dawn of islam. before muhammad arab tribes not unified, divided by clan rivalry – bedouins were...
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Dawn of Islam
Before Muhammad
• Arab tribes not unified, divided by clan rivalry– Bedouins were nomadic, shunned civilization– oases few and far between in Hijaz, a few settled in
Mecca and Medina– brigandage (razzia) was a way of life as they were
situated along trade routes loaded with valuables– political control of Mecca was in hands of powerful
tribe: Quraysh• flanked by European Byzantine Empire to the
west and Persian Empire on the east
Before Muhammad
• People of Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria, Palestine) were not unified and subject to struggles between the rival Byzantines and the Sasanids
• Marauding tribes and Bedouins swept through the area
• the people yearned for tranquility• the cities of Jerusalem, Aleppo, Baghdad and
Damascus were subject to frequent attack
The Ka’ba
• 1,000 BC, the Arabs of Mecca saw a meteor fall from the heavens and regarded it holy– took black stone, hajar-al-aswad, and built cubic
structure called Ka’ba– over the course of centuries, pagan Arabs of the
peninsula began a yearly pilgrimage “Hajj” to worship the stone
• Mecca grew as metropolis as result of the ritual of pilgrimage carried out by Arabs every year– Quraysh profited from the steady pilgrimage to their
city, making them one of most powerful tribes in Arabia
The Ka’ba• Hajar-al-aswad (1), according to
Muslims, was placed there by Ibrahim and Ismail, a stone from paradise sent by the angels to Ibrahim
• The Ka’ba is, therefore, believed by Muslims to be more than a millennium older than the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which is believed to have been finished in 1007 B.C. These dates remain consistent with the Muslim belief that the Ka’ba is the oldest mosque in history.
The Ka’ba
• Muslims don’t consider kissing the stone an act of idolatry:
• Umar came near the Black Stone and kissed it and said, “No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither benefit anyone nor harm anyone. Had I not seen God's Apostle kissing you, I would not have kissed you.”
• Large crowds can make kissing the Stone impossible, so as pilgrims walk round the Ka’ba they point to the Stone on each pass
Muhammad• Muhammad was born in 570 AD to a family of the Quraysh
engaged in the business of trade– both parents died when he was young and he was raised by a
grand uncle and then his uncle Abu Talib– the Quraysh through their frequent business dealings with the
Europeans and Persians were quite familiar with their cultures as well as their beliefs and could plat one against another
• Muhammad at the age of 24 was hired as “manager” for wealthy widow of 40 y/o, Khadija, who acquired her late husband’s business– they were married and for 25 years, Muhammad enjoyed a happy
and prosperous life– influential as member of Quarysh and under the protection of
Abu Talib
610 AD The Messenger of Allah
• Near the end of month of Ramadan, a time of fasting since pre-Islamic Arabia, Muhammad was resting in a cave and heard a voice and saw the angel Gabriel
• “Recite in the name of the Lord who created, created man of a blood clot…arise and warn”
• There was no question in his mind that he was chosen of Allah to be his messenger– although Arabs polytheistic, among the gods was
known the name Allah, similar to El-loh of Jews
The Messenger of Allah• meditating alone in the cave of Hira near Mecca, Muslims hold
the angel Gabriel dictated the Quran to Muhammad• Khadija was the first convert and the one who greatly
encouraged him• In the streets of Mecca, he preached of Allah, the one god who
had sent Muhammad to dissuade them of their idolatry and warn them of the Day of Judgment and resulting eternal punishment or reward in the afterlife
• Not many followed: his cousin Ali, his servant Zayd, Abu Bakr, a man of great stature among the Quraysh and a number of slaves
• for the most part the Quraysh opposed the message with hostility for fear of economic ruin as the message would destroy the pagan ritual of Ka’ba– were it not for the protection of Abu Talib, he would have been killed
Year of Suffering and Hijra• 619 AD was a year of profound sadness for Muhammad
as both his beloved Khadija and uncle Abu Talib died.• When it looked as if Muhammad would be defeated,
rival city Yathrib (Medina) approached him– they were familiar with and embraced Muhammad’s message– they saw in Muhammad not only a prophet, a man of
leadership ability, familiar with the inner councils of Quraysh who could help them defeat Mecca
• In 622 AD, Muhammad and his small following departed Mecca for Yathrib in Hijra (“the emigration”).– This date is set as year one of Muslim calendar
Muhammad Strengthens Medina and Emerges as “Moses” of Islam
• Muhammad was openly received in Yathrib, and the city wholly followed his leadership – the city changed to Medina “city of the Prophet”– now he was not only a prophet, but a head of state– Islam became a theocratic institution– his writings in Quran changed from gentle warning and
beseeching (Mecca) to commanding and threatening (Medina)• much to his surprise, the Jews in Medina did not accept his
anti-pagan, monotheistic message– Muhammad ostracized Jews, banished them from Medina– Although he allowed the validity of Judeo-Christian prophets, he
claimed in Quran that Jews and Christians had disobeyed commandments of God and “garbled” the scriptures
Muhammad Establishes a Theocracy
• After solidifying his position in Medina, he turned his attention to Mecca
• he decided to establish the rule of Allah on earth with the laws (shari’a) handed down by Allah incorporated in the Quran, and this could be done only through diplomacy, war and conquest– from 622 to 632, Muhammad engaged in war every year– his initial victory over the Meccans at Badr in 624 AD
“proved” he and his followers were fighting for Allah– This battle was a turning point: now Muslims believed that if
they died, they had “witnessed” and would go to paradise; – in future Muslims would repeat the shahada going into battle
with contempt for death.
The Brotherhood of Muslims• Islam is a theocratic institution in which religion and
state are inseparable– all the commandments of Allah are indisputable
regulations (shariah) of life in Muslim community– Muhammad told his followers that every Muslim is
brother to every Muslim and abolished tribal loyalty– ties of faith replace ties of kinship
• The modern Muslim is caught in the horns of dilemma:– as Muslim, one identifies one’s “nationality” with Islam– yet they want a society with the freedoms of secularism
The Quran
• According to Muslims, the Old & New Testaments were given by God to Moses, other prophets and Jesus. The Quran is last revelation and supersedes all others.
• Accordingly, Jews and Christians are ahl al-kitab– “people of the book” which are not to be forced to
accept Islam and to be tolerated within domain of Islam– in fact, when Jews were persecuted in Europe, the went
to live among Muslims in relative peace
Doctrines of Islam• Doctrine of Unity of God: la ilaha illallah = “there is
absolutely no god save Allah”– Christian doctrine of Trinity is considered blasphemy
• Doctrine of Prophethood– Muslims recognize the prophets of the OT/NT from Adam to Jesus– Abraham is not only prophet but also the first Muslim in that he
“submitted” to God– Muhammad is the “seal”: the final prophet (the Shi’a sect also
believes there are 12 imams who are both the temporal and spiritual successors of Muhammad)
• Doctrine of Book, when God sent the prophets, he gave each one a Book– the Quran is the incarnate word of God, dictated to Muhammad by
angel Gabriel.
Doctrines of Islam• Doctrine of Book, the Quran is in Arabic
– It must be followed without reservation; no one may question its authority or study it critically
– Vast majority of Muslims don’t speak Arabic but because their language uses Arabic alphabet, they can read the Quran even though they don’t understand it
• Doctrine of the Final Judgment– only “those who repent and believe and are righteous in act” and
those who are martyrs for the faith go to paradise. Muslims have similar views as Christians regarding heaven, hell, judgment & resurrection
• Doctrine of Angels and Jinns– mentioned as populating heaven and earth. Angels are created to do
God’s bidding. Jinns are also created and some are believers but some have rebelled and turned into shaytans, lead by Iblis, who try to lead people astray and oppose the Prophet
Pillars of Islam• The Muslim is obligated to do very little although most
sincere Muslims are very devout. The Quran specifies five or perhaps six “pillars of Islam” of practices of faith:
• 1. Every Muslim must make a profession of faith (shahada): “There is no God except Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.”
• 2. Submission in prayer (rak’ah) five times a day, if possible; prayers must be in Arabic and must be toward Mecca.
• 3. Giving of alms. Zakah is an obligatory offering of about 2½% of one’s income and Sadaqa was voluntary alms giving. A poll tax was levied against “people of the book”. All these taxes were kept by the government in a religious endowment, the “waqf”.
Pillars of Islam
• 4. During the month Ramadan, fasting is performed during daylight hours from dawn to dusk.
• 5. Perform Hajj or “the pilgrimage” to the Ka’ba in Mecca at least once in lifetime, if possible.
• 6. Jihad, some (but not all) Muslims have elevated Holy War as the sixth pillar of Islam. There are numerous references in the Quran to war and the Muslim’s duty to fight.
• Shari’a is the law of Islam derived from the Quran. It dealt largely with family matters and simple interpersonal relationships.
Islamic Law• There is no hierarchy in Islam. Every Muslim is a potential
teacher, leader, soldier, etc.– some scholars of Islamic law (ulama) have become authorities and
judges– the Mosque is both the place of religious worship and court of law
• Islam makes no distinction between the state and the realm of believers and thus there does not appear in the history of Islam, the “doctrine of two swords” distinguishing a secular government from a religious leadership.
Islamic Law
• To the modern Muslim this presents certain problems• First no matter how fervently Muhammad’s followers
adhered to the Quran, they needed some more direct and personal counsel for the regulation of the personal lives and that of Islamic Society.
• Much of this is found in the Hadith (or “Traditions”) of the Prophet’s life. Although no Muslim considers Muhammad anything more than a man, they consider his life exemplary
• thus Hadith is an important source of moral guidance (Hadith = what would Muhammad do? or “WWMD?”).
Mecca Taken• Muhammad could not succeed in unifying the Arabian
Peninsula without Mecca or the Quraysh– he continued a war of attrition against Mecca’s caravans
• His shift of the direction of prayer to Mecca and incorporation of pilgrimage to Ka’ba into the new religion convinced the Meccans that they had no reason to continue the war
• in 628, they entered into a peace agreement with Muhammad at Hudaybiyah
• 2 years later, Muhammad came peaceably with his army to Mecca after two of their able generals Khalid ibn-al-Walid and Amr ibn-al-As submitted to Islam.
Purification of Ka’ba• Muhammad entered his native city, destroyed all
idols around Ka’ba and proclaimed it as forbidden to pagans
• Quraysh were delighted as their economic position was enhanced by veneration of Ka’ba
• Muhammad was magnanimous to his fellow tribesmen, making Mecca the religious capital of Islam. He showed respect to his followers from Medina, by keeping Medina as his political capital
Elders of Mecca Lifting the Stone into Place 630 AD
632 AD
• He was far from finished in his goal to unify Arabia, he continued wars of conquest– soon tribes from other parts of Peninsula came to accept
Islam: Oman, Hadramut and Yemen– the ceremony was simple: verbal confession en masse and
payment of Zakah (alms)– whether this was sincere conviction or expediency is
uncertain• 10 years after Hijra, Muhammad made his last
pilgrimage to Mecca, made a “Farewell Address” as lord of Arabia. In another 3 months, he was died in the arms of his favorite wife Ayisha.
The Problem of Succession• Muhammad left to the Arab a religious identity which unified previously
warring factions but there is no evidence that he ever intended his message to go beyond Arabia.
• He made no claim to infallibility: “I am a man like you” • yet his inspiring personality invoked his followers to study every detail of
his conduct and wisdom for years to come • Although he left behind clear doctrine and goals he had no heir. Both his
male children died. • The first successor (Caliph) was chosen by the leading members of the
Islamic community in Medina. – as the elders of Medina were about to name a successor, the Quraysh showed
up. There was a scuffle and the one selected lay dead. “God killed him” excaimed one of the Quraysh
– Muhammad’s aging father-in-law, Abu Bakr, was selected, the elders gladly agreed
– As the oldest Muslim and a leader of the Quraysh, he was the natural choice to succeed the Prophet
Abu Bakr• Muhammad preferred Abu Bakr to lead the
Muslims in prayer while he was ill. • Upon Muhammad's death, it was Abu Bakr
who demonstrated sagacity to keep the ranks of the Muslims together. Muhammad had not left behind a clear will on who would succeed him.
• There was dissension between the two original tribes of Medina, regarding who would become the ruler over the Muslims after Muhammad. This even led to drawing of swords between them. Abu Bakr rushed to the spot where the dispute almost turned bloody, and delivered his famous speech to show the path of unity between the Muslims and declared that Umar should become the first caliph.
• In turn, Umar declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr saying that there is no better man amongst the Muslims after Muhammad.
Abu Bakr, the First Caliph
• Abu Bakr was in his seventies when he became the first Caliph (successor)
• During his short reign of two years, the Meccans waged war on the rest of Arabia.
• Abu Bakr had a brilliant general Khalid ibn-Walid that subdued the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula by the time Abu Bakr was on his death bed.
• Abu Bakr named his closest advisor Umar as his successor so that there would be no struggle after his death.
• Umar was young (43), energetic and, as the St. Paul of Islam, eager to spread the faith. General Khalid had already advanced into Syria when Umar became the caliph and the combination was unstoppable.
Abu Bakr’s Legacy• Though the period of his caliphate
covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire.
• Abu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor.
• He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate
Under Umar, Second Caliph• Without Islam, there was no cohesion between the various Arab
tribes and Umar supplied the same charisma of faith that the Prophet exhibited.
• In the mind of every Arab Muslim from the top commander down to the lowest soldier was Allah, Muhammad, the glory of war, booty, tribute, martyrdom and paradise all in one indivisible package!
• It was under military leadership of Khalid ibn al-Walid that Arabia, for the first time in history, was united under a single political entity, the Caliphate.
• He was victorious in over a hundred battles, against the numerically superior forces of the Byzantine-Roman Empire, Sassanid-Persian Empire, and their allies, in addition to other Arab tribes.
Establishing the Empire of Islam• Arabia lay sandwiched between two ancient empires: the
Byzantine (Orthodox Christian) to the west and Sasanid (Persian) to the east
• The capitol of Byzantium was in Constantinople of Asia Minor and of the Sasanid Shah in Ctesiphon (Ezra 8:17)
• Upon these two war-weary empires fell the invigorated and seasoned armies of Islam
• In four short years, Khalid had succeeded in taking all the cities of Mesopotamia, including Damascus and Jerusalem, forcing the Byzantine emperor to leave all of Syria and Palestine in the hands of the Muslims.
• by 642, the Muslims had taken Alexandria and all of Egypt
Establishing the Empire of Islam• To the people of Mesopotamia, after centuries of
intolerance and oppression from their shifting masters, the theologically uncomplicated belief in Allah was like a breath of fresh air.
• Inhabitants of what is present day Syria, Palestine and Egypt were subdued and willingly became Muslims. Here empires come and go: Assyrian, Babylonian, Jewish, Persian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine
• They took on the Arabic language and this they remember with pride for the victory of Islam in their people’s history.
Establishing the Empire of Islam• Not so with the Persians: having been masters, they became resentful
servants• The Muslim Arab general, Sa’d ibn Waqqas pushed into Persia with
some 6,000 troops.• At Qadesiya in 635 AD, the Persians were defeated and soon the
treasure-capital at Ctesiphon was under siege.• When the city fell in 637, the Arabs plundered all world-famed wealth
of it. Thus ended 4 centuries of rule by the shahs of the Sasanid dynasty.
• To this day, the people of Persia (now Iran) remember with bitterness the battle of Qadesiya and refused to speak the Arabic language. Their language is Farsi
• Persians became Muslims but would later embrace a sect that would set them apart from Arab Muslims (Shi’a)
• Persians never forgave Umar; In Iran, until recently, it was customary to burn an effigy of Umar every year.
Remains of Imperial Palace of Ctesiphon (vault of throne room is 110ft high)
Expansion of Islam 644 AD
Uthman, the Third Caliph• A Persian assassinated Umar on November 23, 644• While he was dying of fatal wounds, Umar managed
to appoint a committee of 6 to select his successor• Both Uthman and Ali were sons-in-law of the
Prophet and members of the committee• to the disappointment of Ali, Uthman was selected.– Uthman was in his 70’s and a member of the Umayyad
clan of the Quraysh that had rejected Muhammad– It was only by the grace of the Prophet that the
Umayyads were spared when the Muslims took Mecca
• Uthman was incompetent and it was the Umayyad clan rather than the bumbling Caliph who held the reins of Islam
• Corruption was rampant as Uthman appointed Umayyad relatives to administrators and governors
• Despite this, military was still on the roll, pushing into North Africa as far as Tripoli and Carthage in the West, captured Cypress to the north, took Azerbaijan and Armenia and advanced as far as Kabul, Afghanistan to the east.
• Ironically the event that drove Muslims to act against him was the canonization of the Quran. He was accused of tampering with the Quran to protect the Umayyads
Uthman Assassinated• As the caliph’s unpopularity increased, there was
uprising in Egypt, the governor of Kufa was unable to control
• Egyptians sent 1,000 to Medina with intent to assassinate Uthman and seize the government
• the people of Medina were neutral preferring to watch the outcome– a small number of Umayyad defended the caliph’s house– a stalemate ensued which resulted in weeks long seige– rebels broke in unawares and murdered the caliph
Tashkent: Copy of Quran stained with blood of Uthman
Ali, the Fourth Caliph• A week later, Ali, a man of valor and piety and son-in-law to the
Prophet, was made caliph in 656 AD.• By now the problem of succession was widely disputed. One
group held that the Prophet’s successors must be from the blood line of the Quraysh tribe. Since all members of Quraysh were eligible for the caliphate, there was a good deal of rivalry among the different families. This sect became the Sunni.
• Another group, the “legitimists” believed that the caliphate was a divine office requiring divine appointment. They believed that as Ali was son-in-law, cousin and adopted son of the Prophet, who could be more divinely appointed? – Ali was the legitimate successor and that all subsequent caliphs would
be chosen from his descendents. – The legitimists were known as Shi’at Ali (partisans of Ali) or simply,
Shi’a.
Ali, Man of Integrity
• Ali initially modestly refused to become the next caliph, but the people begged him– he finally acquiesced– his companions Talha and Zubayr conspired against him, fearing that he would establish his own
bloodline as the future Caliphs at the exclusion of Umayyads
• Ali ruled well, dismissing all the corrupt governors and officials of Uthman and inaugurated reforms which returned to the simplicity of the Prophet.– this infuriated the established Umayyads– As long as they had hope that Ali would appoint them governors, they kept quiet. But as soon as they
lost that hope, they broke their pledge, and rose in rebellion. • Umayyads refused allegiance to Ali and fled to Levant
under protection of Governor of Syria, Muawiyah• Ayisha, the youngest wife of the Prophet, held personal
hatred for Ali, heard the news of Uthman’s murder returning from Hijj to Medina– saw opportunity to depose Ali, alleging his involvement in
Uthman’s murder– formed coalition of Umayyad forces with Talha & Zubayr in
Mecca– the coalition force moved to Basra with 3,000 in order to
secure the Levant– They executed some 600 in the city thought oppose their
cause and took over Basra.
Kufa (Iraq)• provincial capital of
Mesopotamia captured from the Sassanid Persians
• chosen by Ali as new headquarters: frontiers of conquest became too far removed from Medina
• enjoyed the splendors of the ancient Persians
First Fitna (Civil War)• The rift in Islam came to blows outside of Bosra (in Iraq) on
December 9, 656• Forces of Umayyads under Ayisha met forces of Ali– Umayyads accused Ali of being an accomplice but this was a ruse,
as Ayisha had political objectives– Ali tried to reason with the rebels, reluctant to shed Muslim
blood• the Battle of the Camel took place outside Bosra– despite being badly beaten, Ayisha continued to rally her people
on camel back: 13,000 were killed of the rebels– Ali lost 5,000 men, ordered the camel slain and battle ended.
Ayisha was captured unharmed after 110 days of fighting– Ali was magnanimous and sent Ayisha under escort back to
Medina with the admonition never to dabble in politics again
Fitna Continues• Mu’awiya, governor of Syria, Uthman’s cousin, was next to
challenge Ali, alleging his part in the murder of Uthman and calling for revenge
• He assembled the Syrian army and confronted Ali at Battle of Siffin on the Euphrates in 657.
• Ali fought them to a draw with heavy losses on both sides when the Syrians appeared with copies of the Quran on their lances, appealing for arbitration. – "The law of the Lord! That shall decide between us!"
• Ali, being just and honorable, accepted their request• the arbitration was indecisive, and the situation continued as
before, with Mu'awiyah ruling over Syria and later Egypt, and Ali ruling the rest of the Muslim territories.
Ali’s Humble Prayer
• "O Lord of all Creation! I seek Thy Mercy. Thou art aware of all that I feel or think or do. Nothing is hidden from Thy sight. If I have taken part, directly or indirectly, in the murder of Uthman, or if I have abetted those men who murdered Uthman, or if I was secretly happy when he was killed, show Thy displeasure to me. But if I am innocent of all guilt of complicity in the murder of Uthman, then show Thy displeasure to all those people who allege that I am an accomplice in the crime against Uthman."
Kharijites
• These Muslims were puritans, practicing in simplicity and purity of the Quran. They were zealous warriors who felt that Islam should be purged of Muslims who were not faithful. Although they initially sided with Ali, they later were disappointed and withdrew their support. Consequently, they were known as Kharijites (seceders).
• After returning with Ali after Siffin, they distanced themselves from the remaining forces
• Disgruntled with the outcome of arbitration they took Nahrawan and butchered the governor there
Ali Assassinated
• fearing the Kharijites might attack Kufa, Ali sent his forces to Nahrawan to stop them– they killed all but 9
Kharijites but these escaped – In 661, while he was
praying, one of the Kharijites assassinated Ali in the Grand Mosque of Kufa
• Kharijites seceded claiming “There is no arbitrator but God”. They became enemies of the caliphs from now on
• By accepting arbitration, Ali had in effect called his own legitimacy as caliph into question, according to them.
Ali’s Legacy• “Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your
subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds:either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them.”
Dividing the Empire
Aftermath
• Following the death of Ali, Islam was thrown into division:– Mu’awiya proclaimed himself caliph in Jerusalem in 660 being the
only contender, won by default and plotted to have his son Yazid eventually succeed him
– The elder son Hasan succeeded Ali after his deathbut soon signed a treaty with Mu’awiya to avoid further bloodshed
– His brother Hussein held that the hereditary succession of the caliphate was a violation of the Shari’a
• The seminal event in Shi’i history is the martyrdom in 680 at the Battle of Karbala of Hussein, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph (71 of Hussein's followers were killed as well). Hussein came to symbolize resistance to tyranny.
Battle of Karbala 680• Fought against overwhelming odds, this battle is
often cited as the definitive break between the Shi'a and Sunni sects of Islam, and until this day it has been commemorated each year by Shi'a Muslims on the Day of Ashura = Second Fitna
The Abbasid Dynasty
• The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from Abbas (566–662), younger uncle of Muhammad,
• considered themselves the true successor of Muhammad as opposed to the Umayyad.– Umayyads were descended from a clan separate from
Muhammad's in the Quraysh tribe.• One Abu al-Abbas, descendent of Abbas, revolted
against the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II– defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the Battle of the Zab
with a coalition of Shi’ite, Persian and Abbasid soldiers– Abu proclaimed himself caliph, gave himself a title of al-
Saffah (“blood-letter”) and moved capital to Baghdad
Abbasids• Just as the Umayyads had usurped the caliphate from Ali, in
the eighth century, the family of Abbas stirred up dissention against the Umayyads– among the Persians, Shi’ites, Kharijites and other malcontents. – The Abbasids thus used the oppressed and downtrodden to
establish themselves in power • once they got it, they turned against their abettors. This
caused a further rift between Muslim Arabs and their Persian Muslims.
• The Abassid dynasty lasted for over 8 centuries and 54 caliphs until it gave way to the Ottoman empire in 1517.
• under the Abassids, the Empire of Islam reached its Zenith encompassing most of Spain and extending east to Afghanistan.
Sunnis• Sunnis accept the caliphates of the Umayyad and Abassid dynasties as
legitimate being that they are of the same blood-line as the Prophet• Sunnis consider the Quran as infallible, and the body of law is theoretically
complete and unchangeable. – Despite this, as the empire of Islam expanded, the leaders discovered that the Quran
did not contain all the answers to questions of law facing the modern communities. – This lead Muslim authorities to resorted to a collection of traditions, hadith, to settle
difficult decisions, moral and legal controversies and even matters of personal hygiene. Some 7,500 considered to be of genuine authority.
• The Quran and hadith form the totality of the law of Allah, Shari’a, which form the basis of Islamic jurisprudence. – Only when the Quran and hadith fail to be of any assistance do Islamic justices resort
to – analogies (interpreting obsolete principles in the Quran in a modern context) and – consensus (agreement of the community of Islam) for resolving legal conflicts and
evaluating novel ideas. – Innovation and deviation are difficult, sometimes even heretical, in Sunni Islam.
Shi’is
• Shi’i reject the caliphs after Ali as being usurpers • The subsequent successors of Muhammad are the
Imam, – spiritually appointed leaders qualified to interpret the law.
• Ali was the first imam – subsequent imams succeed by divine appointment. – imam is not selected by the community but by the will of
Allah• The imam is the vice regent of allah and exists in as
state of permanent grace which renders them infallible, impeccable and immaculate, a “man-God”.
Shi’is; The Twelvers• The third imam, Hussayn, was martyred at Karbala and Shi’ites
have depicted his death as vicarious for the sins of the world. • The doctrine of the Imamate forms the basis for Shi’i political
theory and the legitimate government belongs to the imam. – All governments not under the imam, including the Sunni caliphs, are
not legitimate. • Most Shi’ites believe, especially in Iran, the twelfth and last
imam has gone into hiding. – This Hidden Imam or “Mahdi” (Messiah) parallels the Christian belief
in that in the end of time he will come again as a liberator and conqueror and establish a reign of righteousness.
– Shi’ites who hold this belief are sometimes called “Twelvers”. In the absence of the imam, the scholars or mujtahid fulfill this role imperfectly.
Mujtahid• In Shi’ism, mujtahid fills leadership role in absence of imam (imperfectly
though)– selected from the scholars of Shari’a (ulama)
• Thus in Shi’i communities, the mujtahids are the major source of interpreting the law on all social, political and religious affairs and they serve the immensely significant role of controlling and channeling change in Shi’i Islamic societies.
• There was no hierarchal organization to appoint such leaders – and thus anyone aspiring to be a mujtahid had to study Shi’i doctrine and the Shari’a
(these scholars are called ulama) but not many reached the coveted position. – They had to have reputation for piety, wisdom and leadership.– The mujtahid would be informally chosen by consensus among the ulama.
• Usually there is more than one mujtahid at any one time resulting in differences of opinion. – Sometimes the head of the government could pit one mujtahid against another in
order to bring about social changes – but when they were united, the result might be quite rigid and reactionary (as in the
Iranian Revolution).
Diversity within Shi’ism
• Shi’ism incorporates mysticism, saints, intercessors, belief in atonement and a spirit of high cult, all of which are repugnant to most Sunnis.
• One sect of Shi’ism stop with the grandson of Husayn, Zayd, as the last real imam and reject the doctrine of the second coming as do the Sunnis.
• Another and perhaps more important sect is the Ismaili or “Seveners” who believe that Ismail, the seventh imam, was the last legitimate imam. – Seveners introduce occult mysticism to Shi’ism, are obsessed with
the number seven and had the greatest missionary activity of all Islam.
– One of their leaders founded the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt.
Decline of the Islamic Empire• From the battle of Badr (624) until the eleventh century, the
steady advance of Islam was not effectively checked – Umayyads conquered all of North Africa and crossed the straits of
Gibraltar and established the independent Caliphate of Andalusia with capital at Cordoba.
– It wasn’t until 1609 when the Muslims were finally ousted by Philip III.• In meantime the power of caliphate began a steady decline as
was given over to corruption. • Thanks to slavery and concubinage of conquered peoples,
Muslim society was inevitably transformed into a composite of Arabs, Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Berbers, Turks and Indians.
• The Turks, who were brave and obedient at first, were highly desirable as bodyguards for the caliph. As the caliphate weakened, the bodyguards began to take control of the state.
Zenith of Islam
• Occurred in tenth through thirteenth centuries• Empire was divided into multiple principalities
(emirates) = “Golden Age of Islam”– Persian Avicenna very distinguished physician,
mastered Quran age 10, by 16 was a full fledged physician , his texts were used until 17th century
– Arabic numerals based on 10, algebra, astronomy (many stars carry Arabic names), predecessor of chemistry alkimya
– Muslim contributions to geography, architecture, strongly influenced entire Mediterranean region
Saljuq Turks• Turkish soldiers proved to be invaluable to the Islamic cause well
into the eleventh century– Turkish tribes accepted the Sunni faith with few exceptions and were
fanatically loyal to its tenets– Turkish slave soldiers were welcomed because of their unwavering
loyalty to their leader– initially this was the caliph but in time this was the Grand Vizir
• Turkish troops pushed the Byzantines out of Asia Minor, captured the Emperor Diogenes in 1071. Saljuqs defeated Byzantine army at battle of Manzikert
• as the caliphate decayed the Empire of Islam fragmented into principalities (amir or emir)
• Turkish nomads settled Asia Minor and Osman established a principality there in 1300. He established a dynasty that would rule there until 1917 known as the Ottoman
Division of Empire
• Medieval Muslims struggled against invaders: the Crusades spanned 200 years from 1095 in Levant region, the Mongols invaded from the east during 13th century and destroyed the last of the Abasssid caliphs in Baghdad and occupied Iran.
• Empire was divided into principalities• Turkish and Mongol slaves called Mamluks became a ruling class
in Egypt up until the end of the 15th century. • Their ruler was called sultan, life expectancy was short• the surviving Abassid caliphs became figurehead religious
leaders in Egypt.• Despite wars with Crusaders and Mongols, Cairo became
thriving center of East-West trade with the most advanced hospitals of the period
Ottoman Empire Begins• Turks of Asia Minor were not interested in remaining
under the central Islamic government– went about making their own empire– developed “new army” = Janissary (Turk.) Corps– developed a written Turkish language
• Although they had controlled Asia Minor for centuries, the Ottomans had not yet taken Constantinople – under Sultan Mehmed, the city was taken and renamed to
Istanbul, the Black Sea became a Turkish lake– Ottomans brought Islam to the very doorstep of Venice– by 1481 Ottomans controlled Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Wallachia and the Crimean as well as all of Asia Minor
Ottoman Government• Muslim Institution (religious)– religious scholars were called ulama– judges who ruled on matters of Shari’a were mufti– the supreme judge was Shaykh ul-Islam who was close
advisor to the sultan in matters of law. This man rivaled in power the sultan himself and could issue a religious opinion or fetwa which carried national importance
– the Muslim Institution had complete control of the Waqf (religious endowment) and determined its use and distribution
– During the period of reform in the 19th century, the ulama and the constitutionalists allied against the sultan and the Ruling Institution
Ottoman Government• Ruling Institution– head of the administration was the sultan, usually the
most powerful person in the nation. He could issue a non-religious decree or qanun which often provoked the ire of ulama because it does not eminate from Shari’a
– the head of the government bureaucracy was the grand vazir who was also the sultan’s chief advisor
– rulers subordinate to sultan were called pasha– members of the Ruling Institution carried out government
administration and military duties, were slaves and therefore subjects of the sultan and not under Shari’a. Thus the sultan had control of the army and government without interference from the ulama
Janissaries
• When conquered peoples (especially Christians) were acquired as slaves, the male youths received rigorous military training and were eventually inducted into Janissary Corps (lit “new army”)
• these disciplined soldiers were not allowed to marry and often carried the battle for the Ottomans
• Initially intensely loyal to the sultan
Ottoman Empire Expands
• When the Ottoman’s chief rivals, the Shi’ites of Iran under the shah Esma’il, allied with Mamlukes of Egypt and Syria, the Ottoman’s felt they had no alternative but to invade Mesopotamia and Egypt
• Soon Syria, Egypt and the holy cities of Arabia fell into Ottoman hands.
• The last of the Sunni caliphs died without successor and the “authority” of Abassid caliphs transferred to the Ottoman sultan in 1520.
Ottoman Empire Reaches Zenith• In 1520, the Ottoman’s greatest sultan, Suleiman “the
Magnificent”, began a 46 year reign
• He led the Janissaries to capture Buda and Pest on both sides of the Danube and breached the walls of Vienna but was beaten off
• Ottoman empire prospered, public Turkish baths were commonplace
• Trade routes well maintained• The sultan’s annual income
estimate to be $10,000,000
Ottoman’s Slow Decline• Powerful as he was, Suleiman could not cope with the
greed and ambition of three powerful forces in the Empire:1. the Janissaries had grown so large they were unmanageable
and began to meddle in politics2. the sultan had departed from the old ghazi virtues and
promoted his companion, a court page, to grand vazir3. his favorite wife, (of his harem of 300) Roxelana, (Russian
slave) forced sultan to execute any of his sons which might contest with her son
• He set precedent and subsequent sultans would prefer the harem to a just government and appoint favorites to positions of leadership within the Ruling Institution without regard to ability
19th Century Ottomans
• Sultans came to be superseded in power by the grand vizir– the grand vizir was indebted to members of the harem or army
or the ulama– these wanted to exploit the government and its people for their
benefit• The Janissary Corps had been allowed to marry and divided
their loyalties between the sultan and their families and had to be disbanded
• the manner of tax collection was oppressive to the masses• European imperialism entered the Middle East after the
Treaty of Karlowitz (1699)– Russia, Austria, Germany, France and Britain
Safavid Dynasty of Iran
• In the wake of Mongol dominance, Shi’ism remained strong in Iran. Even Ghengis Khan became a Muslim– influenced by one Shaykh Safi Gilani (Safi) in 1300’s– Safi’s descendent Esma’il, a child prodigy, took the
leadership at age 13 of his father’s Sufi sect when the latter was killed. In just two years this young man conquered Shirvan, Armenia and Azarbaijan and declared himself Shah (Persian: “king”) in 1500.
– Thus began the Safavid dynasty of Shahs in Iran that were, ironically, ethnic Turks that were the chief rivals of the Ottoman empire. The dynasty lasted until 1736.
18th Century Iran
• The corruption of Safavid dynasty weakened Iran and caused the Ottomans to encourage Sunni Afghans to attack Iran. Their successes whetted the appetite of Russia under Peter the Great
• Nader, a Turk officer in the Safavid army, didn’t like the weakness of his government and led a revolt– he deposed the Shah in 1736– established an assembly of 1,000 delegates to choose a
replacement– the delegates chose Nader who agreed to accept if the
Shi’is would not molest the Sunnis
Nader Shah• Nader Shah was a freethinker and neither Shi’i or Sunni.• He proposed to unify Islam, by opening dialogue with the
Ottoman Sultan Mahmud I:1. Shi’i should be recognized officially as 5th school of thought in Islam
(Sunnis recognize 4 schools and “don’t need another”)2. Shi’is should have special accommodations in Mecca3. the should be a leader of pilgrimage from Iran4. Ottomans and Persians should exchange prisoners of war5. Ottomans and Persians should exchange ambassadors
• Shi’ite leaders in Najaf were alarmed with Nader’s proposals to negotiate with Sunni Ottomans– lead revolt and had Nader assassinated in 1747– plunged Iran into turmoil– opened door for Turkish Qajar tribe to take over Iran in 1779
Najaf and Shi’ism
• Rejection of Nader Shah indicates how deeply committed to Shi’ism the Persians became
• Najaf (now in Iraq) is the site of the tomb of Ali (the first imam)– within the territory of Safavid Iran– became a pilgrimage city for Shi’ites– As the burial site of Shi’a Islam's second most
important figure, the Imam Ali Mosque is considered by all Shi’as as the third holiest Islamic site.
– It is the cultural center of Shi’i Muslims and was the 15 year refuge for the Ayatollah Komeini
Turkish Islam
• Thus by the 16th century, the Arabs which propelled the Empire of Islam to its zenith, over- coming the Persian and Byzantine empires, had largely been replaced by the Turks
• The Turks began to rule the Empire of Islam in three rival regions:– the Ottomans of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia– the Mamluks of Egypt– the Safavids or Qajars of Iran
• These entities would carry Islam up to the brink of World War I
