom Examples



Decision Making

The process of generating andapplying criteria to select fromamong seemingly equal alternatives.

1. Identify a decision you wish to make and thealternatives you are considering.

2. Identify the criteria you consider important.

3. Assign each criterion an importance score.

4. Determine the extent to which eachalternative possesses each criterion.

5. Multiply the criterion scores by thealternative scores to determine which

alternative has the highest total points.6. Based on your reaction to the selected

alternative, determine if you want to changeimportance scores or add or drop criteria.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1A



Decision Making

The process of developing andusing criteria to select from choicesthat seem to be equal alternatives.

1. What am I trying to decide?

2. What are my choices?

3. What are important criteria for making thisdecision?

4. How important is each criterion?

5. How well does each of my choices matchmy criteria?

6. Which choice matches best with thecriteria?

7. How do I feel about the decision? Do Ineed to change any criteria and try again?

Decision Making Overhead 4.1B



e

e r a

T O T A L S

Decision Making Overhead 4.1C



Key Points: Decision Making

1. Help students understand how important it is to generate clear criteriathat accurately identify the conditionsthat the selected alternatives need to

meet.2. Hold students accountable for rigorously

applying criteria to alternatives.

3. Vary the way that you use decisionmaking to maximize its potential forencouraging students to use theknowledge they are learning in aunit of study.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1D



It is 1969. You are on the board of Time

magazine. For the cover of the December

issue, you want to select a Person of theDecade. Your job is to decide whichperson should be selected and justify yourdecision to the publishers by listing the

people who were considered, the criteria you used, and how each person wasrated under each criterion. Report on

• the criteria you used and the

importance scores you applied toeach;

• the individuals you considered and

the extent to which they met yourcriteria; and

• your final selection.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1E



Problem Solving

The process of overcoming constraintsor limiting conditions that are in the

way of pursuing goals.

1. Identify the goal you are trying to accomplish.2. Identify the constraints or limiting conditions.

3. Determine exactly how these constraints or limitingconditions are preventing you from reaching yourgoal.

4. Identify different ways of overcoming theconstraints or meeting the limiting conditions.

5. Select and try out the alternative that appears tobe the best.

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the alternative youhave tried. If appropriate, try a different alternative or identify additional ways ofovercoming the constraints or limiting conditions.

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2A



Problem Solving

The process of overcominglimits or barriers that are inthe way of reaching goals.

1. What am I trying to accomplish?

2. What are the limits or barriers that are

in the way?3. What are some solutions for

overcoming the limits or barriers?

4. Which solution will I try?5. How well did it work? Should I try

another solution?

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2B


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 428/484Problem Solving Overhead 4.2C

P o

e

. d l l

T r y a n o t h e r s

o l u t i o n .

C o n

s t r a i n t / L i m i t i n g C o n d i t i o n :

G o a

l :

P r o b l e m s o

l v e d .

P o s s i b l e S o l u t i o n :


S e l e c t e d S o l u t i o n :




Key Points: Problem Solving

1. Help students understand that the way thegoal is defined will determine the direction forthe rest of the steps in the problem-solvingprocess.

2. Make sure that students carefully analyze the

constraints or limiting conditions before they generate alternative solutions.

3. Help students understand that they may need to use the processes of decision makingor invention at various points in the problem-solving process.

4. Encourage students to try a number ofsolutions before concluding that the problemis solved. A major purpose for engaging in

problem solving is to find the best solution,not just any solution.

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2D


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 430/484Invention Overhead 4.3A

Goggles for Fowls

United States Patent OfficeEye Protector for Chickens

Specification formingpart of LettersPatent No. 780,918,

dated June 16, l903.

Application filedDecember 10, 1902.Serial No. 134,679.(No model)

Goggles for Fowls

This invention relates to eye protectors, and moreparticularly to eye protectors designed for fowls, so

that they may be protected from other fowls that might attempt to peck them, a further object of theinvention being to provide a construction which may be easily and quickly applied and removed and

which will not interfere with the sight of the fowl.



Invention

The process of developing unique

products or processes that fulfillperceived needs.

Choice 1. Identify a situation you want to improve or a need to which

you want to respond.2. State your purpose or goal; write or say it several times in

several different ways to look at it from different perspectives.

Drafting

3. Identify specific standards for your invention. What

specifically do you want it to do?4. Make a model, sketch, or outline of your invention.

5. Start developing your product. Keep looking foralternatives and even better ways of creating your product.Don’t be too easily satisfied.

6. Occasionally set your partially completed product aside so

you can be more objective when you return to it.

Revising

7. Keep going over your invention with attention to detail.

8. Stop when you have reached a level of completenessconsistent with the norms and standards you have set.

Invention Overhead 4.3B



Invention

The process of developingoriginal products or processesthat meet specific needs.

1. What do I want to make, or what do I want to make better?

2. What standards do I want to set for my

invention?

3. What is the best way to make a roughdraft of my invention?

4. How can I improve on my rough draft?

5. Does my invention meet the standards Ihave set?

Invention Overhead 4.3C



Inventions That Didn’t Make It (Why?)

1. The Better Mousetrap

2. The Fire Escape

3. New Coke

Inventions That Made It

(Why?)

1. Wide slots in toasters

2. FAX machines3. Post-it notes

Invention Overhead 4.3D



Using Analogical Reasoning toCreate Invention Ideas

1. Write a speech that will do for drug

awareness what the “I Have a Dream”

speech did for civil rights.

2. Create a character that would do for

my story what Hercule Poirot did for

Agatha Christie’s books.

3. Create an experiment for ____ that

would do what Pavlov’s dog

experiments did for conditionedresponse.

Invention Overhead 4.3E



1. Invent a procedure or product that is needed by teachers or

that exists now but needsimprovement.

2. Invent a procedure or product

that might be useful around thehouse.

3. Invent a procedure or a productthat might be useful in anautomobile.

4. Think of your own idea ofsomething that needs to beinvented.

Invention Overhead 4.3F



Key Points: Invention

1. During the first phase of invention,Choice , students need to be heldaccountable for clearly identifying theneed that their invention will address.

2. In the second phase, Drafting ,students need to be encouraged toset clear, rigorous standards that

will provide direction for their work.

3. During the third phase, Revising ,students may need feedback and

reinforcement to continue makingrevisions until the invention meets, orexceeds, the standards they have set.

Invention Overhead 4.3G


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 437/484Invention Overhead 4.3H

D r a f t

D r a f t

N e e d :

S t a n d a r d s :

I n v e n t i o n :

C H O I C E D R A F T A N D R E V I S E

D r a f t



ExperimentalInquiry

The process of generating and testingexplanations of observed phenomena.

1. Observe something that interests you, anddescribe what has occurred.

2. Explain what you have observed. What theories or rules could explain what you have

observed?3. Based on your explanation, make a prediction.

4. Set up an experiment or activity to test yourprediction.

5. Explain the results of your experiment inlight of your explanation. If necessary,revise your explanation or prediction orconduct another experiment.

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4A



ExperimentalInquiry

The process of developingand testing explanations of

things we observe.

1. What do I see or notice?

2. How can I explain it?

3. Based on my explanation, what can Ipredict?

4. How can I test my prediction?

5. What happened? Is it what I predicted?Do I need to try a different explanation?

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4B



1. I wonder why he throws such frequent, wildtantrums?

2. I think I’ll do some reading—maybe Dr. Spock and

Dr. Mom —and increase my knowledge, which I canthen use to generate an explanation. . . .

I have a possible explanation: Maybe I reinforcehis tantrums by giving them attention. I am

scolding and punishing, but maybe he stillperceives it as attention and continues the behavior.

3. If that is true, what if I stopped giving him attention when he throws tantrums? He might stop.

4. I think I’ll test it. For two weeks I will turn my back or leave the room (as long as he is safe) as soonas a tantrum starts. I will give him lots of attentionthe second it stops.

5. I have tried this for two weeks, and there is nochange. In fact, his tantrums are worse and morefrequent. I’d better think of another explanation.(He’s just like his father?)

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4C



Key Points:


1. Because engaging in experimental inquiry can be so demanding, it helps if studentsare examining topics that are interestingand meaningful to them.

2. It is important for students to have theopportunity to learn the knowledge they will need to use in step 2 of the process:offering possible explanations for theobserved phenomenon.

3. Although the goal is for students to becomeproficient at independently setting upexperiments, they may need a great deal ofhelp at first with this part of the process.

4. Students should understand that regardless ofthe outcome of the experiment, it is important to go back and set up additional experimentsor consider different explanations.

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4D



Task 1Most people who became adults during the 1960s are now in their fifties. Consider this population. Some would say

that it is interesting that the 1960s have had no lastingeffect on these people. One possible explanation for this isthat the effect is there but it is subtle. Try to determine whateffects the experiences of the 1960s are having on the livesof these people today. Test your hypothesis and report on

• your hypothesis• how you tested your hypothesis• your findings• your conclusions

OR

Task 2During the late 1980s, there was renewed interest in the

Vietnam War, which could be seen in the many movies,books, and documentaries released during that time.Create a possible explanation for this. Set up an

experiment to test your hypothesis and report on• your hypothesis• how you tested your hypothesis• your findings• your conclusions

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4E



O b s e r v a t i o n :

R e l e v a n t T

h e o r y / R u l e :

R e l e v a

n t T h e o r y / R u l e :

i

e

l

a

o

c

i d

R e s u l t s :

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4F



Definitional Investigation:Constructing a precise definition of a

concept for which there is nogenerally agreed-upon definition.

Historical Investigation:Constructing a scenario for an event

or situation from the past for which

there is no agreed-upon explanationor sequence of events.

Projective Investigation:Constructing a scenario for a future

event or for a hypothetical past event.

Investigation Overhead 4.5A



Investigation

The process of identifying andresolving issues about whichthere are confusions or contradictions.

1. Clearly identify • the concept to be defined (Definitional

Investigation), or

• the past event to be explained (HistoricalInvestigation), or

• the hypothetical event to be defined orexplained (Projective Investigation).

2. Identify what is already known or agreed upon.

3. Identify and explain the confusion orcontradiction.

4. Develop and defend a plausible resolution tothe confusion or contradiction.

Investigation Overhead 4.5B



Investigation

The process of suggesting anddefending ways to clear upconfusions about ideas or events.

1. What event or idea do I want toexplain?

2. What do people already know?3. What confusions do people have

about the idea or event?

4. What suggestions do I have forclearing up these confusions?

5. How can I defend my suggestions?

Investigation Overhead 4.5C



Ideas for Investigation Topics

1. What specifically is a “cold war?” Is it any time thereis nonmilitary tension between countries?

2. How did the scoring system of tennis evolve?

3. How many plagues were there before the Exodus? Why do some sources refer to the Red Sea and some tothe Reed Sea?

4. What would happen if we became a cashless society?

5. Was Edgar Allan Poe really a deranged alcoholic? Or was that characterization created by a biographer who was jealous of him?

6. How and when did Hitler die?

7. What is the “Third World”? Is it a socioeconomic,political, cultural, or geographical distinction?

8. What would have happened if Columbus had landedon America’s West Coast?

9. What is cooperation? Is helping a friend with his orher homework an example of cooperation? Is letting afriend copy your homework an example of cooperation?

10. What would happen if genetic engineering resulted inprocesses that could be used to easily clone humans?

Investigation Overhead 4.5D



Key Points: Investigation

1. Topics for investigation may, at first, bedifficult to identify. To increase students’awareness of how many topics couldbe investigated, start a class list that students can contribute to wheneverthey encounter a topic that needs tobe investigated.

2. Because investigation demands extensiveuse of a wide variety of sources, youmay need to help students learn how toaccess and use sources.

3. When students generate interesting,

creative resolutions to the confusions orcontradictions that are the focus of theirinvestigations, reinforce their efforts by offering opportunities for them to sharetheir ideas with others.

Investigation Overhead 4.5E



K n o w n o r A g r e e d U p o n :

•

•

•

•

•

• C o n f u s i o

n s o r C o n t r a d i c

t i o n s :

R e s o l u t i o n :

C o n c e p t / S c e n a r i o :

Investigation Overhead 4.5F



Systems Analysis

The process of analyzingthe parts of a system and themanner in which they interact.

1. Identify the parts of the system.

2. Describe the boundaries of the

system.

3. Describe how parts affect each other.

4. Identify various parts of the system,

and, for each, explain what wouldhappen if this part changed orstopped working.

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6A



Systems Analysis

The process of describinghow the parts of a system work together.

1. What are the parts of the system?

2. What are things that are related to

the system but are not part of it?

3. How do the parts affect each other?

4. What would happen if variousparts stopped or changedtheir behavior?

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6B



Key Points:

System Analysis

1. Identifying how parts of a system affecteach other is difficult because there areso many different ways in which onepart might affect another.

2. Teachers may need to use tools such asgraphs or computer simulations to helpstudents identify and understand the

“functional relationships” among theparts of a system.

System Analysis Overhead 4.6C


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 453/484Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6D



l o v e d

l o v e d

h a t e

d

f e a r

e d

f e a r e d h a t e d

d i d

n ’ t c

a r e a b

o u t

a d m

i r e d

d i d n ’ t c a r e a b o

u t

a d m i r e

d

CINDERELLA

STEPMOTHER STEPSISTERS

PRINCE

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6E




What will be done to help students useknowledge meaningfully?

STEP 1 What knowledge will students be usingmeaningfully? Specifically, students willbe demonstrating their understanding of

and ability to…

STEP 2 What reasoning process will studentsbe using?






U n i t :

C o l o r a d o


t u d e n t s b e

u s i n g m e a n i n g f u l l y ?


t h e y w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t i n

g t h e i r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n d a b

i l i t y t o . . .


w i l l t

h e y b e u s i n g ?

❏

O t h e r__________

________


❏

D e c i s i o n M a k i n g

( s e l e c t i n g f r o m s e e m i n g l y

e q u a l a l t e r n a t i v e s o r e x a m i n i n g

t h e d e c i s i o n s o f o t h e r s )

❏

P r o b l e m S o l v i n g

( s e e k i n g t o a c h i e v e a g o a l b y

o v e r c o m i n g c o n s t r a i n t s o r

l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s )

❏

I n v e n t i o n

( c r e a t i n g s o m e t h i n g t o

m e e t a

n e e d o r i m p r o v e o n a

s i t u a t i o n )

❏

E x p e r i m e n t a l I n

q u i r y

( g e n e r a t i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n

f o r a p h e n o m e n o n a n d

t e s t i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

)

❏

I n v e s t i g a t i o n

( r e s o l v i n g c o n f u s i o n s o

r

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o a

h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t , a h y p o t h e t i c a l

p a s t o r f u t u r e e v e n t , o r t o t h e

d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

s o m e t h i n g )

❏

S y s t e m s A n a l y s i s

( a n a l y z i n g t h e p a r t s o f a

s y s t e m a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t )

T h e c o n c e p t s o f t o p o g r a p

h y ,

n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , c l i m a

t e , a n d

c u l t u r e

T o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ,

a n d c l i m a t e i n f l u e n c e s e t t l e m e n t

p a t t e r n s .

W e h a v e d i s c u s s e d i n c l a s s t h a t C o l o r a d o ’ s p o p u l a t i o n i s g r o w i n g

v e r y r a p i d l y . I n f a c t , c o m p a r e d t o m a n y o t h e r s t a t e s , a r e l a t i v e l y

l a r g e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e w h o l i v e i n C o l o r a d o m o v e d f r o m

s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e r e a r e a c t u a l l y n o t t h a t m a n y “ C o l o r a d o

n a t i v e s . ” W h y h a v e s o m a n y p e o p l e m o v e d t o C o l o r a d o , a

n d w h y

i s t h e p o p u l a t i o n s t i l l g r o w i n g s o r a p i d l y ?

O n e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t a s p e c t s o f t h e t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s , c l i m a t e , a n d c u l t u r e a t t r a c t p e o p l e t o C o l o r a d o . L e t ’ s

f i n d o u t i f t h a t h e l p s e x p l a i n i t . I f i t i s t r u e , w e s h o u l d b e a b l e

t o t r a c e p e o p l e ’ s r e a s o n s

f o r m o v i n g t o C o l o r a d o t o t h e s e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t a t e .

S e t u p a n a c t i v i t y — f o r e x a m p l e , s u r v e y s o r i n t e r v i e w s —

t h a t

w o u l d h e l p t o d e t e r m i n e t o w h a t e x t e n t p e o p l e h a v e m o v e d t o

C o l o r a d o b e c a u s e o f f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a

l

r e s o u r c e s , c l i m a t e , a n d c u l t u r e . Y o u w i l l n e e d t o s e t u p t h

e

a c t i v i t y , p l a n f o r a n a l y z i n g y o u r r e s u l t s , a n d b e r e a d y t o r e p o r t

y o u r f i n d i n g s t o t h e c l a s s . A n y m e m b e r o f y o u r g r o u p m a y b e

a s k e d t o e x p l a i n w h a t y o u f o u n d o u t a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f e a c h

c o n c e p t y o u a r e c o n s i d e r i n g : t o p o g r a p h y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ,

c l i m a t e , a n d c u l t u r e .

✓

S t e p 1

S t e p 2

S t e p 3



Stimulus QuestionsDecision Making• Is there an unresolved decision important to

the unit?

• Is there an unresolved issue about who or what is the best or worst?

• Is there an unresolved issue about who or what has the most or least?

Problem Solving• Is there a situation or process that has some

major constraint or limiting condition?• Is there a situation or process that could be

better understood if constraints or limitingconditions were placed on it?

Invention• Is there a situation that can and should be

improved on?

• Is there something new that should be created?




Experimental Inquiry • Is there an unexplained phenomenon (physical or

psychological) for which students could generateexplanations that can be tested?

Investigation• Is there an unresolved issue about the defining

characteristics or defining features of something?

(Definitional)• Is there an unresolved issue about how something

occurred? (Historical)

• Is there an unresolved issue about why somethinghappened? (Historical)

• Is there an unresolved issue about what wouldhappen if . . . or what would have happened if …(Projective)?

Systems Analysis

• Are there parts of a system or the interactions ofthe parts of a system that could be analyzed?

• Is there something that could be examined interms of how it behaves or works within asystem?




As you construct the task, you need to considerthe following questions:

• What specifically does the task requirestudents to do? Make sure that the task requires students to use the identifiedknowledge in order to complete the task.

• What makes the task meaningful to thestudent?

• Does it have an authentic context or purpose?

• Is it intellectually stimulating and interesting?

• Does it allow for artistic expression?

• Does it allow for student choice?

• To what extent will students be workingalone or in groups?

• What product will students turn in?

• How will the criteria for evaluation becommunicated to the students?




D i m e n s i o n 5



Helping Students Develop

Productive Habits of Mind

1. Help students understand habits ofmind.

2. Help students identify and developstrategies related to the habits of mind.

3. Create a culture in the classroom andthe school that encourages thedevelopment and use of the habits ofmind.

4. Provide positive reinforcement tostudents who exhibit the habits ofmind.




The Dimensions of Learning

Habits of Mind: A Resource for Teachers

This section includes

• a brief explanation of each habit,

• examples of situations in which it might be beneficial to have each

habit of mind, and

• examples of strategiesrecommended by people who

exhibit each habit.



http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 464/484Dimension 5 Overhead 5.3



Integrate the Habits IntoDaily Routines

Critical Thinking Have students engage in debate withthe express purpose of reinforcing the

habits of critical thinking.

Creative Thinking Have students engage in various types

of problem-solving activities with theexpress purpose of highlighting anddeveloping these habits of mind.

Self-Regulated Thinking Have students identify and pursuelong-term goals.




H a b i t s o f M i n d

L a c k s

A w a r e n e s s

U n d e r s t a n d s

D e v e l o p i n g

S t r a t e g i e s

B e c o m i n g

a H a b i t

M a i n t a i n a n o p e n m i n d

B e a c c u r a t e a n d

s e e k a c c u r a c y

B e c l e a r a n d s e e k c l a r i t y

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I

N G



Critical ThinkingBe Accurate and Seek Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

Be Clear and Seek Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Maintain an Open Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277Restrain Impulsivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Take a Position When the Situation Warrants It . . . . . . . 281

Respond Appropriately to Others’ Feelingsand Level of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Creative ThinkingPersevere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Push the Limits of Your Knowledge and Abilities . . . . . . . 285

Generate, Trust, and Maintain Your OwnStandards of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Generate New Ways of Viewing a Situation That AreOutside the Boundaries of Standard Conventions . . . . . . 288

Self-Regulated ThinkingMonitor Your Own Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Plan Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Identify and Use Necessary Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Respond Appropriately to Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Evaluate the Effectiveness of Your Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . 296




Jigsaw 1. Read

a. the explanation of the habit,b. the examples of situations in which it might

be beneficial,

c. one or more of the recommended strategies,and

d. one or more of the classroom examples onpages 270-273 for your category. Noticehow the teacher deals with the habit(s). What is your reaction to his or her ideas? What

else might be done?

2. Share the information, classroom examples, and your reactions to the examples.

3. Generate

a. examples of situations in which any of thehabits has been beneficial, or

b. strategies developed from your ownexperiences.





What will be done to help students developproductive habits of mind?

STEP 1 Are there any goals or concerns related tostudents’ habits of minds

• in general?• related to this specific unit?

STEP 2 What will be done to address these goals orconcerns?

STEP 2a Specifically, will anything be done to helpstudents…

[Identify the specific habits of mind that will help you to address your goals andconcerns.]

STEP 2b Describe what will be done.




D e s c r i b e w

h a t w

i l l b e

d o n e .

C r i t i c a l

T h i n k i n g

❏

b e a c c u r a

t e a n d s e e k a c c u r a c y ?

❏

b e c l e a r a n d s e e k c l a r i t y ?

❏

m a i n

t a i n a n o p e n m

i n d ?

❏

r e s t r a

i n i m p u l s i v i t y ?

❏

t a k e a p o s i t i o n w

h e n t h e

s i t u a t i o n w a r r a n t s

i t ?

❏

r e s p o

n d a p p r o p r i a

t e l y t o o

t h e r s ’

f e e l i n

g s a n d

l e v e l o f k n o w

l e d g e ?

C r e a t i v

e

T h i n k i n g

❏

p e r s e

v e r e ?

❏

p u s h

t h e l i m i t s o

f t h e i r

k n o w

l e d g e a n d a

b i l i t i e s ?

❏

g e n e r a

t e , t r u s t , a n d m a

i n t a i n

t h e i r

o w n s t a n d a r d s o

f e v a

l u a t i o n ?

❏

g e n e r a

t e n e w w a y s o

f v i e w

i n g a

s i t u a t i o n

t h a t a r e o u t s i d e

t h e

b o u n

d a r i e s o

f s t a n d a r d c o n v e n t i o n s ?

S e l f - R e g u l a t e d

T h i n k i n g

❏

m o n i

t o r

t h e i r t h i n k i n g ?

❏

p l a n

a p p r o p r i a

t e l y ?

❏

i d e n t

i f y a n d u s e n e c e s s a r y r e s o u r c e s ?

❏

r e s p o

n d a p p r o p r i a

t e l y t o f e e d b a c k ?

❏

e v a l u

a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o

f t h e i r a c t i o n s ?

A r e

t h e r e a n

y g o a

l s o r c o n c e r n s

r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t s ’ h a b i t s o f m i n d

• i n g e n e r a

l ?

• r e l a t e d

t o t h i s s p e c i f i c u n i t ?

S p e c i f i c a

l l y , w

i l l a n y t h i n g

b e

d o n e t o

h e l p s t u d e n t s . . .

I t ’ s t h a t t i m

e o f y e a r . S t u d e n t s a r e

r e a l l y s l a c k i n g o f f . E n e r g y i s l o w ;

o n l y t h e m i n

i m u m i s b e i n g d o n e —

e v e n f r o m m y g o o d s t u d e n t s .

I a m g o i n g t o t r y t o e n e r g i z e t h e m

a l i t t l e b i t b y

v e r b a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g s t u d e n t s w h e n

t h e y p u s h t h e i r

l i m i t s o r p e r s e v e r e . I t h i n k i t i s t i m e t o g i v e o u t a f e w

c e r t i f i c a t e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t w h e n s t u d e n t s e x h i b i t t h e s e

h a b i t s .

S t u d e n t s k n o w y o u s h o u l d p l a n

b e f o r e y o u b e g i n , b u t t h e y d o n o t

c o n s i s t e n t l y o r e f f i c i e n t l y d o t h i s .

T h e e x p e r i m

e n t a l i n q u i r y t a s k w i l l

b e d e p e n d e n t o n c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g

a n d f o l l o w - t h r o u g h .

I a m g o i n g t o g i v e s t u d e n t s a p l a n n i n g f o r m t o k e e p o n

t h e i r d e s k s . I w i l l u s e i t t o l e a d s o m e d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t

p l a n n i n g a n d t h e n t o d e m o n s t r a t e

h o w t o u s e t h e f o r m .

E v e r y f e w d a y s I a m g o i n g t o h a v e s t u d e n t s w r i t e i n

t h e i r l e a r n i n g l o g s a b o u t h o w t h e i r p l a n n i n g i s g o i n g .

W h a t w

i l l b e

d o n e

t o a

d d r e s s

t h e s e g o a l s o

r c o n c e r n s ?

✓ ✓ ✓

S t

S t

2


U n

i t : C o l o r a d o




P u t t i n g I t A l l T o g e t h e r


http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dimensions-of-learning-trainer-marzano 478/484Putting It All Together Overhead 6.1


• Content

• Sequencing Instruction• Assessment

• Grading• Conferences



A. Model 1:

Focus on Knowledge,page 306

B. Model 2:Focus on Issues,page 307

C. Model 3:Focus on Student Exploration,

page 308



Integrating Presentation

and Workshop Classes1. What strategies and activities will

be used to support Dimensions 1

and 5?

2. How many days of the unit will bedevoted to presentation classes,

and when will they occur?3. How many workshop classes will

be needed in the unit?

4. What sequence of presentation and workshop classes will provide anintegrated unit of instruction?



Sequence of Classes:

Colorado Unit Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Week 1 topography, naturalresources—read text

P

construct models andshape for readingphysical maps,natural resource maps

P

• See film—beginboth pictographs

• climate—read text assign regionalcakes

P

culture, read text, andpresentations

P

culture, read text, andpresentations; learn note-taking strategy

P

Week 2 induction task—demonstrate steps, dosome together as class(cakes start coming inthis week)

W

topography, etc.influence culture—discussion using graphicorganizer; present information on important people from Coloradohistory.

P

topography, etc.influence settlement patterns—read text,handout—useorganizer (quiz)

P

guest speaker onGold Rush, studentsuse timeline for notes.

P

classifying task—studentsalready know how toclassify, but I will review steps before they start (quiz)

W

Week 3 introduceexperimental inquiry task—teach steps of

process—demonstrateplanning; studentsbegin work

W

field trip

P

experimental inquiry:students work on task,I conference

W

induction task—students work withnewspapers in

groups, I conference

W

• experimental inquiry task—students work onproject, I conference,

demonstrate planning• review map reading,homework

W

Week 4 renewable,nonrenewable, etc.film, concept attainment, graphicorganizer

P

experimentalinquiry—students work, I conference

W

experimentalinquiry—I willconference

W

student presentationsof results fromexperimental inquiry task

W

unit test



Types of Assessment

for Different Typesof Knowledge

Dimension 2:SpecificDeclarativeKnowledge

X X X X X

Dimension 2:GeneralDeclarativeKnowledge

X X X X

Dimension 2:

SpecificProceduralKnowledge

X X X X X

Dimension 2:GeneralProceduralKnowledge

X X X X

Dimension 3 & 4:ComplexReasoningProcesses

X X X X

Dimension 5:Habits of Mind

X X X

Forced-ChoiceItems

Essay Questions

PerformanceTasks/Portfolios

Teacher Observation

Student Self-Assessment



Gradebook: Sample Page Assignment Key: A. Quiz

B. Induction Task

C. Reg. cake (HW)

D. Classify Task

E. Quiz

F. Exper. Inq. Task

G. Unit Test

H. Map Assign (HW)

I. Quiz

J. Quiz

K. Student Self-Assessment

L. Observations

A BC

Standards/Benchmarks:

Students

Geo S1B2humans/ physical

environment

Geo S6B1use thematic

maps

Dim 5habits of

mind

Al Einstein 333

A

3

BC

Marie Curie

3 2

2

4 21

23

4 2 3

DE

FGHI

JK

4 4

2 2

2, 2 2

L

Geo S2B5human

movement/regions

Dim 3 & 4complex

reasoning

3 3

3

3

33

333, 3+

3 3

2

2 11 1

1

3 2 2

DEFGHI

JK

2 2

21

2, 2 2

L

1 21

1 21

2 21, 1

1 2

2 A B

C

George Carver 4 23

4

4 3 4 3

4

4 4 4

DEFGHI

JK

3 4

4 4

4, 4 4

L

4 4

3 433

3 43, 4, 3

33

3

dimensions of learning trainer marzano

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