design of a pilot-sacle tropical marine finfish hatchery
TRANSCRIPT
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Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96
Design of a pilot-scale tropical marine finfish hatchery
for a research center at Mazatlan, Mexico
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere a,*, M.A. Reina Canez a,M.A. Camacho Hernandez a, S. Kraul b
a Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo, A.C., Avenida Sabalo Cerritos S/N,
Mazatlan C.P. 82010, A.P. 711, Sinaloa, Mexicob Pacific Planktonics, 73-998 Ahikawa St., Kailua-Kona, HI 96740-9407, USA
Received 10 July 2006; accepted 25 July 2006
Abstract
A multispecies, 2668 m2 pilot-scale tropical marine finfish hatchery was designed to fulfill the requirements of finfish juvenile
research and development (R&D) at the Research Center for Food and Development, in Mazatlan, Mexico. The main goals of the
facility were (1) scale-up and study experimental results at a pre-commercial-scale; (2) assess technical and financial feasibility and
improve these technologies before transfer to commercial-scale; (3) adapt technology to other fish species. In the hatchery, a semi-
intensive, green water strategy is used for larval rearing, and rotifers are produced using a high density, intensive production
technique. An intensive, tank-based nursery is used to study juvenile husbandry. Although the main objective of the facility is to
package technology, the annual production capacity for juvenile to supply to industrial partners is about 160,000–200,000 one-gram
juveniles produced in three or four rearing cycles. Seawater intake is based on a sand and gravel prefiltered system and two 30 hp
seawater radial pumps, each with the capacity to fulfill the whole system requirements (500 gpm, 31 L/s, sustained flowrate). Most
of the water is delivered directly to the broodstock and nursery areas after sand and cartridge filtration and a UV lamp
(�60,000 mW s/cm2), and the rest is used to fill four 25 m3 high density polyethylene (HDPE) storage tanks. From the storage
tanks, the seawater is directed through three pressurized sand filters and a series of high capacity cartridge filters (16 mm). For live
feed production and larval rearing, water is further filtered using line cartridge filters (as small as 0.22 mm) and a continuous-flow
UV lamp (�60,000 mW s/cm2). There is a freshwater system for 60 m3/day and an air distribution system that includes three 10 hp
blowers, each with the required capacity for the entire facility. The broodstock areas have 40 tanks (0.6–50 m3) with a total capacity
of 410 m3. Initially there are six 3 m3 larval rearing tanks and in a second stage a 40 m3 mesocosms tank facility will be added. The
indoor (160 m2) live food culture facility is capable of a daily production of about 8 m3 of four microalgae species (1–
40 � 106 cells/ml, depending on the species), 2.5 � 109 enriched rotifers, 6 � 108 enriched Artemia metanauplii and 4 � 107
copepods.
# 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pilot-scale; Hatchery; Design; Marine fishes; Mexico
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 669 9898700;
fax: +52 669 9898701.
E-mail addresses: [email protected],
[email protected] (L. Alvarez-Lajonchere).
0144-8609/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2006.07.003
1. Introduction
Production of required quantities of high quality
finfish juveniles at the right time and at reasonable cost
is the main goal that marine fish culture has to achieve
before commercial fish cultivation can be established
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–9682
and extended at any site. Comparing aquaculture with
agriculture, its terrestrial analogue, the juveniles are the
seeds for the farmers and no matter how good is the soil
preparation or the fertilizers or the irrigation system
prepared, if there is any failure to obtain the right seed in
quantity and quality at the right time, the production
plans will not be attained. Thus, it has long been
internationally recognized that a good source of
juveniles is the most important prerequisite for fish
farming (Tucker, 1998; Alvarez-Lajonchere and Her-
nandez Molejon, 2001). But marine fish juveniles are
costly. Most of the valuable species are the equivalent of
US$0.50 and 1.50 each, plus transportation costs, which
may often double the price of juveniles (Alvarez-
Lajonchere, 2003). For example, one of the most
important species in recent years, cobia (Rachycentron
canadum), is being sold in Southern USA, at about US$
2.00–2.75/fingerling (ACFK, 2006; Craig et al., 2006).
Commercial applications need technologies that are
feasible in a technical, economic, marketing, social and
political environment (Huguenin and Webber, 1981).
Research that produces such technologies must be
carried out in pilot-scale facilities where results can be
extrapolated to commercial size. Research that has been
done in very small laboratory experiments are open to
question, while technical performance on a large scale
can be determined with reasonable confidence by the
use of ‘‘pilot plant’’ facilities (Huguenin, 1975).
Replicating many small units is not as valid as working
with larger production units that can be managed like
those used in commercial operations. Appropriate
organization and working procedures for those facilities
also need to recognize the effects of scale. As Huguenin
and Webber (1981) pointed out, most failures can be
attributed partially to the assumption that the scale-up of
laboratory experiments to commercial size is a low-risk,
straight-forward linear process. Those results, although
acceptable for publication in scientific journals, are not
enough to ensure success in large-scale production.
Many biological and behavioral processes are scale
dependent, and there are many engineering designs,
management procedures and economic parameters that
will need to be changed according to the working scale.
One of the best examples is the technological
changes involved with semi-intensive (green-water)
technology larval rearing tanks, which are usually 50–
1000 L in capacity in experimental-scale facilities
(Cerqueira et al., 1995; Riley et al., 1995; Davis et al.,
2000; Turano et al., 2000; Ogle et al., 2001; Ogle and
Lotz, 2006). Common commercial units are at least 10
times larger (6–20 m3) (Leung et al., 1993; Barlow
et al., 1996; Lee et al., 1997; Moretti et al., 1999, 2005;
Fisheries Western Australia, 2001; Lee and Ostrowski,
2001; Pomery et al., 2004). Pilot-scale hatcheries with
tank volumes of 3–10 m3 are used in prestigious marine
fish research hatcheries, i.e. Oceanic Institute (Nash and
Shehadeh, 1980; Kraul, 1983; Eda et al., 1990; Kam
et al., 2002), Thailand National Institute of Coastal
Aquaculture (NICA, 1986), Tigbauan Research Station
of SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department (Duray et al.,
1996, 1997), Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
(Tucker, 1998), Mote Marine Laboratory (Serfling,
1998), Marine Fish Culture Laboratory, University of
Santa Catarina, Brazil (Alvarez-Lajonchere et al.,
2002), research institutes in Taiwan (Leu et al.,
2003), and have been shown to give acceptable results
when scaling up to commercial size. The definition of a
pilot scale hatchery is that on which methods and
consistent results obtained can be extrapolated to a
commercial size facility after financial feasibility is
proved. Thus marine fish pilot-scale hatchery larval
rearing tanks with the semi-intensive ‘‘green water’’
(with microalgae) technology should be about 3–5 m3
for several reasons: (a) smaller tanks usually do not give
good results, mostly on survival and harvest densities;
(b) bigger tanks need too much resources for their
management and especially for their live food produc-
tion supply; (c) in the experience of many authors, the
methods used to rear larvae in pilot-scale tanks are
similar to those in 10–35 m3 larviculture tanks with
equivalent results (Kraul and Alvarez-Lajonchere,
personal results).
Another important criterion is that production
technologies cannot be transferred to other situations
without trials and adaptations to local conditions (Davy,
1991). This is another of objectives of a pilot-scale
facility, in addition to being a production-oriented test
facility. The pilot-scale stage is still the weak link in
aquaculture development, due to the current lack of
financial support for the construction of such facilities
and the high risks and insufficient incentives for private
industry (Huguenin, 1975).
There is a lack of knowledge in the literature on the
subject of pilot- and large-scale applications, and very
few published design studies. Most of the knowledge is
gained by trial and error, but there are very few reports
that mention failed systems, and most of the gained
knowledge is kept in the memories of the participants,
or as commercial firm property. Most of the commercial
firms have their own detailed manuals on the subject,
but with very limited distribution, most of the time only
to clients. Perhaps the main exception is Huguenin and
Colt (2002), chapters in some recently published books,
and articles in international journals (Huguenin, 1975;
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Colt and Huguenin, 1992; Tucker, 1998; Moretti et al.,
1999; Alvarez-Lajonchere and Hernandez Molejon,
2001; Huguenin et al., 2003). During the course of two
FAO Technical Cooperation Projects (TCP/CUB/0052
and TCP/CUB/0051) on marine fish spawning and
larval rearing, and live food cultivation, respectively,
with consultancies of Servici Tecnici in Maricultura
(STM AQUATRADE Srl, Italy), an experimental and
pilot-scale research hatchery was designed and its
description, together with its operation guide and
research possibilities were described in Alvarez-
Lajonchere and Hernandez Molejon (1994), but the
document had limited distribution. Thus, the objective
of this report is to describe a pilot-scale marine finfish
hatchery being built in Mazatlan suburbs, in Estero del
Yugo, 3 km from the nearest residence, Sinaloa, west
coast of Mexico.
Mazatlan is near the limit between the tropic and the
subtropical zones (23.167 North latitude and 106.267
East longitude) on the Pacific coast of Mexico. The
annual temperature range at this site is 18–34 8C,
making ambient local conditions suitable for a broad
range of fish species. Although the site is totally
exposed, the storm frequency is very low, only one in
every 50 years, according to the city records.
2. Hatchery planning and dimensioning general
criteria
The hatchery was designed to fulfill the requirements
of a tropical marine fish R&D center and to add a pilot-
scale facility at the Reproduction Laboratory, Mazatlan
Unit of the Research Center for Food and Development
(CIAD). The main hatchery goal is to develop and/or
adapt marine fish juvenile production technologies to
make them ready for transfer to commercial-scale, after
successful technical and financial assessments. Initially
we will scale-up results obtained on the experimental-
scale projects with bullseye puffer Sphoeroides annu-
latus in progress since 1997 (Martınez-Palacios et al.,
2002; Duncan and Abdo de la Parra, 2002) and with
flamingo snapper Lutjanus guttatus since 2003 (Ibarra
et al., 2004). Both species have seen recent improve-
ments (Alvarez-Lajonchere et al., 2005). Also, the pilot-
scale facility will be used to continue improving the
technology for better yields, lowering costs and
increasing economic efficiency of the developed
technologies, and to assess the location and the facility’s
capabilities to carry out technological transfer proce-
dures and adapt the developed technologies to other
important marine species (Alvarez-Lajonchere, 2003)
like Pacific snooks Centropomus viridis and C.
nigrescens, almaco jack Seriola rivoliana and another
red snapper L. aratus, in the near future.
This work is based on various design criteria,
dimensioning indexes, and equipment and construction
specifications developed in many sites, some of them
described by Huguenin and Colt (2002), and others
adopted by Servici Tecnici in Maricultura (STM
AQUATRADE Srl, Italy) for seabass Dicentrarchus
labrax and seabream Sparus aurata at several Medi-
terranean hatcheries (Moretti et al., 1999, 2005). These
criteria were transmitted to the senior author (L.A.-L.)
during two Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations projects by G. Cittolin and R. Guidastri,
and applied in several Latin American countries
(Alvarez-Lajonchere and Hernandez Molejon, 2001).
Other design standards that were considered and
eventually adopted were those of Thailand (National
Institute of Coastal Aquaculture, 1986; Kungvankij,
1989) and Japanese hatcheries (Fukusho, 1991; Imai-
zumi, 1993; Morizane, 1993; Tsujigado and Lee, 1993),
as well as those of the Oceanic Institute of Hawaii
(Nash and Shehadeh, 1980; Lee and Tamaru, 1993;
Leung et al., 1993; Tamaru et al., 1993), and several
authors cited in the CRC Handbook of Mariculture,
Volume II (McVey, 1991).
The research strategy adopted was to carry out three or
four larval rearing cycles and juvenile production batches
during the year, with several species, each with different
spawning seasons, one or two as main species and one or
two considered as secondary species. The multispecies
strategy has several major benefits: (1) it raises the
success probabilities over a one-species strategy; (2) it
allows induced spawning and larval rearing research
during natural spawning season of each species, which is
the best period for highest egg and larval quantity and
quality, with higher survival and better growth rates than
those from delayed or anticipated spawning; (3) it
increases the probabilities of voluntary spawning, which
is better than hormone induced spawning in terms of
larval viability; (4) it would probably suffer fewer disease
outbreaks when the species are changed after a few
months of work, varying the hatchery bacterial composi-
tion. The multispecies strategy is applied in many
hatcheries in Asia and the Mediterranean, due to the
higher productive efficiency in the best season of each
species. This gives better return on investment, lower
biological and marketing risks and higher performance
results in general at the commercial-scale. This strategy
was recently applied in an Australian grouper research
project (Rimmer et al., 2003).
One of the major factors determining the size of a
hatchery and the dimensions of each sector is the
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quantity and size of the juveniles to be produced (Nash
and Shehadeh, 1980; Huguenin and Colt, 2002). The
main objective of the designed hatchery in the present
study is to work on pilot-scale research projects with
different finfish species. The general principles for
planning and dimensioning (design process chart) of the
hatchery were based on the minimum required volume
and number of larval rearing units to give results that
could be extrapolated to a commercial-scale. From the
established total larval rearing volume, all other
calculations were carried out, including carrying
capacities, time intervals, stocking and harvesting
densities, and survival rates for each rearing unit and
step. The number and volume/area of the required rearing
units, as well as the water quality and flow rates
(maximum, minimum and mean requirements for filling,
flushing and cleaning practices for each reservoir)
provided a base line for the rest of the hatchery. Six
3 m3 tanks were the base line and the live food production
was sized to supply the live organisms required for that
larval rearing volume. Nursery sector dimensions (size
and number of rearing units) were designed to
accommodate the number of transformed and weaned
juveniles that could be produced per rearing cycle.
The broodstock sector characteristics and dimen-
sions were calculated to exceed production of the
required eggs to supply the capacity of the larval rearing
facility, and to assure conditions to maintain, mature
and eventually spawn one or more spawner’s cohorts
and generations of three different finfish species of
medium and big size adults with different inducement
techniques. The broodstock tanks have the capacity for
more than 100 effective spawners to minimize
inbreeding, as recommended by international standards
(Tave, 1999).
The semi-intensive green-water larviculture techno-
logical strategy was selected because it is in accordance
with country developmental level, as well as being one of
the most successful larval rearing technologies with
tropical finfish species (Alvarez-Lajonchere and Her-
nandez Molejon, 2001). In the future, a mesocosms
technology facility will also be built to apply and test
recent successes in this method. Mesocosms are a rather
recent larval rearing technology that combines extensive
with semi-intensive characteristics for tank volumes of
30–100 m3 (Dhert et al., 1998; Schipp et al., 2001;
Papandroulakis et al., 2005). Some Japanese marine fish
larval rearing techniques are also based on the use of
mesocosms. A high technology/high density strategy was
selected for production of rotifers and for juvenile (1–2 g)
fish, and in both cases, total volume and surface area was
significantly reduced. In rotifer production, the use of
Culture Selco Plus1 (INVE Aquaculture) for the last
culture volume step allowed a 50% reduction in
microalgae production. In the nursery, intensive rearing
methods made it possible to increase juvenile fish
production, increasing the hatchery attractiveness to
financial supporters.
One general and important design criteria followed
was to have maximum flexibility in the experimental
treatments that could be applied, which is mandatory in
a R&D facility in spite of the cost implications,
including salinity, temperature, light intensity, size and
shape of culture units, live food organisms and feeding
regimes, cleaning and disinfection treatments for most
of the facility areas and distribution systems, main-
tenance procedures, and schedules having suitable free
time to carry out routine rearing. Other general design
criteria included the use of construction methods,
equipment and materials suitable for use with seawater
and/or corrosive environments, and the use of materials
not toxic to organisms, easy to clean, and capable of
surviving strong disinfection methods. A sanitation and
maintenance stop of at least 1 month during the winter
months at the end of the year is planned for cleaning,
strong disinfection, maintenance and general repairs of
all hatchery sectors and equipment, following Medi-
terranean management and operation procedures
(Moretti et al., 1999).
The annual design capacity for supplying juvenile
fish to industrial partners will be about 160,000 one-
gram juveniles produced in four rearing cycles (40,000
fish per cycle), when technologies are fully developed
and ready to be transferred to commercial enterprises.
3. Site
The hatchery is located at a beach area outside the
city of Mazatlan, Sinaloa State, Mexico. The intake
water system (Fig. 1) is located at Playa Bruja, 600 m
distant from the rest of the facility, near a costal lagoon
locally known as Estero del Yugo. The hatchery site will
be an improvement of the existing experimental
hatchery facility and general CIAD laboratory facilities
at Estero del Yugo, which has a subsand seawater intake
system with poor water quality, and has limited surface
area available at the moment, although this is poten-
tially expandable in the future with nearby private-
owned land. The first seawater supply system tried was
a seawater well, but it was not possible to drill below
20 m because a very hard and broad granite layer was
found and the water above the granite was always lower
than 25 ppt salinity. A direct seawater intake with pipes
laid on the bottom extending seaward from the
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Fig. 1. General facility schematic diagram planview.
shoreline, together with already 600 m far from the
hatchery site, together with the appropriate anchor
system, was evaluated to be too costly. Thus, our
decision was to design a sub-sand abstraction system.
The seawater for this site is coastal seawater with
suspended and dissolved solids, including organic
matter, and has a fairly constant salinity of 34–36 ppt.
To achieve suitable water quality, we tried to strictly
apply the principles defined by Cansdale (1981)
followed by a complete treatment of sedimentation,
coarse to fine and ultra-fine filtration, and UV lamp
radiation, according to our biological and water flow
requirements.
The opportunity to use existing facilities for the
hatchery was an advantage, mainly because two main
aspects were already partly covered: the major part of
the small spawner’s outdoor area, and the larval rearing
room, although this room needed major modifications.
Also, as the pilot scale hatchery is part of a research
institution, it can be used by many general research
laboratories that can do whatever research analyses and
determinations they need. Further advantages for using
the existing facility include the presence of all of our
required services, such as the administration section
(purchasing, maintenance, etc.), energy, freshwater,
telephone, Internet lines, workshop, feed processing
and storing facility, etc., which are already functional.
4. Main sectors: descriptions and dimensions
There are six main sectors: (1) engineering and life
support; (2) acclimation and quarantine; (3) live food
production; (4) egg production; (5) larviculture and
weaning; (6) nursery. The different sector locations
follow a functional production flow chart, and take into
account the temperature gradients between many of the
live feed and laboratory rooms. The hatchery has a total
surface area of 2668 m2: 514 m2 of indoor areas, and
2154 m2 of outdoor areas. Geographic exposition was
planned to make best use of direct sun light, particularly
in the live food indoor and outdoor areas and the biggest
broodstock tanks. A 70% absorbance shade cloth covers
most of the outdoor areas.
The general facility surface area was minimized to fit
in the available site without the need of buying or
renting the adjacent land, which can be used for future
expansion. Surface areas of each sector were dimen-
sioned according to the number and size of water
reservoirs, equipment and wet/dry laboratory furniture,
as well as space requirements for operation, cleaning
and maintenance.
Future expansions were taken into consideration
whenever possible, as long as they were financially
practical. Pipe diameters, pump house surface for an
extra pump, and 25–33% additional main equipment
dimensions were designed to allow relatively efficient
increases in water and air flows, as needed.
4.1. Engineering and life support sector
This sector can be divided in four main systems: (a)
sea water intake and treatments; (b) fresh water intake
and treatments; (c) gases: compressed air production
and treatment, and oxygenation and CO2 supply
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–9686
systems; (d) electricity supply system. All distribution
systems are exposed either hung within the drainage
channels, from the walls or from the ceiling or in very
few occasions lying on the concrete floor.
4.1.1. Seawater intake, treatment and distribution
system
The site, a sandy coastline, has about a 1.16 m (3.8 ft)
mean tidal range, and the nominal elevation in the storage
tanks over the centerline of the pump impeller is 11.89 m
(39 ft). The seawater intake is based on a pre-filtered sub-
sand abstraction system, adopting the design principles
of Cansdale (1981). The system was designed consider-
ing site topography, the mean sea level at the place, the
design high (+1.00 m) and low tides (�1.07 m), and
Fig. 2. Seawater intake system: (A) schematic drawing of
hydraulic conductivity (15.0 m/day). The design low and
high tides were calculated following procedures recom-
mended by Huguenin and Colt (2002), using C = 2 for
critical elevations related to pump stations. The hydraulic
conductivity was also determined following Huguenin
and Colt (2002), with an undisturbed sand sample of the
site equal to 20 m/day, typical of a coarse sand site with
good possibilities to establish a pre-filtered system. The
designed hatchery system is based on two 50 m �150 mm diameter PVC pipes, with about 40% of their
surface having 2.5 mm wide slots (Fig. 2a). These two
pipes run parallel to and about 6 m inland from the beach
annual-mean-high tide-water line out of the breaking
wave area, 4 m from each other, with seven equidistant
connecting non-slotted 150 mm diameter PVC pipes. A
aerial view; (B) schematic diagram of lateral view.
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96 87
third non-slotted 150 mm PVC pipe parallel to the other
two and 2 m distant from the second slotted pipe and 8 m
from the beach line, collects the water and is connected to
two perpendicular pipes that run 3 m from each other, at
the same depth level as the slotted pipes, to the pumping
house 20 m distant (Fig. 2a). The entire system, including
pump shafts, is horizontal and located 60 cm below the
design low tide level. The sub-sand abstraction portion of
the slotted 150 mm PVC pipes will be inside an 80 cm
deep small gravel (0.5–1 cm) box, 8 m wide and 50 m
length (Fig. 2b).
The flow-through system was adopted, except for
two breeder tanks, because it is much simpler and less
likely to fail (Huguenin et al., 2003). For many marine
fish larvae, flow-through water quality is required for
high survivals (R. Guidastri, S.T.M. personal commu-
nication to L.A.-L.), and is recommended for seabass
and seabream (Moretti et al., 2005).
The seawater requirements during the whole day
were estimated for each of the hatchery sectors, and as
there was not an important difference from the lower to
the higher water demands, it was decided that the
requirements could be adequately covered by one
pump. The pumping station of the hatchery has two
30 hp 3500 rpm radial pumps (Gold SSH 22SH-G),
each with the capacity to fulfill the whole system
requirements. These pumps are located at the same
level as the sub-sand slotted and water-collection pipes,
so there is no suction lift and minor suction head, thus it
is a ‘‘dry’’ pumping station below sea level as classified
by Moretti et al. (2005). Mountings and pipe
connections for a third pump were also included for
future expansion, and as a fast solution to any difficulty
that could be faced with either of the two other pumps.
The pumps were selected according to the sustained
water flow rate required (500 gpm, 31 L/s), the total
dynamic head of the system (120 ft, 36.6 m) as well as
the net positive suction head (NPSH available) of
7.56 m (24.8 ft). The NPSH required by the pumps
chosen is 4.58 m (15 ft), based on the pumps’
performance curves. The pump house has a surface
area of 42 m2 and a height of about 6 m (2.5 m above
ground level). Valves, fittings, pressure gauges, and
pump disposition are similar to the system described by
Huguenin and Colt (2002) (see their Fig. 7.2), but
designed for three pumps installed in parallel and
connected to two main intake and the two main delivery
150 mm PVC pipes. There is an appropriate lifting
device to remove and change the pumps inside the
pump house. The two main delivery pipe lines will run
600 m within a protection channel 0.75 m wide and
0.45 m depth, with inspection and maintenance pits
(1 m � 3 m � 2 m) every 20–40 m and also in each
turn, and will join 5 m before their first delivery point,
where a digital flow-meter will be installed. The valves
and connections make it possible to pump seawater
with either pump though either of the two intake lines
and either of the two main distribution pipes or back
through each of the two intake pipes for a backwash
operation. Useful flanges are located at appropriate
places for easy dismantling, maintenance or repair
operations for the pumps, pipes and fittings. The two
main delivery 150 mm diameter pipes are cross-
connected at the pump house for maximum flexibility
and will be used on an alternate fortnight schedule,
leaving one of the pipes almost dry, under anaerobic
conditions, for cleaning purposes. These pipes can also
be dismantled by flanges at 60 cm length connections
within 12 inspection and cleaning points (3.3 m �1.2 m � 2 m) strategically located at each turn, and/or
every 40 m along the 600 m length for strong cleaning
and disinfection during the hatchery maintenance and
sanitary annual stop. Immediately after entering the
outdoor tank area, and before serving any distribution
system, each of the main delivery pipes has the
possibility to discharge the first 15–20 m3 pumped
water after the preceding dry fortnight period, into the
stabilizing pond, to clean the pipe from the debris that
could have accumulated in its inner surface.
The seawater pumping station serves two different
distribution systems (Fig. 3) after entering the outdoor
tank area: (1) a pipeline of pre-filtered seawater will use
its head to pass through two parallel sand filters
(850 Lpm each) with a relative filtration retention
capability of 100 mm and cartridge filters (3 m � 9.3 m
cartridge filters, 5 mm relative retention) before
entering a continuous-flow UV lamp with a minimum
UC-C germicidal radiation of 60,000 mW s/cm2 with a
nominal water flow of 28 L/s, this pipe will supply the
broodstock (24 L/s) and the nursery sectors (4 L/s); (2)
a second pipeline will deliver the pre-filtered water to
four 25 m3 high density polyethylene (HDPE) head/
sedimentation tanks (4 m � 15 m), which can be
worked individually. From the head tanks, the seawater
is pumped through a double parallel filtration system
consisting of a pressured Jacuzzi sand-filter (265 Lpm,
100 mm relative particle retention) and multiple
cartridge filters (four 9.3 m2 cartridge filters, 16 mm
relative retention) within a filter room (3 m � 5 m),
where a third set of the two filter systems is installed as
stand-by equipment. All the installed sand filters are
capable of manual backwashes, which are carried out
for 20–30 min every 12 h, or at shorter intervals
according to pressure demands. From the filter room,
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Fig. 3. Simplified diagram flow-chart of seawater distribution and treatment system.
one circuit delivers the filtered seawater to the
acclimatization and quarantine sector (1 L/s), and
another circuit supplies the live food (1 L/s) and
larviculture (1 L/s) sectors. At the entrance of the live
food indoor facility, the seawater from the filter house is
subject to an additional or secondary water treatment of
a fine triple cartridge filtration of 5 and 1 mm relative
and 1 mm absolute particle retention, followed by a
continuous-flow UV lamp with a minimum UC-C
germicidal radiation of 60,000 mW s/cm2 with a
maximum water flow of 2 L/s. The UV lamps were
selected following procedures described by Alvarez-
Lajonchere and Hernandez Molejon (2001). In brief,
are based on: (a) differences between total lamp power
and its short wave UV-C radiation component with
higher germicidal action (�60% reduction); (b) most
effective wave length about 265 nm versus 254 nm
available in low intensity lamps with 20–80 W bulbs
(�10% reduction); (c) temperature effect (�15%
reduction for temperatures �30 8C); (d) losses at the
end of the 8000–10,000 h of life span (�60%
reduction), as well as other reductions such as
transmittance factor (water transparency), water flow
rate, etc. The most dangerous and resistant micro-
organisms that are required to be significantly reduced
(i.e. 99.99% kill rate) are Amyloodinium ocellatum, for
which Aarts (1985) reported an effective radiation dose
of 60,000 mW s/cm2. Alvarez-Lajonchere and Her-
nandez Molejon (2001) recommended a radiation of
40–60,000 mW s/cm2 at the system extreme condi-
tions, while Moretti et al. considered 40,000 mW s/cm2
at the end of the UV lamp life span, as a safe output.
Finally each day the live food strain and inocula
production room will use about 300 L of seawater
filtered by an additional 0.22 mm absolute retention
cartridge filter.
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96 89
PVC pipe sizes were preliminarily calculated with a
nomograph and frictional loss tables based on the
Darcy-Weisbach equation, with an extra 25–33% flow
capacity allowance for future expansion and biofouling,
using the desired velocity of 2–3 m/s in the main lines
and 1–1.5 m/s in the rest, as well as the required water
flow capacity for each pipe length. Pipes can be cleaned
with plastic pigs entering through ball valves in the
ending points of the main straight lengths.
4.1.2. Fresh water intake and treatment system
The freshwater system is based on the public
aqueduct supply line to one general storage reservoir,
from which it is pumped to two 25 m3 storage tanks
(30 m2). From there the water is distributed by hydraulic
PVC lines to the different hatchery sectors. Freshwater
storage tank connections allow maintenance to any of
them individually, while working with the other two,
and all three have an air supply for dechlorination of
water before distribution through a common outlet pipe,
passing through granular activated carbon filters.
Freshwater will be used for cleaning practices and to
lower salinity in live food and larviculture sectors.
Before entering those two sectors, fresh water will be
treated in the same way and extent as seawater, filtering
it to 1 mm absolute particle retention size, followed by a
continuous-flow UV lamp with a minimum of
60,000 mW s/cm2 of UV-C germicidal radiation at its
maximum flow.
There will be a very short freshwater circuit of hot
water, heated by a small gas-boiler, to supply hot water
to the rotifer and Artemia rooms, to clean the tanks and
auxiliary equipment that will be used on the oil-
enrichment treatments, and for general cleaning
practices in the hatchery, especially after each rearing
cycle and at the general-maintenance stop at the end of
the year.
4.1.3. Compressed air production, treatment and
other gas supplies
Compressed oil-free air production will be carried out
by two 10 hp capacity blowers (Sweetwater model S73)
with 317 cm of water (at 300 mbar = 3.0 � 104 Pa) as
maximum working pressure and a production of about
500 m3/h at a pressure of about 178 cm of water (at
175 mbar = 1.75 � 104 Pa). Either of the two blowers
can supply the estimated air requirements, and will work
on an alternate fortnight schedule, leaving the other as a
stand-by emergency unit. In the blower room (2 m �2.5 m) there is a third blower of the same capacity as the
other two, installed as a stand-by (backup) and ready to
start by a pressure switch valve. Each blower is well
secured to its base with anti-vibratory assemblies,
elevated 1 m above ground level, and fitted with the
factory recommended air filters, external steel mufflers,
bleed valve assemblies, check valve assemblies, and
pressure relief valves. Blowers were selected by the air
requirements, which were estimated in several steps: (1)
the highest pressure needed to determine the maximum
discharge pressure of the blowers, i.e. 229 cm of water (at
225 mbar = 2.25 � 104 Pa); (2) the general air require-
ment, calculated as the sum of the requirements for every
tank/vessel. Flows are expressed in m3/h at the required
pressure (in mbar or Pa) in each case. All air requirements
are expressed in m3/h at the highest working blower
discharge pressure needed, using the formula P1V1 =
P2V2, the sum of which was considered as the blower air
capacity required, with an extra 25% flow added for
contingency needs.
The air distribution lines start with stainless steel
pipe and connections, to join the blowers to the
hydraulic PVC pipe lines. The high temperature air that
comes out of the blowers is capable of lowering the
strength of PVC pipes, and producing toxic compounds
from the plastic pipes (Huguenin and Colt, 2002). This
phenomenon has caused important problems at this
laboratory in the past.
Additionally, two other gas supplies are available at
the hatchery: pure oxygen and carbon dioxide. A pure
oxygen distribution system starting with stainless steel
pipe for the first 20 m and followed by PVC schedule 80
pipes has been installed to supply the intensive rotifer
culture tanks, and it is also available as an emergency
supply to the nursery tanks. A carbon dioxide
distribution line is available for small microalgae
inocula production, enriching the air supply with 1–2%
CO2 (v/v) to increase productivity. Several CO2 bottles
(commercial grade) are connected in series to the PVC
pipe that supplies air to the microalgae small inocula
room. An electric solenoid valve will stop the CO2
supply in the event of an electric power failure. An
appropriate pressure gauge and gas flowmeter are also
added. To assure a good mixture of the CO2 with the air,
a U-shape joint is prepared with four 908 PVC elbows
(Moretti et al., 2005).
4.1.4. Electricity supply system
The electricity supply system is based on the public
electrical service to a 225 kVA general transformer for
the pilot plant, and a 115 kVA transformer for the pump
house. All the electric installations were designed by
electrical engineers and fulfill the plant requirements and
all the national and international security regulations.
The entire electrical framework is aerial, water proof,
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–9690
well protected and grounded. Electric boards and
conduits are of auto-extinguishable plastic. Electric
equipment is protected with thermal switches. Control of
main seawater pumps and sand filter pumps is done by an
automatic switching system. There are several alarm
systems, mostly on the pumps, blowers and sand filters,
connected to the general security guard office. Power
points at the tank areas and rooms are water and
weatherproof switched sockets type IP-56, 1.5 m above
the floor level to reduce exposure to splashing. Care was
taken not to install electric cables and connections above
tanks, and not to install electric equipment below water
lines. The fluorescent lamps for the live food production
areas were installed with common switches for groups of
Fig. 4. General plant schematic upper view with all main outdoor and indoo
sand and big cartridge filter house; (4) blower house; (5) water treatment area
(7) 50 m3 broodstock tanks; (8) broodstock tank area; (9) larval rearing roo
microalgae small inocule room; (13) live food 80 and 700 L culture room; (1
ware washing and sterilization room; (16) general dry laboratory; (17) Artem
room; (19) microalgae outdoor large scale culture area; (20) zooplankton out
(22) intensive nursery area; (23) stabilizing pond; (24) drainage trench.
four or six lamps. A 100 kW, 220/127 V automatic
auxiliary electric generator was calculated to be able to
provide power to the critical electric equipment (blowers,
seawater pumps, sand filters, UV lamps, and the re-use
equipment).
4.1.5. Discharge system
The outdoor and indoor facilities have a drainage
channel net system (Fig. 4) with a maximum distance of
3 m from any point to the nearest drainage channel. The
floors have smooth surfaces with a 1% slope toward the
nearest drainage channel and all the drainage channels
have a 2% slope toward a 300 m2 (10 m � 30 m and
2.5 m of depth) stabilizing pond. Using the Manning
r areas: (1) main supply pipes; (2) seawater storage 25-tonne tanks; (3)
for broostock and nursery areas; (6) acclimation and quarantine sector;
m; (10) live food indoor building; (11) microalgae stock room; (12)
4) zooplankton inocules and rotifer intensive culture room; (15) glass
ia cysts decapsulating area; (18) Artemia incubation and enrichment
door large scale culture area; (21) artificial diet experimental tank area;
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96 91
equation for open channels without lateral slope, the
drainage channels were sized to be capable of handling
maximum flow rates as well as emergency drainage and/
or cleaning of half the nearby tank capacity (more than
10 times the normal flow rate), as well as the strongest
rains in the site 50-year records in the outside areas.
Depth was then doubled to accommodate some of the
outdoor pipe distribution network (mostly seawater,
freshwater and air pipes). All the drainage channels are
covered by heavy weight and easily dismantled gratings
or plates, for frequent inspection and maintenance. The
stabilization pond was built several years ago with a
highly permeable soil material. Effluent resident time in
the pond will be a minimum of 5 h before being drained
to a general drainage trench that delivers the effluent to
the mangrove area of a nearby coastal lagoon (Fig. 1).
Most of the effluent water will drain through the
permeable bottom and dikes, and due to its long normal
detention time, the pond can be expected to settle
virtually all of the settleable solids and the majority of
the suspended materials.
4.1.6. Reliability
Constant attention through all the design process has
been given to the system reliability, trying to predict
most of the common marine hatchery failure points and
considering solutions to solve or mitigate the problems
before their appearance. One of the usual problems is
electric power failures. Thus the facility has a backup
diesel generator with sufficient capacity to operate
simultaneously most of the essential equipment. The
key equipment, as in the case of seawater pumps,
blowers, sand and multiple cartridge filters will
alternate on fortnight cycles with another set, and there
is a third set installed and ready to work in case it is
needed, because there are situations when one of the
two first sets must be out of service for several days or
weeks and there is a need for another set to alternate
with the first one. Also, some times there is an increased
demand and the backup equipment must be brought on-
line and then the third equipment set will work as the
backup for any failure of the first two. Double
equipment and double storage and sedimentation tanks,
main delivery pipes, etc., allows a servicing and
preventive maintenance program with down time for
individual components, without interrupting the life
support system flow. Equipment that is not properly
maintained will fail, and adequate financing must be
provided for maintenance (Colt and Huguenin, 1992).
Also, most of the piping distribution systems are
exposed or placed inside the discharge channels covered
by removable planking, providing easy access for
servicing. Most of the 10 different circuits are housed in
extensive distribution frames and thus accessible in
most locations, and can be modified easily at others to
solve any unpredicted difficulty.
The materials selected for the hatchery were those
resistant to corrosion by water vapor and direct seawater
action, such as titanium, 316 stainless steel, fiber glass,
high density polyethylene, PVC, etc. These materials
are also resistant to strong cleaning and disinfection
practices with strong chemical products such as diluted
acids and sodium hypochlorite. All materials will be
leached in running sea water for about 2 weeks before
use and all of them can be in contact with the water, the
air or directly with the cultured organisms without
harming them.
Flexibility is another of the system’s main character-
istics, and the hatchery is designed to solve difficulties in
capacities, such as changing floor configuration, as there
are very few fixed objects in outdoor or indoor areas.
Additional capacity was also considered in the pipe
dimensions for a 25% extra increase in water, air flow
rates or in some areas in floor space.
The system is mostly manually operated, because in
the tropics with high humidity (>85%, as in Mazatlan),
automatic systems that are efficiently used in dry climates
frequently work only for a few months and later generally
fail in critical circumstances when they are most needed,
no matter the maintenance given. For this reason, the
security of the system is mostly reliant on human
monitoring and control. In cases of commercial ventures,
high automation and better monitoring and control
systems should be evaluated on cost and reliability in
areas requiring continual presence or high labor demands
(J. Huguenin, personal communication to L.A.-L.).
Future hatchery maintenance personnel have been
working since the construction started, and will be
working together with the hatchery director during the
whole start-up process, preparing the operational
procedures to be followed in each operation, sector,
part of the system, personnel, and season, as well as
responsibilities and decision-making procedures for
emergencies. Together with the servicing and preven-
tive maintenance programs, monitoring and control
routines will be established. These controls will include
24 h vigilance of trained personnel checking visual and
sound changes in the system.
Another important feature that will significantly
contribute to the reliability of the hatchery is that the
design has taken into consideration that most of the
maintenance, cleaning and disinfection routines need to
be taken care of on a daily, weekly, monthly, cyclical or
yearly basis, considering equipment, walls, tanks, pipes,
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–9692
instruments, etc., by sector, areas, rooms, etc. For
example, for every pipe straight run there is an inlet and
outlet point for cleaning devices and available fresh-
water. In almost every room there is a sodium hypo-
chlorite disinfection tank. There is good access to
piping, to drains, electric conducts, etc.
4.2. Acclimation and quarantine sector
This is an outdoor area (140 m2) which the new fish
must go through before entering the hatchery facilities.
The design is very simple: a concrete floor with 2%
slope to two drainage channels and a chlorine treatment
system for the effluent water with a chlorine residual of
0.5 ppm when fish are kept in the sector. There are no
walls and only a 70% absorbance shade cloth is fitted
over the whole area. Four 2 m3 cylindrical fiberglass
tanks will make possible the first general examination
and initial acute prophylactic treatments, and four 7 m3
cylindrical fiberglass tanks will be used for quarantine
and chronic prophylactic or curative treatments. The
size and material of the tanks are in agreement with
recommendations by Moretti et al. (2005). This sector is
located in one corner of the site, as far and isolated as
possible from the other facilities.
4.3. Egg production unit: broodstock sector
The hatchery is capable of working with four captive
finfish species simultaneously, two of them with big-
size spawners. The egg production approach was to
provide sexual maturation facilities in semi-natural
outdoor conditions for captive broodstocks, and to use
recently caught mature wild spawners. Chronic and
acute induced spawning treatments with or without
environmental control and/or slow release hormone
delivery systems for voluntary/natural spawning or
artificial fertilization stripping operations will be
possible.
Artificial fertilization techniques are used with
bullseye puffer because they have adhesive eggs which
need artificial fertilization followed by special treat-
ments to remove their stickiness. Thus, this sector could
supply good quality eggs to a much bigger hatchery
when the technologies are ready to be transferred to a
nearby commercial unit. These and other design
considerations will allow successive enlargement with
lower costs. The incubation of eggs of most species will
take place in the larval rearing tanks. Bullseye puffer
eggs, which are incubated in special tanks similar to
those of cyprinid fish, will be located in the induced
spawning room because they need more than 24 h to
hatch and because they are demersal eggs, requiring
special conditions for incubation and collection of their
larvae.
Broodstocks will be kept in two outdoor tank areas
(an old area of 500 m2 and a new one of 80 m2)
according to the species, cohort, sex and/or purposes.
There are 26 maturation tanks (7–50 m3 each) with an
overall volume of 410 m3. In particular, two or the
50 m3 tanks will be reinforced concrete and two will be
fiberglass. These tanks will be 6 m diameter and 2 m
water depth with 2% slope toward a screened 100 mm
diameter central drain. In addition there are two indoor
facilities for spawners: a 120 m2 environmental control
re-use system (two 18 m3, 3.5 m diameter and 2 m
water depth tanks) for chronic environmental and/or
hormone maturation/spawning treatments; and another
one (48 m2) for acute/chronic induced spawning
treatments with several 0.6–7 m3 tanks, with an overall
volume of 40 m3. The re-use system consists of: (a) one
110,000 BTU titanium heat pump to control the
temperature; (b) a 170 Lpm pressure sand filter; (c) a
186 m2 RBC biological filter; (d) a foam fractionator
with 25 mm inlet and 75 mm outlet for 114–155 Lpm
flow rate; (e) four 300 W halogen lamps with dimmers
and timers to regulate light intensity and photoperiod,
capable of mimicking sun-rise and sun-set events.
The broodstock areas have a 300 W halogen lamp
illumination system (sufficient to help night guards to
do their vigilance), with not more than 200 lx at the
water surface. Dimmers will be used to mimic sun-set
and sun-rise if lamps are to be switched on after it is
already dark. All broodstock tanks will have a shade
cloth cover to keep them calmed and protected from
possible bird attacks.
With the exception of the puffer-fish, the broodstock
maturation and/or spawning tanks should be large
enough, in diameter (�5 m) and in water depth
(�1.5 m), especially for species that need lots of room
to perform courtship.
4.4. Live food sector
In the live food sector, four microalgae species
(Nannochloropsis oculata, Isochrysis sp. (T-ISO),
Chaetoceros muelleri and Tetraselmis chuii), two
rotifers species (Brachionus rotundiformis and B.
plicatilis) and two copepod species (one pelagic and
one benthic) will be cultured in several batch production
chains of increasing volume steps. Back-up cultures to
be used in possible culture collapses will be scaled-up
from 20 mL test tubes to final volumes of 700 L, 1.2 m3
or 7 m3 tanks depending on the species.
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96 93
There are two main areas, one indoor’s and one
outdoor’s.
The indoor facility is a 160 m2 building (Fig. 4) with
most of the exterior walls having glass-windows for
direct sun light beneficial effects. The floor and walls are
covered with a broad synthetic reinforced cover that
assures a smooth surface for easy cleaning and
disinfection practices. The design and operation guar-
antee the required strict hygienic conditions. General
features of the different rooms are:
� A
5 m2 microalgae duplicating room with sterileconditions (two 30 W ambient UV lamps, a window
air conditioner for 18 8C, and a gas burner).
� A
n air-conditioned 20 8C 17 m2 room for microalgaepure strains and glassware small inocula production
(2 and 6 L culture flasks and 18 L carboys) in four
light stands (1.3 m long, 0.8 m wide and 1.80 m
height) with three-glass-shelves, and a fourth of hard
wood at the top for the pure strains in Petri dishes and
250 mL culture flasks that only receive indirect light.
Cultures are lighted by 30 fluorescent day light tube
lamps (ballasts in the ceiling), and aerated with a CO2
(1–2%) enriched air distribution system.
� A
n air-conditioned 22–24 8C 70 m2 intermediateinocula culture room for microalgae and zooplankton.
Culture vessels include 50 semi-transparent 87 L
capacity cylindrical fiberglass tanks (0.30 m dia-
meter), each with three daylight fluorescent tube
lamps (about 40,000 lx), and 20 semi-transparent
700 L capacity cylindrical fiberglass tanks (0.75 m in
diameter), each with three daylight fluorescent lamps.
This room is equipped with air, seawater and
freshwater supplies. Due to the absence of proper
polyethylene bags (tubular, hot extruded, with a
thickness of about 0.3 mm) in local markets and the
possibility of recycling them, the decision for
intermediate live culture tubular vessels was in favor
of semi-transparent fiberglass tanks.
� A
n ambient temperature 28.5 m2 room for productionof zooplankton small inocula (rotifer and copepods
species) up to 18 L carboys in another light stand with
the same dimensions as described before, as well as
for intensive rotifer production with formula feeds in
four 0.5 m3 and four 1.2 m3 cylindroconical fiberglass
tanks. The room is supplied with air, pure oxygen,
seawater, freshwater, and hot tap water. In this room
the rotifers will be also enriched with microalgae (N.
oculata + Isochrysis sp.) or oil enrichment formulas
in one or two 1.2 m3 cylindroconical fiberglass tanks
(inner walls white gel coated), and half the daily
harvest will be cold stored to be used during the day in
one 300 L cylindroconical fiberglass tanks. Stored
culture will be cooled with 1 L plastic bottles
containing frozen seawater. Titanium 3 kW immer-
sion heaters are required to keep temperature around
28–30 8C inside the B. rotundiformis tanks.
� A
7.5 m2 room for glassware washing, as well aswater and glassware sterilization in two autoclaves.
� A
n 11.25 m2 room for incubation and enrichment ofArtemia cysts, which will be decapsulated in an
adjacent outdoor small facility (5 m2) in two 1.2 m3
cylindroconical fiberglass tanks. One half the daily
harvest will be chilled by 1 L plastic bottles
containing frozen seawater, and stored to be used
during the day in one or two 300 L cylindroconical
fiberglass tanks. Air, seawater, freshwater and hot tap
water are supplied. Waterproof sockets IP-56 are used
for the titanium 3 kW immersion heaters for
incubation and enrichment tanks. The fluorescent
lamps (with transparent waterproof covers) over each
tank deliver 2000 lx at the water surface of the
incubation tanks.
� A
14.25 m2 general dry laboratory room for preciseweighing and microscopic work, with two dehumi-
fiers.
There are two outdoor areas, each of 91 m2, divided
by a wall 2.5 m in height: one for microalgae N. oculata
and T. chuii cultures in eight 1.2 m3 and seven 7 m3
fiberglass tanks; and another one for copepod produc-
tion in eight 1.2 m3 and seven 7 m3 fiberglass tanks.
Each side of the wall has a wash basin with a
disinfection tank. The microalgae outdoor area will be
under direct sun light and N. oculata will be the species
produced in the 7 m3 tanks.
The estimated live food sector production capacity is
about 8 m3 of four microalgae species (1–40 �106 cells/ml, depending on the species) to be used for
zooplankton inocula, copepod culture, zooplankton
enrichment, and the larval rearing tanks. The estimated
zooplankton production capacity is 2.5 � 109 enriched
rotifers/day, 6 � 108 enriched Artemia metanauplii/day
and around 4 � 107 copepods/day.
4.5. Larviculture and nursery sectors
Usually eggs will be incubated within the larval
rearing tanks, as most of the species have a short
embryonic period of around 24 h. Puffer fish eggs are an
exception, and will be incubated, after eliminating their
stickiness, in McDonald transparent hatching jars
located in the same room as the larval tanks, according
to the research now in progress.
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–9694
The green-water traditional larval facility is indoors,
and consists of six 2 m diameter and 1 m depth (3 m3)
cylindrical fiber glass tanks with non-reflective black
walls and a non-reflective white bottom with a 1:12
slope toward the central 100 mm diameter drain. White
bottoms allow easier debris detection and lets the
observer see larvae to study their behaviors and avoid
disturbing them when cleaning. Black walls provide
maximum visual contrast to assist the larvae to detect
their preys and increase feeding efficiency. These tanks
are in a 64 m2 room, next to the live food sector, with the
floor and walls covered with a broad synthetic
reinforced cover that assures a smooth surface for easy
cleaning and disinfection practices. The tank water is
flushed out through laterally installed 100 mm perfo-
rated drain pipes covered with a fine mesh screen sized
according to the larval stage. Drain screens are easily
disassembled for cleaning between rearing cycles, as
described by Alvarez-Lajonchere and Hernandez
Molejon (2001). The light intensity at the water surface
of the larval rearing tanks is around 2000 lx at midday
due to a translucent fiber glass roof. In addition, each
tank has a 500 W halogen lamp installed over the tank
centre capable of varying height over the tank surface
water to give a light intensity of at least 2500–3000 lx.
Each lamp is provided with a manual 600 W dimmer to
mimic sun-rise and sun-set during switching on and off,
to avoid larval stress. There are four 3 m diameter tanks
in the copepod culture outdoor area with a design
similar to the larval rearing tanks describe above, so that
they can be used for larval rearing if needed.
There are three different distribution circuits: flow-
through seawater, flow-through freshwater, and an air
system. Each larval tank has two opposed seawater
entrances with ball valves, two opposed air valves, each
with four evenly distributed transparent polyethylene
lines with their diffusers and a line to a surface skimmer,
and one freshwater line.
The larval rearing design production capacity, when
technologies are fully developed, will be about three to
four weaned juveniles/L, with a total of 50,000–70,000
juveniles per rearing cycle, and four 1.5-month cycles
per year. In the future, with the new working species of
snappers, amberjacks and snooks, it should be possible
to shorten the production cycles to 1 month each and to
carry out a fifth rearing cycle at the end of the year.
Facilities for mesocosms larval rearing technology
will be added in the near future. The facility (600 m2) will
be located outdoors, with four 20 m3 fiberglass tanks: two
for intensive microalgae culture (with a paddle wheel
system); two 40 m3 fiberglass tanks for rotifer and
copepod production, and another two 40 m3 tanks for the
larvae. Each tank will be provided with seawater,
freshwater and compressed air supply systems. The larval
tanks will be covered by 70% absorbance shade cloth.
There are twelve 5 m3 tanks in the nursery sector, in a
222 m2 outdoor area covered by 70% absorbance shade
cloth. The tanks are a modification of a Foster-Lucas
model described by Alvarez-Lajonchere and Hernandez
Molejon (2001). Dimensions are 4 m � 2 m � 0.7 m
with a 1.6 m longitudinal baffle that allows an annular
water flow-pattern. Each tank will have seawater and air
supplies. The design production capacity of the nursery
sector can reach around 40,000–50,000 one-gram
juveniles per cycle when the technologies are ready
for commercial application.
Finally, the facility also has a 100 m2 outdoor
experimental area under 70% absorbance shade cloth
for artificial food studies. Twelve 3 m3 cylindrical
fiberglass tanks are equipped with filtered seawater,
freshwater and an air distribution system.
5. Hatchery staff
The pilot-scale hatchery will work with two kinds of
workers, full time and part time workers. The part time
workers will be researchers of the Reproduction and
Nutrition Laboratories of CIAD, and the full time
workers will be professional and technical staff that will
carry out day-to-day operating tasks in their particular
hatchery sectors. There is a hatchery director appointed,
and a full time general facility plant manager
responsible for maintenance, repairs and keeping the
seawater system and physical plant operating efficiently
and safely so that the aquatic life is secure. Each of the
main organism sectors will have a biologist in charge
and some assistants: (a) one biologist will be in charge
of the reproduction as well as the acclimation and
quarantine sectors, working with an assistant technician
and a qualified worker; he will also work in the nursery
sector with another assistant technician; (b) one
biologist will be in charge of the live food sector,
working with another biologist: one of them will work
with the microalgae and the other with the zooplankton
production area, and each of them will have one
assistant technician; (c) one biologist will be in charge
of the larval rearing sector with one assistant technician.
Finally, there will be one technician working at nights,
who will do different tasks in the live food, larval
rearing and nursery sectors, as well as the night security
duty.
All professionals and technicians working in the
plant must have complete technical knowledge and
show maximum conscientious attention for their work
L. Alvarez-Lajonchere et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007) 81–96 95
because it is with very sensitive organisms that need
special attention 24 h a day, 7 days per week. Due to the
low mechanization and automatization levels, marine
fish hatchery efficiency depends greatly on the efficacy
of their personnel, their dedication and unwavering
attention to their work. Thus, the importance of the
human factor is essential. A good working and rotation
plan including rest days and vacations, and adequate
attention and incentive policies are mandatory.
Acknowledgements
We wish express thanks to many engineers and
architects that shared invaluable information on design
and operation principles, particularly to D. Perez Franco,
N.Y. Rodrıguez, F. Alonso and J.L. Marrero. Especial
thanks are given to G. Cittolin and R. Guidastri from STM
AQUATRADE Srl, who transmitted their knowledge and
experience on marine fish hatchery design and operation
to the senior author (L.A.-L.) during two Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations projects.
Authors are indebted to Dr. Marıa Cristina Chavez and
M.A. Sonia Osuna as Director and Administrative Chief
of CIAD Mazatlan and their staff for their constant
support and interest. Particularly important were the
collaboration and contribution of Eng. Mariana Trujillo
andArq. C.Penaflor ofGr. PelicanoS.A., theconstruction
enterprise. Authors are grateful to the CIAD Marine Fish
Culture Program members for their assistance and
permanent interest. Thanks are also due to Drs. J.E.
Huguenin, C. Nash and N. King for their review and very
useful comments and recommendations on the manu-
script. This study was partially supported by project
SAGARPA—CONACyT 378.
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