design of large area, pixelated asics for picosecond...
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Design of large area, pixelated ASICs for picosecond timing
applications
E. Charbon EPFL
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Outline
• Why large area TOA ASICs? • TDC Basics & Architectures • Case Studies • ASIC vs. FPGA • 3D Integration • Quantum computing • Conclusions
2 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Why large area TOA ASICs?
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Large Area TOA Applications
• Optical rangefinder on-pixel (3D camera) • Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) • Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) • Detection of a scintillation shower upon gamma
photon detection in PET • High energy physics (HEP)
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HEP
• Extremely harsh conditions – Large ionizing doses, Gamma – Protons, Neutrons
• Very demanding specs – TOA resolutions in ns to ps – Ranges of µs to ms
• Very low dead times – Events spaced ns – Gevents/s
• Large number of points-of-measurement – Thousands to million points – Large surfaces
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Example (Courtesy: Artur Apresyan)
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Another Example
• In time-of-flight PET one needs – A large number of point-of-measurement – A high timing resolution
• Synchronization is extremely important to enable coincidence computation and rejection of singles
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TDC Basics
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TDC Objective
But, in most cases:
START
STOP
Time scale
Hits
t
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TDC Symbol
START
STOP
DATA
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Basic Definitions • Bin size or LSB – τ (sec)
– Minimum distance between time events that can be resolved • Accuracy & precision (sec)
– Time-invariant offset – Time-varying drift
• Range (sec) – Maximum time difference that can be measured
• Conversion rate (MS/sec) • Latency (sec) • Non-linearities
– Differential non-linearity (DNL) – Integral non-linearity (INL)
• Single-shot accuracy (sec) 11 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Input Non-Idealities
• Signals are non-Dirac – Non-zero rise time – Non-zero width
• START-STOP sequence is not regular • Signals have jitter in
– Time – Amplitude
• Temperature • Supply variations
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TDC Non-Idealities
13 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
Time difference between START and STOPO
utpu
t dig
ital c
ode
(LSB
)
Ideal response
Actual response
LSBti
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8DNLi = LSB
ti - LSB
INLi = ∑ DNLji
j=0
Digital code [LSB]
Hist
gram
(a) (b)
Standard deviation, FWHM => single-shot precision
Ideally only one digital code
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DNL, INL
• Integral non-ideality (INL) is the integral of DNL • Depending upon definition, starts and ends at 0
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How to Measure: Density Test
• Poisson distributed uniform START generator • Measure statistics of TDC measurements per bin • Normalize to average counts, differences are DNL
points
time
counts
avg. counts
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Single-Shot Accuracy (SSA)
• Repeat measurement of single time-of-arrival and construct histogram
• Derive statistics by Gaussian fitting and calculation of FWHM or σ or 3σ.
time
FWHM
TOA centroid
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Optical Tests
• Density test: free running SPAD • Single-shot experiment:
– Histogram Δti, i=[1…N] (time-correlated single-photon counting – TCSPC)
GAPD or SPAD
STOP
DATA START
Clock
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Figures of Merit
• Power, LSB, DNL/INL, SSA, area • Temperature stability • Cross-talk
65 90 130 180 350Tech. (nm)
Area
(mm
2 )
0.001
0.01
10
0.1
1
[18]Conventional TDC array
[1]
[8]
[12]
[15]
[11]
[3]
[2][5]
[16][17][9]
[14]
[7][6]
[10]
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Architectures
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The Simplest: A Counter
• Resolution: τ = 1/fclock
• Conversion rate = 1/latencySTART STOP
CLOCK DATA
START
STOP
CLOCK
DATA VALID BUSY IDLE 20
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Counter – Register
• Advantage: fast counter can be shared among many HIT lines
• Fast registers easier to build RESET
HIT
CLOCK
DATA REGISTER
COUNTER
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Delay Chain
• Non-Inverting Gates
Register
START
STOP
START(Φ0)
STOP
DATA VALID BUSY IDLE
Φ1
ΦJ+1
ΦJ
J J+1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
τ
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Delay Chain
• Resolution: τ = delay element • Conversion rate = 1/latency • Latency = N×τ• Need a thermometer decoder: Nèlog2(N) • Issues: metastability, bubbles
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
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Phase Interpolator
• Non-inverting gates
Register
Clock
HIT
CLOCK(Φ0)
HIT
DATA VALID BUSY IDLE
Φ1
ΦJ+1
ΦJ
J J+1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
τ
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Phase Interpolator
• Resolution: τ = delay element • Conversion rate = 1/latency • Latency = N×τ• Need a thermometer decoder: Nèlog2(N) • Issues: metastability, no bubbles
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Vernier Lines
• Resolution: τ = τslow - τfast • Conversion rate = 1/latency • Latency = N×τslow
• Need a thermometer decoder: Nèlog2(N) • Issues: metastability, matching
START
STOP
D D D D D D D D
τslow
τfast
N 1
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Pulse Shrinking
• Resolution: τ = τrise - τfall • Conversion rate = 1/latency • Latency = N×τslow
• Need a thermometer decoder: Nèlog2(N) • Issues: matching
START N 1 STOP
START STOP
Asymmetric rise, fall time
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Ring Oscillators
• Resolution: τ = delay element • Conversion rate = 1/latency • Latency = N×τ• Need a thermometer decoder: Nèlog2(N) • Issues: metastability, matching, asymmetric load
START
COUNTER To extend range
τ
N 1 STOP
START STOP R/O signal
Uncertainty region
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Actual Implementation
• Fully differential • Partial propagation readout
– lower oscillation frequency or higher resolution – Rise times and fall times doubles resolution
• Invariant load to improve linearity
Mandai and C
harbon, ES
SC
IRC
11
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Delay Element Implementation
• Uniform rise/fall time • Bias control used for feedback • Positive feedback for speed VDD
VBIAS
VDD
In+
In-
Out+
Out-
In+ In-
Out+ Out-
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Asymmetric Rise/Fall Time
• E.g. inverter starved cell • Rise time =VDD� Cload/I
• Fall time: inverter delay
VDD
In Out
I
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Semi-Digital TDCs
• Determine time difference based on propagation through an RC line
R
C
R
C
R
C
R
C
V
t
RC delay chain
t1 t2 t3 t4
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Time Difference Amplifier (TDA)
• Time differences are multiplied as in successive approximation ADCs
• Issues: gain stability, jitter
Mandai and Charbon , ESSCIRC11
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TDA Base Cell
Bias Circuit
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TDA Base Cell
Bias Circuit Fast Behavior
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TDA Base Cell
Bias Circuit Fast Behavior Slow Behavior
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TDA in a TDC
Upper bitTDC
Upper bitADC
DACLower bit
ADC
VoltageamplifierVin
DelayLower bit
TDC
Time Differenceamplifier
Tstart
Two-stage ADC
Two-stage TDC
×-
+-
Tstop
-
Vin-LSB < V < Vin
Amplified time
residue
×
Amplified voltageresidue
Tdiff-LSB < T < Tdiff
(Tdiff=Tstart-Tstop)
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TDA in a TDC
Upper bitTDC
Upper bitADC
DACLower bit
ADC
VoltageamplifierVin
DelayLower bit
TDC
Time Differenceamplifier
Tstart
Two-stage ADC
Two-stage TDC
×-
+-
Tstop
-
Vin-LSB < V < Vin
Amplified time
residue
×
Amplified voltageresidue
Tdiff-LSB < T < Tdiff
(Tdiff=Tstart-Tstop)
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Other Composite TDCs
• Counter + Phase Interpolator + Vernier Niclass et al., JSSC08
• Ring Oscillators + Counters Veerappan et al., ISSCC11
• Ring Oscillators + TDA Mandai and Charbon , ESSCIRC11
… and many more
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Stabilization Techniques
• Process, Voltage supply, Temperature (PVT) variations eliminated using a delay locked-loop (DLL) in clock phase generation
Clock
Register HIT1
Register HIT2
CP LF PFD
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PVT Stabilization in Phase Interpolators
• DLL running in parallel as a replica of delay chain • Distribute bias to all delay chains
Clock
CP LF PFD
START1
START2
REPLICA DELAY CHAIN
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Nested Stabilization Loops Clock
PD
PD
PD
PD
PD
T1
Resolution: T2 – T1 = Δ
T2
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Metastability in Ring Oscillators
Q
En
En_b
DX
Q1
CLK
Q2Qn
CLK
CLK_B CLK_B En_b
Data
CLK
Metastability of Latch
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Case 1: Monolithic Fully Parallel TDC
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An Array of 20,480 TDCs
• Massive array of pixels comprising – single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) – TDC (ring oscillator type) – Memory
• Readout – Frame rate: 1us – Fully digital
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TDC Implementation
Single-gate delay means less power, faster transitions
Analog techniques allow greater architecture flexibility
C. Veerappan, J. Richardson, R. Walker, D.-U. Li, M. W. Fishburn, Y. Maruyama, D. Stoppa, F. Borghetti, M. Gersbach, R.K. Henderson, E. Charbon, ISSCC2011 46
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The MEGAFRAME Pixel
47 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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The MEGAFRAME Chip • Format: 160x128 pixels • Timing resolution: 55ps • Impulse resp. fun.: 140ps • DCR (median): 50Hz • R/O speed: 250kfps • Size: 11.0 x 12.3 mm2
TDC Ring oscillator (3 bits) + counter (7 bits) = 10 bits 48
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49
The Megaframe-128 Chip
C. Veerappan, J. Richardson, R. Walker, D.-U. Li, M. W. Fishburn, Y. Maruyama, D. Stoppa, F. Borghetti, M. Gersbach, R.K. Henderson, E. Charbon, ISSCC2011
12.3mm
49
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Imager Block Diagram
50 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Pixel Architecture
51 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Photon Counting
52 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Photon Time-of-Arrival
53 © 2013 Edoardo Charbon
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TDC Characterization
55ps resolution, 55ns range
INL DNL
54 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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System-level Timing Blue laser Red laser
55 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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INL Uniformity
% Resolution Variation
Frac
tion
of
Pix
els
56
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Optical Burst Detection
57 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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IR Drop in MEGAFRAME
• If a large number of TDCs are operating at once, then IR drop occurs
• As a result the LSB of TDCs changes in space
58
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Pitfalls of MEGAFRAME
• LSB changes as a function of position of the pixel • There is a dependency to brightness that will change
the current absorbed • If a VCO is disrupted, the disruption will propagate
through the array in unpredictable ways
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 59
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You Can Compensate, but…
e.g. A replica of the pixel VCO can be placed in a PLL but mismatch will dominate the error
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 60
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Case 2: Column-Parallel TDC
61
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Column-parallel TDC Idea
S. Mandai and E. Charbon, IEEE Nuc. Sci Symp. (NSS) 2012 62
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Column-parallel TDC Idea
• A single VCO distributing the oscillation to all TDCs in a line
• Pros – Picosecond skew among TDCs – No LSB variability – Good PVT control
• Cons – Power & buffers create skews
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 63
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Column-parallel TDC Solutions
192 TDCs
16x26 SPAD
Mandai, C
harbon, IEE
E N
uc. Sci. S
ymp. (N
SS
) 2012
Carim
atto, Mandai, C
harbon, IEE
E IS
SC
C 2015
64
Digitally controlled charge pump
9 x 18 MD-SiPM array
432 TDC array
signal processing
20.1
4 m
m
7.6 mm
6.9
mm
4.654 mm
192 Column-parallel TDC
mask and energy registers
Pixel with 2-bit counter
Pixel with 1.5-bit counter
Pixel with 1-bit counter
SPAD
test
stru
ctur
e
(a)
(c)
4 x 4 SiPMs26 x 16pixels
192 Column-parallel TDC
mask and energy registers
VCO
and
refe
renc
e ge
nera
tor
Row
add
ress
dec
oder
5.24
mm
4.22 mm
44%(D4)
47%(D5)
47%(D6)
51%(D7)
50%(D12)
53%(D13)
54%(D14)
57%(D15)
41%(D9)
39%(D8)
43%(D0)
41%(D1)
46%(D2)
50%(D3)
53%(D10)
56%(D11)
(b)
16x26 SPAD
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Carim
atto, Mandai, C
harbon, IEE
E IS
SC
C 2015
Column-parallel TDC Solutions
192 TDCs
16x26 SPAD
Mandai, C
harbon, IEE
E N
uc. Sci. S
ymp. (N
SS
) 2012
65
Digitally controlled charge pump
9 x 18 MD-SiPM array
432 TDC array
signal processing
20.1
4 m
m
7.6 mm
6.9
mm
4.654 mm
192 Column-parallel TDC
mask and energy registers
Pixel with 2-bit counter
Pixel with 1.5-bit counter
Pixel with 1-bit counter
SPAD
test
stru
ctur
e
(a)
(c)
4 x 4 SiPMs26 x 16pixels
192 Column-parallel TDC
mask and energy registers
VCO
and
refe
renc
e ge
nera
tor
Row
add
ress
dec
oder
5.24
mm
4.22 mm
44%(D4)
47%(D5)
47%(D6)
51%(D7)
50%(D12)
53%(D13)
54%(D14)
57%(D15)
41%(D9)
39%(D8)
43%(D0)
41%(D1)
46%(D2)
50%(D3)
53%(D10)
56%(D11)
(b)
16x26 SPAD
SiPMs: The position of the photon detection is lost!
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Column-parallel TDC Uniformity
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 67
192 TDC array
20 40 80 100 120TDC address
60 140 160 1800
1
2
3
4
5
Com
pens
ated
INL
[LSB
]
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Column-parallel TDC Uniformity
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 68
150TDC address
100 400200 300150 250 350
Dig
ital c
ode
16810
16820
16830
16840
16850
Sing
le-s
hot n
oise
in s
igm
a (p
s)
80100
140
60
1st group 2nd group 3rd group
120
432 TDC array
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Column-parallel TDC Uniformity
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 69
(a)
START0
VCO
φ1
φ0
φ2
φ3
Band gap
voltage referece
Bias voltage
START1
START2
Phase
STOP
START143
TDC0TDC1
TDC2
TDC143
TDC431
TDC144
TDC287
TDC288
Phase repeater
START144
START287
START288
START431
τ+Δτ
φ0
φ0
φ1
φ2
φ0
φ1
φ2
φ3 V+
V-
LSB16 phases
φ0
φ0
φ1
φ1
φ2 φ3
phase detector
START
VCO phases
Δτ = LSB
12b CNT
(b)
TDCDUM
Bias voltage
STARTDUM
Reftdc
Reftdc
Reftdc
16 + 16 = 32 phases
phase detector
time
τ
432 Column-parallel TDC
Digital circuit
840μ
m
7.2 mm0.4 mm(c)
VCO
and
refe
renc
e
(a) (b)
0 200Digital code
-4
INL
(LSB
)
400 1000
-2
4
600 800
2
0
0 200Digital code
-1
DN
L (L
SB)
400 1000
-0.5
1
600 800
0.5
0
(a) (b)
0 200Digital code
-4
INL
(LSB
)
400 1000
-2
4
600 800
2
0
0 200Digital code
-1
DN
L (L
SB)
400 1000
-0.5
1
600 800
0.5
0
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Column-parallel TDC with Memory Features of ‘Piccolo’:
– 32x32 pixels • FF: 28% • Pitch: 28µm • PDP: 50% (max); 11% (800nm) • DCR: 60cps/pixel
– 128 TDCs • LSB: 49ps • Range: 400ns • Output: 5.12 Gbps (244 Mphotons/s) • DNL/INL: +/- 0.15 LSB • SPTR: better than 90ps (SPAD dom.)
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 70
S. Lindner et al., IIS
W 2017
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ASIC vs. FPGA
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FPGA vs. discrete ASIC
• An application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is a chip with static circuitry optimized for one task
• A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is a
chip whose configuration, specified by a hardware description language, can be changed many times
72 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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General Comparison
FPGA • Fast Development
Time • Reconfigurable
– Lower fault risk – Iterate design
• Low non-recurring costs – Development – Testing
ASIC • Lower power • Faster operation • Smaller footprint • Better integration • More flexibility • Low unit costs
– High-volume applications
73 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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How to Build a Delay Chain From multiple adder’s carry units
74 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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FPGA Caveats: Clock Regions
Bad location for a TDC
75 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Example FPGA Architecture Only digital techniques available with existing cells
76 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Virtex-6 FPGA TDC
77
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Temperature Dependence
78 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Location, Location, Location
79 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Chip-to-chip Variation
80 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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TDC Comparison
FPGA • Best time
uncertainty: 20ps • Usage examples
– High-energy physics – OpenPET
ASIC • Best time
uncertainty: <1ps • Examples
– Time-correlated imaging
– Frequency synthesizers for RF
81 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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FPGA- or ASIC-based TDC?
• Consider an FPGA-based TDC if your application: – Is low-volume – Doesn’t require <20ps time uncertainty – Is sensitive to development time, or is being created in
iterations – Is open source (FPGA-based TDCs are code-based)
82 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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3D Integration
83
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3D ICs – Hybrid Bonding
J. Mata Pavia, M. Wolf, E. Charbon, JSSC 2015
84 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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3D ICs – Hybrid Bonding
• Sony Corp. (?/?) • STMicroelectronics (65/45nm) • TSMC (45/65nm) • Tezzaron (anything/anything)
85 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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TSMC BSI + 3D-Stacking
• Tier 1: SPADs + microlenses • Tier 2: quenching, recharge, TDCs, multi-core,
memories, communication unit, I/O A7A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A8
ALU
DTOF
ADDR_WRITE
MEM_WRITE
DATA_WRITEMEM_READ
Σ16 10b
8 10bDEC
SHAREDTDC
21b
21b
21b
DIGITALPROCESSING
DATA_ROUT
DATA_NEW
14b
6b
ADDR_ROUT
MeM64x21b
we
31.3%FF
EN_READ
DTOFSAFF* DFF**
VQ
MeM
masking
MODE
RST
SPAD
100n/390n 60n/390n
60n/520nPassivequenching
1.2VTier2Tier1
RST:GlobalResetMODE:Pulse/State
in1
‘1’
in2
‘1’
q1 q2
Q
rst
A
LATCH
DQ
rst
DQ
rst
Q
SYMMETRICOR
ADDRESSSR-LATCH
PhotonsMultiple3Dconnections
perSPAD
Tier2
Tier1
DTOF6b ADDR_READ01
DECISIONMAKER
ADDR_READ[0] ADDR_READ[1] ADDR_READ[2]
MEM_READ[0] MEM_READ[1] MEM_READ[2]
ADDR_WRITE[0] ADDR_WRITE[1]
DATA_WRITE[0] DATA_WRITE[1]
X
X
XX
X MEM_WRITE[0] MEM_WRITE[1]
DTOF
X
Combinedevents(8x8pixels) Ignoredevent Ignoredevent
Q
in1 in2A
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q63
Q64
Q61
Q62
Q59
Q60
Q57
Q58
QUENCHING
READOUT
ACCESS&CONTROL
SERIALIZER
DECISIONTREE6levelsofDECISIONMAKERS6levelsofMUXforADDRESS
QUENCHINGARRAYPassivequenchingMasking&multi-modeoutput
QUENCHING ARRAY (8 x 8)
*SAFF(Sense-AmplifierFlip-Flop)usedforROphasesampling**DFF(Standard-cellD-typeFlip-Flop)usedforcountersampling
M.J. Lee, A.R. Ximenes, P. Padmanabhan, Y. Yamashita, D.N. Yaung, E. Charbon, IEDM 2017
86 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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TDC Sharing
• Virtually zero skew • Preservation of origin of pulse
87
A7A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A8
ALU
DTOF
ADDR_WRITE
MEM_WRITE
DATA_WRITEMEM_READ
Σ16 10b
8 10bDEC
SHAREDTDC
21b
21b
21b
DIGITALPROCESSING
DATA_ROUT
DATA_NEW
14b
6b
ADDR_ROUT
MeM64x21b
we
31.3%FF
EN_READ
DTOFSAFF* DFF**
VQ
MeM
masking
MODE
RST
SPAD
100n/390n 60n/390n
60n/520nPassivequenching
1.2VTier2Tier1
RST:GlobalResetMODE:Pulse/State
in1
‘1’
in2
‘1’
q1 q2
Q
rst
A
LATCH
DQ
rst
DQ
rst
Q
SYMMETRICOR
ADDRESSSR-LATCH
PhotonsMultiple3Dconnections
perSPAD
Tier2
Tier1
DTOF6b ADDR_READ01
DECISIONMAKER
ADDR_READ[0] ADDR_READ[1] ADDR_READ[2]
MEM_READ[0] MEM_READ[1] MEM_READ[2]
ADDR_WRITE[0] ADDR_WRITE[1]
DATA_WRITE[0] DATA_WRITE[1]
X
X
XX
X MEM_WRITE[0] MEM_WRITE[1]
DTOF
X
Combinedevents(8x8pixels) Ignoredevent Ignoredevent
Q
in1 in2A
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q63
Q64
Q61
Q62
Q59
Q60
Q57
Q58
QUENCHING
READOUT
ACCESS&CONTROL
SERIALIZER
DECISIONTREE6levelsofDECISIONMAKERS6levelsofMUXforADDRESS
QUENCHINGARRAYPassivequenchingMasking&multi-modeoutput
QUENCHING ARRAY (8 x 8)
*SAFF(Sense-AmplifierFlip-Flop)usedforROphasesampling**DFF(Standard-cellD-typeFlip-Flop)usedforcountersampling
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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TDC Layer
88 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
A7A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A8
ALU
DTOF
ADDR_WRITE
MEM_WRITE
DATA_WRITEMEM_READ
Σ16 10b
8 10bDEC
SHAREDTDC
21b
21b
21b
DIGITALPROCESSING
DATA_ROUT
DATA_NEW
14b
6b
ADDR_ROUT
MeM64x21b
we
31.3%FF
EN_READ
DTOFSAFF* DFF**
VQ
MeM
masking
MODE
RST
SPAD
100n/390n 60n/390n
60n/520nPassivequenching
1.2VTier2Tier1
RST:GlobalResetMODE:Pulse/State
in1
‘1’
in2
‘1’
q1 q2
Q
rst
A
LATCH
DQ
rst
DQ
rst
Q
SYMMETRICOR
ADDRESSSR-LATCH
PhotonsMultiple3Dconnections
perSPAD
Tier2
Tier1
DTOF6b ADDR_READ01
DECISIONMAKER
ADDR_READ[0] ADDR_READ[1] ADDR_READ[2]
MEM_READ[0] MEM_READ[1] MEM_READ[2]
ADDR_WRITE[0] ADDR_WRITE[1]
DATA_WRITE[0] DATA_WRITE[1]
X
X
XX
X MEM_WRITE[0] MEM_WRITE[1]
DTOF
X
Combinedevents(8x8pixels) Ignoredevent Ignoredevent
Q
in1 in2A
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q63
Q64
Q61
Q62
Q59
Q60
Q57
Q58
QUENCHING
READOUT
ACCESS&CONTROL
SERIALIZER
DECISIONTREE6levelsofDECISIONMAKERS6levelsofMUXforADDRESS
QUENCHINGARRAYPassivequenchingMasking&multi-modeoutput
QUENCHING ARRAY (8 x 8)
*SAFF(Sense-AmplifierFlip-Flop)usedforROphasesampling**DFF(Standard-cellD-typeFlip-Flop)usedforcountersampling
A.R. Ximenes, P. Padmanabhan, M.J. Lee, Y. Yamashita, D.N. Yaung, E. Charbon, ISSCC 2018
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3D-Stacked Chip Micrograph
89 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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LiDAR Demonstrator
Interference
ModulatedLaser
HistTransmitted
1MHz
TDC
Mod+
- Chip+FPGA
1MHz
Laser
INTERFERENCE
Interferencew/omodulation
Recoveredsignal
Received
Hist
LaserSignature
X-control
Y-control
Dual-axisscanner
Waveformgenerator
Beamsplitter
Laser
TDCcode
TDCcode
Horizontalresolution
Verticalresolution
90 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Distance Measurements
Backgroundlight+DCR
UnmodulatedInterference
Target
-12.6dB
-15.6dB
-18.6dB
91 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Interference Suppression
Backgroundlight+DCR
UnmodulatedInterference
Target
-12.6dB
-15.6dB
-18.6dB
92 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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256x256 3D Image Reconstruction
93 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Large TDC Arrays
Instead of a large VCO distributing the sync to a large array of TDCs… build a large array of continuously running VCOs Pros
– Individual FOM improved by 10 log (M) – Synchronization is ~1ps – PVT robust – Robust to local disruptions
CTRL
PLL
Individual FOM improved by 10·log10 (M)
Overall constant FOM
94 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Mutual Coupling
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon
• Use injection locking for coupling VCOs • The PLL only forces the desired frequency on the VCOs
10k 100k 1M 10M 100M-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
Phas
e N
oise
[dB
c/H
z]
Freq [Hz]
1 x 1 2 x 2 4 x 4 8 x 8 16 x 16
10·log10 (M)
CTRL
PLL
Individual FOM improved by 10·log10 (M)
Overall constant FOM
95
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Mutual Coupling
96
Σ
TDC
CTRL
8
8
8
en
en
en
en
en enTo Left RO
To Right RO
To Bottom RO
To Top RO
Coupling Element
3D stacked technology• Only SPADs on top tier• Only processing bottom tier
A
IMAGERModularFlexible
10b
A.R
. Xim
enes, P. Padm
anabhan, E. C
harbon, IISW
2017
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Mutual Coupling Measurements
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 97
coupled
uncoupled
Phas
e N
oise
(dBc
/Hz)
-130
-120
-110
-100
-90
-80
-70
Offset Frequency (Hz)
~18dB
Center Frequency = 500 MHz
uncoupled
coupled
-1401M 10M 100M
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Mutual Coupling Measurements
© 2018 Edoardo Charbon 98
uncoupledcoupled
uncoupled: 22 ~ 26%coupled: <0.11%
coupled
uncoupled
coupled
uncoupled
~18dB
~14dBFreq
uenc
y (M
Hz)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Control Voltage (V)0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45
Phas
e N
oise
(dBc
/Hz)
Inte
grat
ed ji
tter
(ps)
20
40
60
80
0
-100
-95
-90
-85
-105
-110
# Oscillator0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency variationPhase noise (3 MHz) and
integrated jitter @ 500MHz
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Perspectives for 2020
• Sub-65nm CMOS • Large, scalable designs (Lego™ approach) • Backside illumination (BSI) 3D IC • Hybrid approaches (InP, GaAs, Ge, polymers) • Cryogenic operation
99 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Moore’s Law Will Help
2006
1 kpixel
32 pixel
10 kpixel
100 kpixel
1 Mpixel 0.8 CMOS 0.35 CMOS
2009
65nm CMOS
2012 2020 2015
128x2
130nm CMOS
1M
512x256
128x128 160x128
64x48
112x4
2003
3D IC SPAD 100 © 2018 Edoardo Charbon
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Quantum Computing
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The2012NobelPrize
102©2018EdoardoCharbon
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Frombitstoqubits• AquantumbitorqubitisaquantumsysteminwhichtheBooleanstates0and1arerepresentedbyapairofmutuallyorthogonalquantumstateslabeledas
• QuantumproperAes:superposi7onandentanglement
103
0 , 1
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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Semiconductor quantum dots
Superconducting circuits Impurities in diamond or silicon
Semiconductor-superconductor hybrids
Source:L.Vandersypen,2017
Qbits on a Chip
©2017EdoardoCharbon 104
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QuantumComputerArchitecture
• Carrierfrequency:100MHz–15GHz,70GHz• Pulses:10–100ns
[DiCarlo]
[L.Vandersypen]
Control
Read-out
Quantumbits(qubits)
Quantumprocessor(≪1K)
Classicalcontroller
105©2018EdoardoCharbon
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QuantumComputerArchitecture
• Carrierfrequency:100MHz–15GHz,70GHz• Pulses:10–100ns
[DiCarlo]
[L.Vandersypen]
Control
Read-out
Quantumbits(qubits)
©2018EdoardoCharbon 106
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AReal-lifeQuantumComputer
4K
20mK
300K
x8qubitsx8qubits
77K
107©2018EdoardoCharbon
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PossibleSolu7ons
• Proposedsolu7on– Electronicsat4K– OnlyconnecAonsto4Kto20mKareneeded
108
T=20mK T=4K T=300K
ElectronicReadout&control
T=20mK T=4K
ElectronicRead-out&control
T=300K
[Ristèetal.2014-15]
5-qubitcomputer
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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PossibleSolu7ons
• Proposedsolu7on– Electronicsat4K– OnlyconnecAonsto4Kto20mKareneeded
• Ul7matesolu7on
– Qubitsat4K– MonolithicintegraAon
109
T=20mK T=4K T=300K
ElectronicReadout&control
T=20mK T=4K
ElectronicRead-out&control
T=300K
[Ristèetal.2014-15]
5-qubitcomputer
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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ElectronicReadout&Control
110
20-100mK
1-4K 300K
ADC
ADC
DAC
DAC
MUX
DEMUX
QuantumProcessor
TSensorsBias/References
TDC
Digitalcontrol(ASIC/FPGA)
OPTICAL GUIDE APD
E.Charbonetal.,IEDM2016
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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CoolingPowerIssue
Courtesy:Oxfordinstruments
20mK
100mK
4K
70K
300K
Dilu7onrefrigerator
T(K)
111©2018EdoardoCharbon
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ScalabilityIssue
• Noisebudget…...........................................<0.1nV/√Hz• Powerbudget(forscalability)….................<<2mW/qubit• Physicaldimensions(forscalability)….......30nm• Bandwidth(formulAplexing)…..................1-12GHz• Kick-backavoidance
©2018EdoardoCharbon 112
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CryogenicElectronics
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Cryo-CMOSTechnologies
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115
Thinoxide Thickoxide
Thinoxide Thickoxide
DeviceModeling(160nm)
R.M.Incandelaetal.,ESSDERC2017
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Thickoxide
116
Thinoxide Thickoxide
Thinoxide
DeviceModeling(40nm)
R.M.Incandelaetal.,ESSDERC2017
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BJTsandDTMOSinmKdomain
BJT
DTMOS
4K* 1K 40mK
• BJTscanworkasbandgapreferenceatT>77K• DTMOScanbeusedasbandgapreferenceatcryotemperatures
117
To be published
To be published
H. Homulle, E. Charbon, F. Sebastiano, JEDS 2018
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SubstrateResis7vity
118©2018EdoardoCharbon
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SPICEModels,Farms
• Wecreatedmodelsfor4KcomponentsinVerilog-AMS,BSIM6,PSP
• Wearebuildingacompletemodeltoolkitfor40nmand160nmCMOStechnologies
• Modelsaretestedusingcryogeniccomponentfarms
119©2018EdoardoCharbon
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CryogenicCircuits&Systems
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Cryo-FPGAs
121
HaraldHomulle
• Artix-7 full operation down to 4K • Other FPGAs only limited to 30K
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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• All FPGA components are working in the cryogenic environment down to 4K
• No modifications required
FPGAfunc7onality
Component Functional Behavior IOs ✓ LVDS ✓ LUTs ✓ Delay change < 5% CARRY4 ✓ Delay change < 2% BRAM ✓ No corruption (800 kB) MMCM ✓ Jitter reduction of roughly 20% PLL ✓ Jitter reduction of roughly 20% IDELAYE2 ✓ Delay change of up to 30% DSP48E1 ✓ No corruption over 400 operations
122©2018EdoardoCharbon
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A/DconversiononFPGA• Principle
– Timestampthecross-overofinputwithreferenceramp– UseTDCforAmestamping
• Booleneck:weareboundtotheCMOStechnologyoftheFPGAC LK /
S TOP
S TART
VREF
V IN
VOUT
2 .5 nsC LK /S TOP
S TART
VREF
V IN
VOUT
2 .5 nsC LK /S TOP
S TART
VREF
V IN
VOUT
2 .5 ns
126©2018EdoardoCharbon 126
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ADConFPGA(1.2GSa/s)
15K
Signalbandwidth:2MHz Signalbandwidth:40MHz
300K
H.Homulleetal.,TCASI,63(11),1854-1865,2016
©2018EdoardoCharbon 127
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ADConFPGA
15K
300K
Signalbandwidth:2MHz Signalbandwidth:40MHz
H.Homulleetal.,TCASI,63(11),1854-1865,2016
©2018EdoardoCharbon 128
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1 2 3 4 5 610-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
Excess Bias (V)
DCR
(Hz)
77K120K
160K
200K
250K
300K
300K250K
200K160K
120K
77K
SPAD GreenSPAD Red
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
SPAD Green, Φ=12µm
SPAD Red, Φ=12µm
Temperature (K)
Brea
kdow
n Vo
ltage
(V)
p+
n-
n+
V
+
- depletion region
Reverse bias
R Q
VIA
VOP’
OperaAoninproporAonalandGeigermode(SPAD)
Cryo-SPADs
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Cryo-SPADs
©2017EdoardoCharbon
1 2 3 4 5 610-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
Excess Bias (V)
DCR
(Hz)
77K120K
160K
200K
250K
300K
300K250K
200K160K
120K
77K
SPAD GreenSPAD Red
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
SPAD Green, Φ=12µm
SPAD Red, Φ=12µm
Temperature (K)
Brea
kdow
n Vo
ltage
(V)
180nmCMOSbulkB.Patraetal.,JSSC2018
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Cryo-LNA
• Standard160nmCMOS• 500MHzBandwidth• 0.1dBNoisefigure• 7Knoise-equivalenttemperature
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Cryo-LNA
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Buildingup
IEEESensors2016
20-100mK
1-4K 300K
ADC
ADC
DAC
DAC
MUX
DEMUX
QuantumProcessor
TSensorsBias/References
TDC
Digitalcontrol(ASIC/FPGA)
OPTICAL GUIDE APD
136
IEEEISSCC2017IEEEISSCC2017/JSSC2018
Tobepublished2018
IEEEIEDM2016
IEEEIEDM2016
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IEEEISSCC2017
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2DReadoutandControl
• UseimagingsensorreadoutasinspiraAon
• Reducenumberoftransistors(ideallytozero)
• Usetunnelingbarriersasselectors
• (limited)useof3Dstacking ∂∂∂
∂
∂
∂
∂20mK
4K
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PuZngThingsinContext
©H.Homulle2016
©2018EdoardoCharbon
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Conclusions
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Take-homeMessages• LargearraysofTDCsforTOAarenecessarytoanumberofemergingfields
• ModularityisanimportantingredienttolargeTDCarraysbutoneneedstobeawareofsynchronizaAon,reliability,anduniformityissues
• 3D-stacking/3DintegraAonisbecomingawayoflife!
• QuantumCompuAngwillneedthesecircuitsbutwillrequirecryogenicoperaAon
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Acknowledgements
142©2018EdoardoCharbon
SwissNaAonalScienceFoundaAonEuropeanSpaceAgencyFP6andFP7NCCR-MICSNOW-STWNIH
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h]p://aqua.epfl.ch
©2018EdoardoCharbon