Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at DenverPrentice Hall, Inc. © 2006

Defining Performance and Choosing a Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach: OverviewMeasurement Approach: Overview

Defining PerformanceDeterminants of PerformancePerformance DimensionsApproaches to Measuring Performance

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Defining Performance Defining Performance

Performance is:• Behavior• What employees do

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Defining PerformanceDefining Performance

Performance is NOT:• Results or Outcomes• What employees produce

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Behaviors labeled as Performance are:Behaviors labeled as Performance are:

1. Evaluative– Negative– Neutral– Positive

2. Multidimensional– Many different kinds of behaviors– Advance or hinder organizational goals

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Behaviors are Not alwaysBehaviors are Not always

– Observable– Measurable

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Results/Consequences may be usedResults/Consequences may be used

– To infer behavior– As proxy for behavioral measure

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Determinants of PerformanceDeterminants of Performance

Performance =

Declarative Knowledge

X

Procedural Knowledge

X

Motivation

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A. Declarative KnowledgeA. Declarative Knowledge

• Information about– Facts – Labels– Principles– Goals

• Understanding of task requirements

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B. Procedural KnowledgeB. Procedural Knowledge

• Knowing– What to do– How to do it

• Skills– Cognitive– Physical– Perceptual– Motor– Interpersonal

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C. MotivationC. Motivation

• Choices– Expenditure of effort– Level of effort– Persistence of effort

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Implications for Addressing Implications for Addressing Performance ProblemsPerformance Problems

• Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of performance problems

• Performance management systems must– Measure performance

AND– Provide information on SOURCE(s) of problems

Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at DenverPrentice Hall, Inc. © 2006

Factors Influencing Determinants of Factors Influencing Determinants of Performance:Performance:

• Individual characteristics– Procedural knowledge– Declarative knowledge– Motivation

• HR practices• Work environment

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Performance Dimensions:Performance Dimensions:Types of multi-dimensional behaviors:Types of multi-dimensional behaviors:

• Task performance• Contextual performance

– Pro-social behaviors– Organizational citizenship

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Task performanceTask performance

Activities that • transform raw materials • help with the transformation process

– Replenishing– Distributing– Supporting

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Contextual performanceContextual performance

Behaviors that • contribute to organization’s effectiveness

and• provide a good environment in which task

performance can occur

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Differences Between Differences Between Task and Contextual PerformanceTask and Contextual Performance

• Task Performance• Varies across jobs• Likely to be role

prescribed• Influenced by

• Abilities• Skills

• Contextual Performance• Fairly similar across jobs• Not likely to be role

prescribed• Influenced by

• Personality

Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at DenverPrentice Hall, Inc. © 2006

Why Include Task & Contextual Why Include Task & Contextual Performance Dimensions in PM system?Performance Dimensions in PM system?

1. Global competition2. Teamwork3. Customer service 4. Supervisor views

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Job Performance in ContextJob Performance in Context

A performer(individual or

team)

In a given situation

Engages in certain

behaviors

That produce various results

TRAIT BEHAVIOR RESULTS

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Approaches to Measuring PerformanceApproaches to Measuring Performance

• Trait Approach– Emphasizes individual traits of employees

• Behavior Approach– Emphasizes how employees do the job

• Results Approach– Emphasizes what employees produce

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Trait ApproachTrait Approach

• Emphasis on individual• Evaluate stable traits

• Cognitive abilities• Personality

• Based on relationship between traits & performance

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Trait Approach (continued)Trait Approach (continued)

• Appropriate if• Structural changes planned for organization

• Disadvantages• Improvement not under individual’s control• Trait may not lead to

• Desired behaviors or • Desired results

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Behavior ApproachBehavior Approach

Appropriate if• Employees take a long time to achieve

desired outcomes• Link between behaviors and results is not

obvious• Outcomes occur in the distant future• Poor results are due to causes beyond the

performer’s controlNot appropriate if • above conditions are not present

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Results ApproachResults Approach

Advantages:• Less time • Lower cost • Data appear objective

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Results Approach (continued)Results Approach (continued)

Most appropriate when:• Workers skilled in necessary behaviors• Behaviors and results obviously related• Consistent improvement in results over time• Many ways to do the job right