Descriptive Descriptive ResearchResearch

Marketing Research – MKTG Marketing Research – MKTG 446446

Angela D’Auria Stanton, Ph.D.

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

Descriptive research (often referred to as survey Descriptive research (often referred to as survey research) is aimed at characterizing phenomena and research) is aimed at characterizing phenomena and identifying association among selected variables.  identifying association among selected variables.  Descriptive research can be used to:Descriptive research can be used to: describe the characteristics of certain groupsdescribe the characteristics of certain groups estimate the proportion of people in a specified population estimate the proportion of people in a specified population

who behave in a certain waywho behave in a certain way make specific predictionsmake specific predictions

Some specific examples of descriptive studies include:Some specific examples of descriptive studies include: The proportion of companies that have an electronic The proportion of companies that have an electronic

storefrontstorefront Target customer's evaluation of key product attributesTarget customer's evaluation of key product attributes Measuring employee satisfaction Measuring employee satisfaction

Classification of Descriptive Classification of Descriptive StudiesStudies

Longitudinal Cross-Sectional

the true panel the single measures over time

field studies/surveys

  Longitudinal SurveysLongitudinal Surveys Provides a series of pictures that, when pierced together, Provides a series of pictures that, when pierced together,

provide a movie of the situation the changes that are occurring.provide a movie of the situation the changes that are occurring. The sample remains relatively constant through time and the The sample remains relatively constant through time and the

sample members are measured repeatedly.sample members are measured repeatedly.

   Cross-Sectional StudiesCross-Sectional Studies

Provides a snapshot of the variables of interest at a single point Provides a snapshot of the variables of interest at a single point in time.in time.

The sample is typically selected to be representative of some The sample is typically selected to be representative of some known universe.known universe.

Longitudinal Data – Longitudinal Data – AdvantagesAdvantages

Consumer or Business Panel

Single Measures Over Time:

The Tracking Study

Allows turnover analysis

Allows collection of a great deal more classification information from respondents

Allows longer and more exacting interviews

Produces fewer error in reporting past behavior because of natural forgetting

Produces fewer interviewer-interviewee interaction error

Tends to produce more representative samples of population of interest

Produces fewer errors due to respondent's behavior being affected by the measurement task

Allows the investigation of a great many relationships

An Example of a Panel An Example of a Panel DesignDesign

Number of Households in Panel Purchasing Each Brand of Detergent

TABLE 1

Brand Purchased At Time Period 1 At Time Period 2

A

B

C

D

Total

200

300

350

150

1,000

250

270

330

150

1,000

 TABLE 2A – Turnover Analysis

At Time Period 2T1 Total

At Time Period 1

  Bought A Bought B Bought C Bought D

Bought A

Bought B

Bought C

Bought D

T2 Total

175

0

0

75

250

25

225

0

20

270

0

50

280

0

330

0

25

70

55

150

200

300

350

150

1,000

Another Way of Looking at Another Way of Looking at ItIt

At Time Period 2T1

Total

At Time Period 1

 Bought A Bought B Bought C Bought D

Bought A

Bought B

Bought C

Bought D

87.5%

0.0%

0.0%

50.0%

12.5%

75.0%

0.0%

13.3%

0.0%

16.7%

80.0%

0.0%

0.0%

8.3%

20.0%

36.7%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Loyalty AnalysisLoyalty Analysis

Survey Research MethodsSurvey Research Methods

Personal InterviewPersonal Interview

TelephoneTelephone

Self-AdministeredSelf-Administered

Online (computer administered)Online (computer administered)

Survey Research MethodsSurvey Research Methods Personal InterviewsPersonal Interviews (or Person (or Person

Administered Surveys) – requires the Administered Surveys) – requires the presence of a presence of a trainedtrained human interviewer human interviewer who asks questions and records the who asks questions and records the subject’s answerssubject’s answers

In-home or In-officeIn-home or In-office Executive interviewExecutive interview Mall interceptMall intercept Purchase interceptPurchase intercept

Personal InterviewsPersonal Interviews

By physically being there, the By physically being there, the interviewer may persuade the person interviewer may persuade the person to supply answers (probably the to supply answers (probably the highest response rate).highest response rate).

Information on the situation may be Information on the situation may be observed, without asking.observed, without asking.

Best for getting response from specific, Best for getting response from specific, identified person.identified person.

Versatility of questioning methods (and Versatility of questioning methods (and flexibility in sequencing) and use of flexibility in sequencing) and use of visual materials.visual materials.

Allows for probing of open-ended Allows for probing of open-ended questions and clarification of questions and clarification of ambiguous questions.ambiguous questions.

Long questionnaires may be used Long questionnaires may be used successfully under interviewer's successfully under interviewer's urging.urging.

If the respondent is having trouble If the respondent is having trouble understanding, interviewer may notice understanding, interviewer may notice and remedy this.and remedy this.

Selection of sample members can be Selection of sample members can be more precise. more precise.

Expensive and time intensive.Expensive and time intensive. Generally narrow distribution.Generally narrow distribution. People may be reluctant to talk with People may be reluctant to talk with

strangers.strangers. Often difficult to identify individuals to Often difficult to identify individuals to

include in the sampling frame.include in the sampling frame. Interviewer's presence, mannerisms Interviewer's presence, mannerisms

and inflections may bias responses.and inflections may bias responses. Respondents know that they can be Respondents know that they can be

identified, which may inhibit their identified, which may inhibit their willingness to give information.willingness to give information.

Great difficulty in trying to supervise Great difficulty in trying to supervise and control field interviewers.and control field interviewers.

Staffing with capable interviewers, Staffing with capable interviewers, especially when conducted in distant especially when conducted in distant places. places.

May inaccurately record respondent’s May inaccurately record respondent’s answersanswers

AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Survey Research MethodsSurvey Research Methods Telephone InterviewsTelephone Interviews – personal interviews conducted – personal interviews conducted

via telephone technology typically from a central locationvia telephone technology typically from a central location

Relatively low costRelatively low cost Wide distribution eliminates distance Wide distribution eliminates distance

obstacleobstacle CallbacksCallbacks Avoids personal travel to interviewAvoids personal travel to interview Rapid coverage of even widely Rapid coverage of even widely

scattered sample.scattered sample. Interviewers can be closely supervisedInterviewers can be closely supervised Less interview bias due to anonymityLess interview bias due to anonymity Allows easy use of computer support Allows easy use of computer support

(CATI/CAI)(CATI/CAI)

Representative sampling frame difficult Representative sampling frame difficult to establish due to unlisted numbers to establish due to unlisted numbers and increased use of cell phonesand increased use of cell phones

Inability to observe a respondentInability to observe a respondent Limitation to audio materialsLimitation to audio materials Difficulty of conducting long interviews; Difficulty of conducting long interviews;

no way to prevent hang-upsno way to prevent hang-ups More difficult to establish rapport over More difficult to establish rapport over

the telephone than in-personthe telephone than in-person Difficult to determine that appropriate Difficult to determine that appropriate

respondent is being interviewedrespondent is being interviewed Restrictions on types of data collectedRestrictions on types of data collected Misperceptions and “sugging”Misperceptions and “sugging”

AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Telephone InterviewsTelephone InterviewsResults of First Dialing Attempts 

Result Number of Dialings Probability of Occurrence

No answerBusyOut of serviceNo eligible personBusinessAt home:RefusalCompletionTotal

89,8295,29952,63275,28510,57825,4653,70721,758

259,088

.347

.020

.203

.291

.041

.098.014 (.146)*

.084 (.854) 1.000

 

* Probability of occurrence given eligible individual is at home

What to do about lack of listed numbers & cell What to do about lack of listed numbers & cell phones?phones? Plus-one dialingPlus-one dialing Random digit dialingRandom digit dialing Systematic random digit dialingSystematic random digit dialing

Survey Research MethodsSurvey Research Methods Self-AdministeredSelf-Administered – the respondent reads the survey – the respondent reads the survey

questions and record his/her own answers without the questions and record his/her own answers without the presence of an interviewer. Typically done via mail, fax or presence of an interviewer. Typically done via mail, fax or drop-off.drop-off.

Sampling frame easily developed Sampling frame easily developed when mailing lists are availablewhen mailing lists are available

Respondent reads and answers Respondent reads and answers questions without interviewer influencequestions without interviewer influence

May respond whenever convenient May respond whenever convenient and without pressureand without pressure

Any visual materials can be usedAny visual materials can be used Relatively less expensiveRelatively less expensive More confidential information may be More confidential information may be

divulgeddivulged Anonymity of respondents easier to Anonymity of respondents easier to

achieveachieve Eliminates the need for an interviewer Eliminates the need for an interviewer

A majority may not respond, and those who do A majority may not respond, and those who do may not be typicalmay not be typical

Significant time lag between the time the Significant time lag between the time the survey is mailed and when returnedsurvey is mailed and when returned

Nothing can be learned except what is written Nothing can be learned except what is written on the questionnaireon the questionnaire

The apparent low cost becomes relatively high The apparent low cost becomes relatively high when response is poorwhen response is poor

Questions may be misunderstood or skippedQuestions may be misunderstood or skipped A person may read the entire form before A person may read the entire form before

answering any questions, so later questions answering any questions, so later questions can influence answers to earlier ones.can influence answers to earlier ones.

Significant problems in "pass along" effect. Significant problems in "pass along" effect.

AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Survey Research MethodsSurvey Research Methods Online Online – typically conducted via e-mail or the Internet– typically conducted via e-mail or the Internet

Survey setup and execution can be Survey setup and execution can be done very quicklydone very quickly

Visual materials can be usedVisual materials can be used Respondent responds without being Respondent responds without being

influenced by the interviewerinfluenced by the interviewer May respond whenever convenient May respond whenever convenient

and without pressureand without pressure Typically the least expensiveTypically the least expensive Can permit the respondent to be Can permit the respondent to be

interrupted and later resume where interrupted and later resume where he/she left offhe/she left off

Eliminates the cost of the interviewer.Eliminates the cost of the interviewer. Permits real-time data cleaningPermits real-time data cleaning

Response rates are becoming an issueResponse rates are becoming an issue May be confused with spam.May be confused with spam. Will not be able to reach people without Will not be able to reach people without

access or desire to use the Internetaccess or desire to use the Internet Nothing can be learned except what is Nothing can be learned except what is

written on the questionnaire written on the questionnaire No one present to stimulate replies or offer No one present to stimulate replies or offer

instructions.instructions. Potential for "pass along" effect.Potential for "pass along" effect. Respondent frustration if questionnaire Respondent frustration if questionnaire

forces response.forces response. Issues with projectability of the sampleIssues with projectability of the sample

AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Selecting a Survey Method: Selecting a Survey Method: Factors to ConsiderFactors to Consider

Situation CharacteristicsSituation Characteristics Budget Time frame Quality requirements (e.g. completeness of data, generalizability, of the results, etc.)

Task CharacteristicsTask Characteristics Difficulty of the task Stimuli need to elicit response Amount of information needed Research topic sensitivity

Respondent CharacteristicsRespondent Characteristics Diversity Incidence rate Respondent participation

Errors (or Bias) Affecting Errors (or Bias) Affecting Survey ResearchSurvey Research

Total ErrorTotal Error

==Sampling Error Sampling Error (difference between the (difference between the

actual sample results and the true population results)actual sample results and the true population results)

++

Non-Sampling (Systematic) ErrorNon-Sampling (Systematic) Error

Non-Sampling ErrorsNon-Sampling Errors

Respondent ErrorsRespondent Errors Non-response errorNon-response error

Response BiasResponse Bias Deliberate falsification (social desirability Deliberate falsification (social desirability

error, auspices error, hostility, yea and nay-error, auspices error, hostility, yea and nay-saying)saying)

Unconscious misrepresentation (faulty Unconscious misrepresentation (faulty recollection, fatigue, acquiescence error, recollection, fatigue, acquiescence error, extremity bias)extremity bias)

Non-Sampling ErrorsNon-Sampling Errors

Measurement/Research Design Measurement/Research Design ErrorsErrors Construct development errorConstruct development error Scale measurement error (inappropriate questions, Scale measurement error (inappropriate questions,

scale attributes or scale point descriptors)scale attributes or scale point descriptors) Survey instrument error (improper sequence, Survey instrument error (improper sequence,

length, poor or no instructions, etc.)length, poor or no instructions, etc.) Data analysis error (use of wrong analytical Data analysis error (use of wrong analytical

technique, etc.)technique, etc.) Misinterpretation error (making the wrong Misinterpretation error (making the wrong

inference, using only a selected portion of the inference, using only a selected portion of the study results)study results)

Non-Sampling ErrorsNon-Sampling Errors

Problem Definition ErrorsProblem Definition Errors Misinterpreting the true nature of the problem Misinterpreting the true nature of the problem

situationsituation

Administrative ErrorAdministrative Errorss Data processing errors (coding, data entry or editing)Data processing errors (coding, data entry or editing) Interviewer error (cheating, recording error, Interviewer error (cheating, recording error,

misinterpretation, carelessnessmisinterpretation, carelessness Sample design error (sample selection error, Sample design error (sample selection error,

sampling frame error, specifying the wrong sampling frame error, specifying the wrong population, etc.)population, etc.)