deplomacye

Unit-6:- the concept of Diplomacy

Group Assignment on the treaty/agreement of 1902 and 1929 of Nile water in light of diplomacy.

1. what were the purposes?

2. Who were the signatories? 1. the purposes:-the 1902 treatyThe main purpose of the treaty was to draw the

border line between Ethiopia and the Sudan.

04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 1

…Group Assignment on Nile waterIt was not an agreement that deals on the use of

Nile water. It was only under article-111 that the issue of how

to use the Blue Nile/ Lake Tana is mentioned.This article was understood by then Ethiopian

government and government of Britain differently. - For the then Ethiopian government, it

meant securing/maintaining the prior

agreement of Britain government.


……….Group Assignment on Nile water - For the Britain government, it meant that

Ethiopia

could not carry out any construction that arrest

the flow of except in agreement with Britain.

One can understand from the above points that 1902 treaty cannot be used for a purpose of water diplomacy by Egyptians and other riparian countries.


………Group Assignment on Nile water 1. The purpose:-the 1929 agreement

The purpose was to allocate Nile water among Egypt and the Sudan

While Egypt secured 48 billon cubic meters of the Nile water, the Sudan secured 4 billon cubic meters of the Nile water

Egypt was given the right to monitor the Nile flow in the upperstrean countries.


………Group Assignment on Nile water 2.The Signatories:- the 1902 treaty The signatories of this treaty were

Ethiopia led by Emperor Menilik and Great Britain represented by col.2.The Signatories:- the 1929 agreement The signatories of this agreement were between

Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan


1. The Concept of Diplomacy

1.1.Definition of DiplomacyA number of practitioners and scholars have been

defining diplomacy based on their own perspectives and ideological backgrounds.

This has contributed the lack of commonly accepted and comprehensive understandings of the concept diplomacy.

To understand properly the meaning of the concept diplomacy at the level of this course, it is necessary and appropriate to explore different definitions that were provided in different literatures such as the following.


…………………..Definition of DiplomacyIn our day to day social conversation or interaction with each other, diplomacy may refer to the use of tact to:-

* gain/achieve strategic advantages. * find mutually/commonly acceptable solutions. * rephrase statements in a polite manner. * capitalize the agenda that favors all parties * avoid personal attack * remind ones past wrong doings…………..


……………….Concept of Diplomacy

a) Etymological definitionEtymologically the term diplomacy is

derived from the Greek word diplono/diploma which refers to a two folded paper or document that enables city-states or nations to conduct different affairs with one another and develop agreement on their respective interests.


……Concept of DiplomacyIn the old days of Roman Empire, the word diplomacy was used to describe official travel document such as passports and passes for imperial roads which were stamped on double metal plates.


……Concept of Diplomacy b) Dictionary definitionIn different Dictionaries, the term diplomacy can be defined as:-

1. an art and practice of conducting negotiations between sovereign states to attain mutual interests and to secure advantages without arousing hostility.

2. a means of establishing relationships among countries in which each of them aim at carrying out different affairs to the best interests.


………..The concept of Diplomacy

3. a business of making and managing different agreements, treaties , negotiations……etc among different international actors mainly sovereign states.

4. a skill and tact of dealing with people, persuading them towards ones own national interests and that of common interests.

5. a process of negotiations by which sovereign states conduct their relationships and pursue their purposes using different means short of war.


………..The concept of Diplomacyc) Comprehensive definition Comprehensively, diplomacy can be understood as a

special form of official state activities with special arts, skills of negotiation and using special means and process of communication to be practiced by the head of states, head of governments, ministers of foreign relations, ambassadors, envoys and delegations at international conferences.

In more recent times, use has been made of an official, non-traditional diplomatic agents, including business executives, religious figures, NGOs, academicians, & individual citizens- commonly known as Track II, III and Multi-track-diplomacy.04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 12

………..The concept of Diplomacy1. 2. Key Concepts of diplomacyThe following are the key concepts and jargons that

are frequently used by the practitioners and scholars in the areas of diplomacy.

1. Diplomat-refers to an official in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who by virtual of his/her office takes a direct part in the discharge of the ministry’s function’s in the sphere of official contact with foreign states.

2. Ambassador-a diplomatic agent of highest rank. More particularly the title is used in most cases, to designate the head of a diplomatic mission to a foreign state.



3.Diplomatic Act- refers to an action or declaration by state foreign affairs organs, attracting political or international legal consequences. It may take a variety of forms like the establishment of diplomatic relations, the presentation of credentials, a declaration of attitude, etc. Diplomatic documents (treaty, note, memorandum, minutes, etc) are also included in diplomatic act.

4. Diplomatic Agent- a diplomat, member of the diplomatic staff of a diplomatic mission, a person who by virtue of his/her post takes a direct part in the discharge of the mission’s functions.04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 14

………..The concept of Diplomacy5. Diplomatic Corps- refers to a totality of heads of

foreign diplomatic missions accredited in a given state, the body of diplomats of all states, including attachés, who are resident at one post.

6. Ad hoc diplomacy-a term which is sometimes used to refer to diplomacy conducted by intermittent or sporadic means, such as a ‘roving ambassador or a special mission’.

7. Chancery- (1) the political section of a diplomatic mission. (2) The premises where chancery staff work, and thus a synonym for embassy or high commission.


………..The concept of Diplomacy8. Accredited diplomatic representative-

another way of describing a head of mission or, more generally, a diplomatic agent. Occasionally, however, it may be given as a formal title to a representative to whom the receiving state accords diplomatic privileges and immunities, but who is not eligible for diplomatic status because the sending entity does not enjoy sovereignty, or because its sovereignty is widely denied by other states.


………..The concept of Diplomacy9. Counter-intelligence- (1) the attempt to

destroy or weaken the effectiveness of foreign espionage at its source, especially by penetration of its services. This is the older meaning of the term and the one still favored by human professionals. (2) All methods, whether active or passive, designed to protect a state’s secrets from foreign intelligence gatherers employing any means.

10. Credentials- A document which authenticates a person’s status and competence



11. Diplomatic asylum-the granting of refuge in diplomatic premises to fugitives from the authority of the receiving state where they are deemed by the sending state to have given political rather than criminal offence.

12. Diplomatic flag- the flag used by a state on its diplomatic premises and as the personal standard flown on the means of transport used by its heads of mission.

13. Diplomatic language- special language employed in an effort to minimize the provocation likely to be caused by delivery of a sharp or unavoidably threatening message.



14. Full powers-the capacity to sign a treaty, usually it consists of a specific written authorization granted by a state to one of its diplomatic agents. Such full powers must be available for inspection by the other party or parties to the treaty, and may be exchanged for theirs.

15. Diplomatic channels- the ways in which diplomats communicate between countries -The message was delivered by diplomatic channels.

16. Dollar diplomacy- the use of money to establish good relations with other countries



17. Gunboat diplomacy- the attempt to solve international problems by force or by threatening to use force.

18. Shuttle diplomacy -diplomatic negotiations by an official who travels frequently between the countries involved.



1.3. Cynical views about diplomacyBased on the legacy left behind by European

state system, the concept diplomacy was/is associated with deceptive attributes.

The following are some of deceptive attributes attached to diplomacy and diplomats by different scholars and institutions. Diplomats:-are labeled as ‘honorable spies’carry patriotic act of the bribing and lying

for one’s country04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 21

………..The concept of Diplomacyare a honest but shroud man sent abroad

to lie for his country.have the ability to say and do the nastiest thing in a nicest way.

conduct an act of considerable use of lies and”-diplomacy is taken as a ‘noble lie’.


2. Historical Development of Diplomacy 2.1. Early Development (around 431-404 B.C)In different ancient literatures, it is indicated

that the practice of diplomacy was common in many primitive societies.

As an example, the idea of diplomatic immunity is known among the Australian aborigines. A study of the diplomacy of primitive peoples encompassing societies in Australia, Asia, Africa and the Americas showed familiarity with ideas such as messengers and envoys to maintain intertribal relations


……..Historical Development of DiplomacySome had beliefs that messengers are in

possession of a protecting taboo that should not be violated.

Others received envoys and their messages according to a given ceremonial.

Messengers were often selected not from among the expendable members of the society, but from the leading men and women of the tribe.


…..Historical Development of DiplomacyDue to lack of a preserved written record, very little is

known about diplomacy in ancient history. While few in number, there are references to diplomatic concepts across many ancient societies, such as the Egyptians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese and the Hindus.

Documents dating back to ancient Egypt have been discovered that describe the exchange of envoys between the Egyptian pharaohs and neighboring monarchs.

Although the ancient Chinese did not encourage contacts or relations with outsiders, records have been found that describe protocol and rules to be used in such dealings when they occurred


……….Historical Development of DiplomacyThe Hindus also recognized the importance of

diplomacy as is shown by the following quote from the Laws of Manu (an important Hindu text): "Peace and its opposite (that is war) depend on the ambassadors, since it is they who create and undo alliances.“

The ancient Greek societies were also known for practicing diplomacy among the city-states. As relations between the Greek city-states became more sophisticated, so did the qualifications for diplomatic representatives. By the sixth century BCE, only the best orators were chosen to be ambassadors.


……..Historical Development of DiplomacyThe Greek system of diplomacy acted as a

foundation for that of the Roman Republic, which grew over the next several centuries and became the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. The contribution of the Romans to diplomacy was not to its practice, but to its theory. The Romans stressed the importance of adhering to agreements and treaties. Rather than producing skilled negotiators, the Romans produced a skilled archivists who specialized in diplomatic procedures.


……..Historical Development of Diplomacy 2.2. Renaissance Diplomacy • Early in the 14th century, a group of city-states

developed in Italy, but none could dominate the rest, all feared conquest by the other. The rulers of most of the city-states gained their positions through force and cunning.

• Because they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects, these rulers hoped to maintain allegiance by seeking foreign conquest and treasure.

• They sought opportunities to increasing their power and expand their domain and were always concerned about the balance of power on the Italian peninsula.


……..Historical Development of DiplomacyAlthough Renaissance diplomacy was considered as

amoral, the Italian city-states developed a number of institutions and practices that still intact such as:-

1. They introduced a system of permanent ambassadors who represented the interest of their state by observing, reporting, and negotiating.

2. Each state created a foreign office that evaluated the written reports of the ambassadors, sent instructions, helped to formulate policies, and kept vast records.

3. Together they developed an elaborate system of protocol, privileges, and immunities for diplomats.


……..Historical Development of Diplomacy Ambassadors and their staffs were granted freedom

of access, transit, and exit at all times. Local laws could not be used to impede an ambassador in carrying out duties, but ambassadors could be held accountable if they actually committed crimes, such as theft or murder.

4. The concept of extraterritoriality was established under this principle, an embassy in any state stood on the soil of its own homeland, and anyone or anything within the embassy compound was subject only to the laws of its own country.


……..Historical Development of Diplomacy2.3. Diplomacy in the New European state

system It was in the modern era (17th) with the

consolidation of the nation state system that diplomacy assumed a significant role in international relations.

European state appointed diplomatic representations to maintain their foreign relations. Permanent embassy staffs were recruited to collect and pass information of allies and enemies on a systematic basis.


……..Historical Development of DiplomacyThe states began conducting bilateral and

multilateral treaties and alliances signifying emergency of international system in the form we have today.

Recourse to war was a favorite among the states of that period. This trend of conflict continued till the 18th century. The peace of Westphalia was a short term affairs.

The European system of diplomacy suffered its trust shook when Napoleon attempted to conquer Europe in the early 19thc.


……..Historical Development of DiplomacyAfter Napoleon’s defeat, the European system was"

restored” and no major wars occurred within Europe for the next hundred years. European diplomats were becoming more increasing learned professional.

The smear side of diplomacy-the bribing, lying, and deceiving-was gradually replaced by code of expected & acceptable condiment

The word “diplomacy" was first introduced into the English language by Edmund Burke in 1796, based on the French word " diploamtie" or diplomatique".


……..Historical Development of Diplomacy2.4. The Modern Diplomacy The three cordial principles on which the western

state system are based were state sovereignty, principles of intentional law and balance of power system.

Since the treaty of Westphalia and the formation of the court of European in 19th Century, international politics has been based on the balance of power system and role of the “balancer.”

Great Britain played the role of balancer during the period up to the WWI and establishment of League of Nation.


……..Historical Development of DiplomacyThis state of affairs ended in 1914 when WWI

broke out. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 established the first international organization that was the League of Nations.

During this time, international relations began to assume dynamic proportions and balance.

The subject matter of diplomacy became more and more important as a discipline and chairs and departments along with research center came to be established in Great Britain and the United States.


3. Diplomacy Vs other disciplinesDiplomacy borrows concepts and theories

from both foreign policy and international law. This makes it rich in vocabulary and enables it to cover wider issues taking place in international system.

3.1. Diplomacy Vs Foreign Policy Foreign policy is the substance/the content

and diplomacy is a method-modes operandi- to be conducted through persuasion, negotiation, compromise and threat of force.


……Diplomacy versus other disciplinesDiplomacy is the process through which foreign policy

activities are carried out and political relationships among states and non-state actors can be concluded.

As a tool of foreign policy, diplomacy can employ the following methods.

1. Harmless/kindly tools like:- ambassadorial representation/ correspondence, communication through international

organizations, humanitarian aid and different supports foreign investment, trade and commerce……

etc.NB:- mostly used by democratic developing countries.


……Diplomacy versus other disciplines 2. Coercive/forceful tools like:- threats tariffs, embargoes, espionage sabotage, clandestine military actions………………

NB:- mostly used by developed nations


……Diplomacy versus other disciplinesBy using diplomacy, a state might engage in one

of the following activities to project its interests.1. A state might express its interests to a target state either

publicly or privately, indicating the nature of relations.2. A state might suggest that a better relationship would

follow if the target state's actions are changed in to common interests.

3. A state might threaten that negative consequences will follow

if the target state continue to move in a contrary direction.

4. A state might turn to an international body to seek multilateral support of other states.


……Diplomacy versus other disciplines 3.2.Diplomacy Vs International Law a) International Law/IL IL is Wider than diplomacy in scope- includes war.IL is an outcome of diplomatic negotiationsIL deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity &

the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other.

IL governs issues relating to the global environment, the international waters, outer space, world trade……………..

IL includes the issue of maintenance of international peace and security & the regulation of the use of force in the international relationship.


…….Diplomacy versus other disciplines b) Diplomacy

Diplomacy refers to a peaceful settlement of conflict. Diplomacy can be Conducted on bilateral /multilateral

basis.Actors in Diplomacy are both states and non-states. Diplomacy is used as instrument of IL.As a practice and institution, diplomacy is older than IL. Diplomacy has reinforcing means than IL.


…….Diplomacy versus other disciplines 3.3. Diplomacy Vs Espionage a)Diplomacy Thought diplomacy is closely linked to

espionage, it is different in the following points.

Diplomatic missions are legal and Diplomatic activities are more formal.Diplomacy is legally protected and immunized. Diplomatic works are to be carried officially.


…….Diplomacy versus other disciplinesb) EspionageThought espionage is highly related to

diplomacy, it is different in the following points.

The mission of espionage is not legal. The activities of espionage is not formal/official Espionage can only be carried out secretly The works of espionage is not legally protected


4. Functions of Diplomacy Diplomacy is highly essential for the

purpose of:- * encouraging friendly and cooperative relations

among the Sovereign States of the world.

* providing a convenient channel for

communication among Sovereign States in the world

* amicable settlement of different problems and

conflicts among international subjects


……………functions of Diplomacy Diplomacy makes relations and interactions

possible through influencing the behavior of international actors through:-

bargaining/negotiating, taking non-coercive supportive actions appealing to the public for support of a position, i.e. public diplomacy….etc. Diplomacy is important because it serves all the

above purposes which are short of war in the IRs.


……………functions of DiplomacyAccording to Vienna Convention, the following

are some of the functions of diplomats. image building

negotiation/bargaining, promotion of friendly relations, representing and protection nations

abroad, communication, reporting obtaining information on market,

trade…….


……………functions of DiplomacyThe major functions of a diplomat. 1. a diplomat represent the home country in the

host country 2. a diplomat protect interests of home country in the host country 3. a diplomat negotiate with the government of the host country


……………..functions of Diplomacy4. a diplomat monitors and reports on conditions

and developments in the commercial, economic, cultural, and scientific life of the host country

5. a diplomat promotes friendly relations between the host country and the home country

6. a diplomat develops commercial, economic, cultural, and scientific relations between the host country and the home country.

7. a diplomat issues passports, travel documents, and visas


……………….functions of Diplomacy

Negotiation as a tool of diplomacy 1. IntroductionFrom among the other functions of a diplomat/diplomacy

Negotiation is the most important and basic one. "Negotiation is the way to get yes, and it is a tool to serve

ones own interests within the common interests.” According to Fisher and Ury, wisely handled and conducted negotiation:- - can improve the relationship of parties. - can satisfy the interests of the parties - can result in a strong, fair and long lasting agreements.


……………….functions of DiplomacyNegotiation can be defined as resolving of

disagreements to reach at agreement through discussion and compromise matters.

Negotiation is the pursuits of agreement by give and take through direct personal contact.

Diplomatic negotiations and discussions are not mere academic debate. Diplomatic negotiations and discussions are preliminaries to different concrete actions.


……………………..functions of Diplomacy

2. Major Principles of NegotiationBoth Fisher and William developed the following

four major principles of negotiation.

2.1. People:-Separate the people from the problem/issue

2.2. Interests:-Focus on interests rather than positions.

2.3. Options:- Generate variety of options

2.4. Criteria:-Insist that the agreement be based on objective criteria.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyGroup assignment/activity Based on their formerly established change army team students are supposed to read, discuss on the above four principles of negotiation and submit paper for the next class.



2.1. Separate the people from the problem/issueWhy we need to separate people from issue? This is

because:-

- we are human creature having a strong emotion with difference perceptions.

- Such emotions and perceptions brining difficulty in communications, interactions

and relationships in the process of negotiation. - Taking position just makes this worse because people’s egos become

identified with their positions Hence, before working on the substantive problem, the people problem should

be disentangled from it and dealt with separately. To this end, the participants should come to see themselves attacking the

problem, not each other


……………………..functions of Diplomacy Parties/people to a diplomatic negotiation may:- - tend to become personally involved with both the issues and

the positions, - incline to take/give responses to those issues and positions as personal attacks.

Separating the people from the issues:- - allows the parties to address the issues without damaging their

communications and relationships. - helps the parties to get a clearer view of the substantive problem, different from their positions. - helps to soft on the people, hard on the problem.



Fisher and other scholars identified the following three basic sorts of people problems.

1. differences in perception among the parties. Since most conflicts are based on the difference in the

interpretations of a facts, it is crucial for parties to understand each other's viewpoint.

The parties to a diplomatic negotiation should:-

- try to put themselves in the other‘s place( under the shoes of the other).

- not assume that their fears will become the actions of the other party.

- not blame each other for a certain problem. - try to make proposals which would be appealing to the other side.04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 55


The more that the parties are involved in the process, the more likely they are to be involved and to support the outcome.

2. Emotions are second source of people problems.

When the parties to a negotiation feel that their interests are challenged and threatened:-

- they often react with fear or anger

- the negotiation process can be full of emotions and frustrating



The first step in dealing with emotions in the process of negotiation is:-

- to acknowledge their existence.

- to try to understand their source.

The parties must acknowledge the fact that certain emotions are present, even when they don't see those feelings as reasonable.

Because dismissing another's feelings as unreasonable is likely to provoke more intense emotional response.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyThe parties to a diplomatic negotiation:-

- must allow the other side to express their emotions.

- must not react emotionally to emotional outbursts.

Symbolic gestures such as apologies or an expression of sympathy can help to defuse strong emotions.



3. Communication as source of people problems. All the parties to a diplomatic negotiation:- - may not be speaking to each other,

- but may be grandstanding for their respective constituencies. - may not be listening to each other, - but may instead be planning their own responses.

To combat all the these problems in the process of negotiation:-

- the parties should employ active listening.

- the listeners should give the speaker their full attention, - the listeners summarize the speaker's points to confirm their

understanding.



The parties to the diplomatic negotiation should:- - remember that understanding the other's case does not mean

agreeing with it. - avoid blaming or attacking the other and should speak about themselves. Generally People problems are less likely to come up if

the parties in the negotiation:- - are prevented from arising emotion. - have a good relationships and interactions - think of each other as partners rather than as adversaries.



2. 2. Focus on interests rather than positions.

In the process of diplomatic negotiation parties':-

- position is something they have decided upon

- interests are what caused them to decide.

When a problem is defined in terms of parties':-

- positions, at least one party will lose the dispute.

- interests, it is often possible to find mutual solutions. 04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 61

……………………..functions of DiplomacyThe first step is to identify the parties' interests

regarding the issue at hand by asking:- - why they hold the positions they do,

- why they don't hold some other possible position.

Each party to any negotiation process:- - has a number of different interests underlying

their preference and positions. - interests may differ somewhat among the

individual members of each side.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyHowever, all people will share certain

basic interests or needs, such as the need for security and economic well-being.

Once the parties have identified their basic interests, they must discuss them together.

If a party wants the other side to take his/her interests into account, that party must explain his/her interests very clearly and openly.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyThe other side will be more motivated to

take those interests into account if the first party shows that they are paying attention to the other side's interests.

Discussions should look forward to the desired solution, rather than focusing on past events.

Parties should keep a clear focus on their interests, but remain open to different proposals, ideas, options and positions.



2. 3. Generate variety of options The following are four obstacles to generating

creative options for solving a problem.

1. The Parties may decide prematurely on an option and so fail to consider other alternatives/options.

2 The Parties may have the intention of narrowing their options to find a single answer only.

3. The parties may define the problem in win-lose terms, assuming that the only options are for one side to win and the other to lose.

4 A party may decide that it is up to the other side to come up with a solution to the problem.



The following are some of techniques to overcome these obstacles and generating creative options.

1. The parties should come together in an informal atmosphere and talk each others to come up with creative proposals for all possible solutions to the problem at hand.

2. Brainstorming sessions can be made more creative and productive by encouraging the parties to shift between four types of thinking:- - stating the problem, - analyzing the problem

- considering general approaches - taking specific actions


……………………..functions of Diplomacy3. After a variety of proposals have been

made,

parties to a negotiation should:- - turn to evaluating the proposed ideas.

- start with evaluating the most promising proposals.

- suggest partial solutions to the problem. - refine and improve proposals at this point.



4. Insist that the agreement be based on objective criteria.

When interests are directly opposed, the parties should use objective criteria to resolve their differences.

Allowing such differences to spark a battle of wills in the process of negotiation will/may:-

- destroy relationships,

- bring inefficiency and

- not produce wise agreements. Decisions based on reasonable standards and

objective criteria make easier for the parties to agree and preserve their good relationship.04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 68


The first step must be developing objective criteria , because objective criteria can be both legitimate and practical.

Hence, the parties must agree which objective criteria is best for their common situations.

The following are the major objective criteria which could be used in the negotiation process:-

- Scientific findings,

- professional standards - legal precedentsOne way to test for objectivity is to ask if both sides

would agree to be bound by those standards for resolving their dispute.



There are three points to keep in mind when using objective criteria.

First point Each issue should be approached as a shared

search for objective criteria. Question should be asked for the reasoning behind

the other party's suggestions.Using the other parties' reasoning to support your

own position can be a powerful way to negotiate.



Second point Each party must keep an open mind.They must be reasonable and be willing to reconsider

their positions when there is reason to.

Third pointNegotiators in a process must never first give in to

pressure, threats, or bribes. When the other party stubbornly refuses to be

reasonable, the first party may shift the discussion from a search for substantive criteria to a search for procedural criteria.



3.Negotiation StagesThere are the four major stages in

the process of diplomatic negotiation; namely Preparation, Pre-negotiation, Actual Negotiation, Follow-up. A very brief discussion is done in the following pages.


……………………..functions of Diplomacy 1. Preparation Preparation is a crucial stage in the

process of diplomatic negotiation. Why? Because preparation in the process

of diplomatic negotiation:- - gives the chance to establish an internal

consensus. - is the key step to smooth implementation.



Major elements which should be considered during preparation are:-

analyzing how the other side perceives ones own style, analyzing the cross-cultural factors involved. mobilizing all internal information relevant to the task

and options. taking internal consultations to generate consensus identifying “BATNA” — the “Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyThis would provide the irreducible minimum

threshold that would not be crossed,This is because if this is so , the negotiated solution

would be worse than the one that could be applied without negotiations.

Equally important is the identification of the BATNA of the other side, which may also be called the “resistance point”, or the irreducible goal of the other side.

It is only if there is a settlement range between the resistance points of the two sides that there is a realistic possibility of a solution satisfactory to both.


……………………..functions of DiplomacyIf one party appears more eager for the

agreement, it may lead the other party to extract some form of payment for entering into negotiation.

In any negotiation process, it is during the stage of preparation that:-

negotiation team should be formed, the leader should be identified , internal dialogue must take place in the delegation, political clearance for all major issues must be

given.04/22/23 By Mebrahtu W 76

……………………..functions of Diplomacy 2) Pre-negotiation. By some scholars of diplomacy, Pre-

negotiation is called the stage of “negotiation about negotiations”.

The danger in the pre-negotiation stage is that it may lead to a misunderstanding of the ground rules, and at least in the short-term, to a breakdown in talks.



The other preliminaries in the pre-negotiation stage include the identification of:-

- the agenda and venue,

- frequency of meetings, and - other logistics. - issues of confidentiality and - disclosure to the media.

In the absence of agreement, one should be prepared to use the media, and through that public opinion as indirect participants in the process, used to exercise influence on the negotiations.


……………………..functions of Diplomacy 3) Negotiation. Under the negotiation stage, any diplomatic negotiation can be :- - a straightforward or an overnight process, or - drawn out over many sessions and even years. In the stage of a diplomatic negotiation

stage, the formal sessions of:- - mainly bilateral negotiation.

- informal exchanges that may supplement it.



Where issues are complex, it is useful to have a system of:-

- agreed minutes, or - some form of an interim document, To avoid repetitive discussions when there are several

sessions spread over time, the main stages are the following.

The “initial” stage- when the opening statements are made

- calling for listening the hidden message follows. - the dialogue at this point may appear ritualistic, - but it sets the process in operation.


……………………..functions of Diplomacy The “exploration” stage -when tentative sounding is

carried out,

- settings hidden signals and non-verbal communication is

very important. The “formula” stage- -where the broad approaches or themes are

covered, it is essential to secure agreement on these before

moving on to the next stage.



The “details” stage- where the fine print is elaborated and agreed,

- sometimes this becomes the battleground for the major decisions, or

- there may be no clear distinction between the two stages.

The “packaging” stage- where the fine print and all the details

are tied together. - The closer the agreement appears, the greater the sensitivity and the need for caution. - Where feasible, the implementation process should be built into the agreement.


……………………..functions of Diplomacy 4) Follow-up. While many agreements are self-enforcing,

some need an enforcement mechanism. Generally, an agreement which is

asymmetrical — for instance, giving a larger advantage to one side — may present problems of enforcement, if the other side finds it appropriate to resile from it.



Follow-up as one stage of negotiation process is very important:-

- for full assessment of the implications of the agreement and its

consequence on the other relationships, - for communication of the results to the stakeholders and to the public at large, - to create the optimal conditions for implementation process.

- to elaborate the lessons and insights learnt from the negotiation

experience - for the incorporation of this learnt experiences into the institutional memory.


5. Dynamics of International Bargaining 5.1. The Manipulation of Carrots and

Sticks Parties involved in bargaining can

attempt to influence each other’s behavior through the conscious manipulation of:-

- carrots “ and “sticks “ approach. - threats and punishments techniques - promise and rewards techniques


……Dynamics of International Bargaining Threats and punishment techniques

represent the stick approach where:- - threats involve some hypothetical

actions. - Punishments involve some real actions.

Promises and rewards represent the carrot approach where:-

- promises involve hypothetical actions.

- rewards involve real actions.


………Dynamics of International Bargaining As a general bargaining strategy, there is no

clear evidence that one approach is inherently more effective than the other.

Those who view international politics as being full of violent and anarchical tend to place greater faith in the:-

- stick approach than in the carrot approach. - threats and punishments techniques

This can be effective depending on the context in

which they are used.

By Mebrahtu W 87

…..Dynamics of International Bargaining As states bargain, they discover that it is more

difficult to compel than to deter certain behavior on the part of another state.

One would expect states to exploit the possibilities of promises and threats before employing reward and punishments, which entail some actual use and consumption of resources in the bargaining process while promises and threats involve only a hypothetical commitment of resources.


……Dynamics of International Bargaining In the process of negotiation, it would seem logical

to:- - provide rewards after some desired behavior has taken

place, either to fulfill an earlier promise or to reinforce a continuation of that behavior, - impose punishments which would seem appropriate only after some undesired behavior persists.

However, states do not always follow the logic of delaying rewards and punishments until promises and threats have been given a chance to work.


……Dynamics of International Bargaining Game Theory as a tool in bargainingA large box of game theory literature exists that provide

some useful insights into the nature of bargaining and the way in which cooperation can occur amidst conflict.

Two basic types of games are common to discussions of international bargaining namely; the “zero sums” game and the “variable- sum” game

the “zero sums” game The zero sum game is structured so that when one party wins, the

other party automatically loses and this might lead to disagreements and serious conflicts.


…….Dynamics of International Bargaining the “variable- sum” game. The “variable- sum” game represents the Win-

win” Outcome Most practices in international relations

resemble variable sum games rather than zero sum game.

The variable sum games often have prominent solutions based on a general rule of maximize gains and minimize losses, the so-called “mini-max rule”.


6. Classification of Diplomatic personnel According to Article 1/C of Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations (1961), the members of the staff are classified in to three categories; namely the diplomatic Staff, the administration/technical staff and the service staff.

6.1. The diplomatic staff The diplomatic staff are the members of the staff of

the mission having diplomatic rank. It is the political staffs ranging from Ambassadors to Attaches, and all are from the sending state.


………….Classification of Diplomatic personnel

6.2. Administrative and technical staffsAdministrative and technical staffs/support

staff are the members of the staff of the mission employed in the administrative and technical service of the mission.

Usually those staff members are known as supporting staff which include clerk, copy typists, Archivist or document keeper.


………….Classification of Diplomatic personnel

6.3. Service staffsService staffs are the members of the staff

of the mission in the domestic service of the mission.

These are get keepers, car drivers, cleaners, ……..etc usually who are hired from the host state.


7. Legal framework of Diplomacy 7.1. General issues The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Relations of 1961 is an international treaty that defines a framework for diplomatic relations between independent countries.

It specifies the privileges of a diplomatic mission that enable diplomats to perform their function without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country.


…………….Legal framework of Diplomacy

The Convention forms the legal basis for diplomatic immunity and its articles are considered a cornerstone of modern international relations.

Throughout the history of sovereign nations, diplomats have enjoyed a special status.

An envoy from another nation is traditionally treated as a guest, their communications with their home nation treated as confidential, and their freedom from coercion and subjugation by the host nation.


…..Legal framework of Diplomacy

7.2. key Articles from Conventions.Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is

an extensive document containing 53 articles. Article-9The host nation at any time and for any reason has the

right to declare a particular member of the diplomatic staff persona non grata.

The sending nation must recall this person within a reasonable period of time, otherwise this he/she may lose his diplomatic immunity.


…..Legal framework of Diplomacy Article-22The premises of a diplomatic mission

such as an embassy must not be entered by the host country except by permission of the head of the mission.

The host country must protect the mission from intrusion or damage. Articles 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, have similar contents.


…..Legal framework of Diplomacy

Article 27. The host country must permit and protect free

communication between the diplomats of the mission and their home country.

A diplomatic bag must never be opened by any of the law enforcement of host nation even on suspicion of abuse.

Article 29. Diplomats must not be liable to any form of arrest or

detention. They are immune from civil or criminal prosecution, though

the sending country may waive this right under Article 32.04/22/23 By Mebra htu W 99

…..Legal framework of Diplomacy Article 31.1c Actions not covered by diplomatic immunity:

professional activity outside diplomat's official functions.

Article 37. The family members of a diplomat that are

living in the host country enjoy most of the same protections as the diplomats themselves.


8. Diplomatic Rules and Procedures 8.1. Appointment and Reception of Diplomat Each state may adopt its own procedures of

appointing diplomats. Yet certain generally recognized procedures are observed.

As a rule, the nomination of a diplomat is made public only after the approval or agreement is secured from the country to which he/ she is being sent.

Sometimes approval may be refused persona non grata (Article 4(1,2.) or persons declared “Non Grata “


………Diplomatic Rules and ProceduresPersona non grataIn diplomacy, the term persona non grata literally

means "an unwelcome person", referring to a foreign person whose entering or remaining in a particular country is prohibited by that country's government.

It is the most serious form of censure/disapproval

which one country can apply to foreign diplomats, who are otherwise protected by diplomatic immunity from arrest and other normal kinds of prosecution.


…….Diplomatic Rules and ProceduresWhile diplomatic immunity protects mission

staff from prosecution for violating civil and criminal laws, depending on rank, under Articles 41 and 42 of the Vienna Convention, they are bound to respect national laws and regulations.

States can expel diplomats suspected of espionage (described as "activities incompatible with diplomatic status“) or any overt criminal act such as drug traffickin.


…………..Diplomatic Rules and Procedures Before a diplomat leaves on to up his

assignment, he/she must be furnished with certain important papers, diplomatic passport and letter of credence/credentials.

The letter of credence which in a diplomats formal commission is signed by the head of the state and addressed to the head of the state to which he/she in accredited. Article 10(1.a,b,c,d,)2


…………..Diplomatic Rules and Procedures 8.2. Ceremony of presentation (read it)A diplomatic agent or the heads of the mission

enjoy “public audience” or direct audience with the heads of state to which they are accreted, and they are called his Excellency or her Excellency as of right. At that time a brief speech is made first by the envoy and then by the head who accepts the letter of credence. Then he confers with the foreign minister and other important leaders of the government and visits his colleagues of the diplomat corps, Article 13(1,2).


…………..Diplomatic Rules and Procedures 8.3. Termination of diplomatic Mission.

There are various ways of terminating a diplomatic mission such as personal resignation, recall or dismissal by the sending nation.

A government may itself recall or it may be asked to do so based on Article 9 (1,2) & Article 43 (a,b) & Article 45 (a,b,c).


9. Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities The Privileges and Immunities of the

diplomatic mission could be divided in to two major categories.

1. Privilege and immunity of the diplomatic mission

Under the Vienna Convention, the premises of diplomatic mission is inviolable.

Therefore, agents of the host state such as the military, security, etc may not inter the premise except with permission of heads of diplomatic mission.


……..Diplomatic Privileges and ImmunitiesThe host sate is duty bound to protect the mission

premises against any intrusion, damage or disturbance

But only allowed with the permission to enter when fire or any natural calamities take place.

The premises of the mission, their property and other belonging of the mission such as means of transport shall be immune from search and claim of the host national for instance to claim the land of the embassy, etc. diplomatic bag sealed worth diplomatic pouch-not to be searched.


……..Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities9.2. Personal privilege and immunities The person and the dignity of the diplomatic

agent shall be inviolable. The diplomatic agent should be protected by

the host state from any attack or violence because he/she represent sovereign state, Article 29.

The private residence of diplomat shall enjoy the same privilege and immunity as mission promises, Article 30


10. Types of diplomacyThere are a variety of diplomatic

classifications made by international organizations and governments among which the following are major ones.

10.1. Tracks of diplomacyTrack - I diplomacy: this refers to the official

discussions typically involving high-level political and military leaders and focusing on issues like cease-fires, peace talks, and treaties and other agreements.


……….Types of diplomacy Track II -diplomacy:- refers to an unofficial

dialogue and problem-solving activities aimed at building relationships and encouraging new thinking that can inform the official process. Track 2 activities typically involve influential academic communities , religious leaders, and NGO leaders and other civil society actors who can interact more freely than high-ranking officials.


……….Types of diplomacy Track - III diplomacy: refers to People-to-

people diplomacy undertaken by individuals and private groups to encourage interaction and understanding between hostile communities and involving awareness rising and empowerment within these communities. Normally focused at the grassroots level, this type of diplomacy often involves organizing meetings and conferences, generating media exposure, and political and legal advocacy for marginalized people and communities.


……….Types of diplomacy Multi-track-diplomacy: A term for operating

on several tracks simultaneously, including official and unofficial conflict resolution efforts, citizen and scientific exchanges, international business negotiations, international cultural and athletic activities, and other cooperative efforts. These efforts could be led by governments, professional organizations, businesses, churches, media, private citizens, training and educational institutes, activists, and funders.


……….Types of diplomacy 10. 2. Public/ open Vs Secret Diplomacy Since the time of Wilson, many people have argued

that “open covenants openly arrived at” would remove much of suspicion in the international relations.

Many argue that secrecy in the negotiating process is necessary bad, in terms of not only frustrating the public’s “rights to know” but also adding to sense of insecurity and distrust experienced by all nation in the international system.


……….Types of diplomacyHowever, many students of diplomacy,

scholars and politicians argue just the opposite. For them, in the case of highly sensitive and delicate negotiations, even if the final outcome ought ultimately to be publicized, there might be legitimate reason for keeping diplomatic process secret.

Group activity(10 min.)• In your change/education army, discuss on the

above two positions and take your own position as a group or individually.


……….Types of diplomacy 10.3. Bilateral versus Multilateral Diplomacy Multilateral diplomacy has become increasingly

prevalent in the 20th and 21st centuries, owing to a number of factors such as:-

a) the existence of global problems such as arms control, environment, development,…….. etc. b) the proliferating of inter-governmental organization at the global and regional level-UN,EU, ………….etc.


……….Types of diplomacyc)the involvement of many less developed

countries that have come to ally on the UN and other multilateral forums for bulk of their diplomatic contracts.

Multilateral diplomacy occurs not only through institutions like UN but also through ad hoc conferences convened among states sharing mutual concerns.


……….Types of diplomacy 10. 4. Tacit/Informal Vs Formal

Diplomacy Formal:-direct communication through face-to-

face meetings, cables, or third part intermediaries- is one mode of diplomacy.

Tacit/Informal:- in addition to formal negotiation, governments engage in tacit diplomacy. Informal indirect communication through words (eg. Press conference statements) and actions (e.g. placing troops on alert) designed to signal intentions or the importance one attaches to some issue.


……….Types of diplomacyIn practice, states tend to combine the two

(formal and informal) approaches, using tacit diplomacy for “posturing "purpose either prior or during a formal negotiating session in order to reinforce the message they wish to convey apart from being utilized in conjunction with formal negotiations.

Tacit diplomacy is often employed simply to influence another government future behavior, particularly when seeking to dissuade the other side from taking some action .


……….Types of diplomacy5. Monetary diplomacy/Dollar

diplomacy is the use of foreign aid or other types of monetary policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda.

6. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military strength as a means of intimidation in order to influence others.


………….Types of diplomacy7. Appeasement diplomacy :-refers to political

pacification of potential conflict by making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation.

8. Soft power diplomacy :- sometimes called hearts and minds diplomacy, is the cultivation of relationships, respect, or even admiration from others in order to gain influence, as opposed to more coercive approaches.

9. Nuclear diplomacy:- is the area of diplomacy related to preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear war. One of the most well-known and most controversial nuclear diplomacy is mutually assured destruction


11. New trends and Approaches 11 1. Democratic Diplomacy- refers to the

involvements of increasing participation of the people in the offices of the government.

11 2. Parliamentary Diplomacy – refers to the second aspects of open diplomacy and consists of conferences and meetings between representatives to reach at establishment of:-

- temporary international conference. - permanent international organization.


………New trends and ApproachesAfter First World War, the statesmen of the world began

to depart from the established pattern of diplomacy. They created the League of Nations and later on the UN through which a new type of diplomatic intercourse that is diplomacy by parliamentary procedure.

International problems requiring solutions are put on the agenda of the deliberative bodies of these organizations.

The delegates of different government discuss the merits of the problem in public debate.

A vote taken in accordance with the constitution of the organization disposes of the matter.


………New trends and Approaches 11.3. Summit Diplomacy - high level Diplomacy at the highest level is an ancient practice but

the term is relatively new. Churchill coined the phrase in 1953-

“as a meeting proposed between heads of state.” Leaders of a countries and foreign ministers can

regularly hold bilateral or multilateral submit conference on different matters.

Now a days, Heads of state can use latest technology such as teleconferencing and hot lines discussions to ease unnecessary confrontations.


………New trends and Approaches 11 4. Commercial Diplomacy Economic issues have an effect on modern diplomacy.

Because in an interdependent world, economic instruments are used in diplomatic endeavors for promotions of national interest.

Economic blockades, threats to discontinue economic aid by major powers, and formation of economic alliances are some of economic diplomacy.

Economic means have used both to strengthen friendly government by pumping money into their national economics to relieve domestic political pressure and to weaken unfriendly ones by damaging their economic.


12. Public Diplomacy12.1.The Concept of Public diplomacyIn its modern sense, the concept of

public diplomacy:- is a new and expanding one that has no single

agreed-upon and exclusive definition.was, for the first time in its form, coined in 1965 by

Gullion, an American scholar and diplomat.deals with the influence of public attitudes on the

formation and execution of foreign policies.


12. Public Diplomacy……….According to Alan K. Henrikson, Public

diplomacy is defined, simply, as the conduct of international relations by governments through public communications and dealings with a wide range of non-governmental entities such as political parties, corporations, trade associations, labor unions, educational institutions, religious organizations, ethnic groups, influential individuals ……..for the purpose of influencing the politics and actions of other governments.


12. Public Diplomacy……….Public diplomacy encompasses dimensions

of international relations such as:- cultivation of public opinions in other countries by

governments; interaction of private groups in one country with those of

another; reporting of foreign affairs and its impact on policy; communication between those whose job is

communication, as between diplomats and foreign correspondents;

processes of inter-cultural communications and interactions .


12. Public Diplomacy……….The general objectives of a country’s Public

Diplomacy is to: 1. influence foreign citizens perception towards ones

own country; 2) correct misperceptions about the nation’s policies

and values; 3) promote greater and best mutual understanding between and among countries 4) impact official relations with the foreign government

in a way that serves the country’s national interests.


……………Public Diplomacy Public diplomacy is the use of certain methods to

create a favorable image of the state or its people through goodwill tours, cultural and student exchanges and media presentations ……………….etc

Thus, public diplomacy requires openness to the peoples of other countries such as students, civil society, intellectuals, journalists, business communities….. etc

Though secrecy and covert maneuvering are still extensively used, international relations of the contemporary world can no longer be conducted without consideration of being open to the public opinion.


……………Public DiplomacyPublic diplomacy involves the way in which both

government and private individuals and or the community influence directly and indirectly those public attitudes and opinions that bear directly on another government’s foreign policy decisions.

Public diplomacy is people to people relations and interactions through its chief instruments such as publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges, radio , television…………………………..

The use of public diplomacy, therefore, is an increasingly popular diplomatic technique in a communication that links the world.


……………Public DiplomacyWhy the current government needs to shift

from G2G and/or G2P to P2P? This is because of the following factors.

1.The development in user-friendly communication technologies that have increased public participation in talking about foreign affairs and the subsequent involvement of public opinion in foreign policy making and international interactions. Nothing can be kept secret.

2. Another development is the increase in people-to-people exchanges for different purposes across national borders. Nothing can be blocked or protected.


……………Public Diplomacy3. Continues and Extensive democratization of

diplomacy has occurred as:- - citizens and NGO involvement increases; - NGO delegates conduct meetings parallel to states delegates and lobby the latter.4. The nature and doctrine of the leadership and

the current political-economy system, agenda and ideology which to led the paradigm shift in the foreign policy and international relationships.


The EndMany thanks for your

patienceAnd

I wish you all enjoyable break


deplomacye

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