BIOMASS ENERGY AND HUMAN HEALTH

by

Hejing Cui

BS, Dalian University, China 2013

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Environmental and Occupational Health

Graduate School of Public Health in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Public Health

University of Pittsburgh

2015

ii

UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH

GRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH

This essay is submitted

by

Hejing Cui

on

April 22, 2015

and approved by

Essay Advisor:James Peterson, PhD __________________________________Associate ProfessorDirector, MPH and DrPH ProgramsEnvironmental and Occupational HealthGraduate School of Public HealthUniversity of Pittsburgh

Essay Reader:Na Wei, PhD __________________________________Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringDepartment of BioengineeringUniversity of Pittsburgh

iii

Copyright © by Hejing Cui

2015

ABSTRACT

iv

With rapid economic growth, energy plays a vital role for both developing and developed

countries. Sustainable energy, like that produced from biomass, is becoming the main source in

many developing countries. This essay will discuss biomass energy as a renewable energy

source. Biomass energy includes both positive and negative effect to public health. The adverse

health effects of exposing to traditional biomass smoke include respiratory and cardiovascular

morbidity, causing aggravated coughing and difficult or painful breathing. The objective of this

essay is to focus on the public health matters associated with biomass energy. The harmful

effects of traditional biomass fuels, including their influence on environmental air pollution and

how this may be mitigated, will be covered. Also, the benefits to the public of sustainable

resources derived from biomass through modern indirect processes will be discussed. Using

modern, indirect approaches, biomass energy is abundant and can be produced anywhere thus

reducing dependence on foreign oil. Biomass is the only fuel available for renewable,

combustion-based electricity generation that can regenerate quickly and has a long history of use

for direct heating applications. In the analysis part, there will be more details about how these

energies should be managed and designed to well adapt to an urban environment.

v

Peterson James, PhD

BIOMASS ENERGY AND HUMAN HEALTH

Hejing Cui, MPH

University of Pittsburgh, 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................1

2.0 BACKGROUND...........................................................................................................3

2.1 TRADITIONAL BIOMASS................................................................................3

2.2 RENEWABLE BIOMASS ENERGY.................................................................6

2.3 MODERNIZED BIOMASS ENERGY...............................................................7

2.4 ALTERNATIVE SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL.................................................11

3.0 TOWARD CLEAN SUSTAINABILITY..................................................................12

3.1 TRADITIONAL BIOMASS FUEL..................................................................12

3.2 SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY............................................................15

3.3 MANAGING BIOMASS ENERGY.................................................................17

3.4 DIFFICULTIES IN BIOMASS ENERGY.......................................................18

4.0 DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................21

5.0 CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................23

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................24

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (12-15)..................................5

Table 2. Energies for conversion of biomass energy into modern energy services (25).................8

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The relationship between per-capita final energy consumption and income in

developing countries (24)................................................................................................................7

Figure 2. Projections on the stipulated production of energy from renewable resources in the

European countries based on national renewable energy action plans (30)....................................9

Figure 3. Pathways relating smoke exposure and childhood health (45)......................................14

Figure 4. Electricity cost and the carbon dioxide emissions per kilowatt-hour of different types of

energy (48).....................................................................................................................................16

Figure 5. Conceptual representation of biomass energy systems and linkages to sustainable

human development (53)...............................................................................................................19

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

With rapid economic growth, energy plays a vital role for both developing and developed

countries. Sustainable energy, like that produced from biomass, is becoming the main source in

many developing countries. It is estimated that 14% of the world’s energy supply is from

biomass and about 2.4 billion people (~40% of the world’s population) use biomass fuels (wood,

dung, charcoal, crop residues) as their primary source to meet needs for cooking and heating (1,

2).

In the traditional manner, when biomass fuels are consumed directly, the fuel consists of

any plant or animal material burned in household stoves or open fires, often with inadequate

ventilation (3). The combustion efficiency of biomass fuels is very low, yielding relatively high

levels of incomplete combustion products (which are particularly harmful) compared to other

types of fuel. Consequently, exposure to high level of indoor air pollution from biomass fuel

smoke during cooking and heating may be regarded as a major environmental and public health

problem, especially affecting women who cook with these fuels and their children (4).

Modern indirect methods of biomass consumption are technologically advanced

processes by which biomass is converted into a secondary form of energy (5). In the future, this

kind of commercial energy production through biomass consumption will probably replace the

traditional method. Using modern, indirect approaches, biomass energy is abundant and can be

produced anywhere thus reducing dependence on foreign oil. Also, biomass is the only fuel

1

available for renewable, combustion-based electricity generation that can regenerate quickly and

has a long history of use for direct heating applications. For all the above reasons, it can be

asserted that biomass energy deserves significant attention as a possible substitute for fossil

fuels.

The objective of this essay is to focus on the public health matters associated with

biomass energy. The harmful effects of traditional biomass fuels, including their influence on

environmental air pollution and how this may be mitigated, will be covered. Also, the benefits to

the public of sustainable resources derived from biomass through modern indirect processes will

be discussed.

2

2.0 BACKGROUND

2.1 TRADITIONAL BIOMASS

Biomass fuel is plant or animal material (wood, dung, charcoal, or crop residue) that is suitable

for burning. This accounts for more than one-half of domestic energy consumed in most

developing countries and for much as 95% in lower income communities. The adverse health

outcomes of indoor air pollution are often made worse by lack of ventilation in homes when

using biomass fuel; including poorly designed stoves that do not have flues or hoods to take

smoke out of the living areas (6). When choosing an energy source, there are some different

categories of biomass type that can be selected. Dried animal dung, scavenged twigs and grass

are very cheap, but not efficient and are the most polluting. Generally, these are treated as the

biomass fuels at the bottom of the ladder of choice. Unlike the dried animal dung, Crop residues

and charcoal are at a higher rung of the ladder. Pollution from these is much less than from dried

animal dung/twigs/grass, but crop residues and charcoal are also more expensive. At the top of

the energy ladder is electrical energy that will cost most, but is least polluting. The correlation of

socioeconomic factors with the main source of fuel used is relatively close, but households also

use these fuels in different circumstances. There are some additional factors that seem to be

relevant in a household’s choice of fuel, like stove type and the accessibility of the fuels, plus

3

cultural preferences. And potential health impacts all influence the household’s choice of

particular fuel(s) (7).

The toxicity of biomass smoke is very high because of inefficient burning, which

generates large amounts of toxic products including particulate matter, hydrocarbons,

oxygenated organics, carbon monoxide, chlorinated organics and free radicals (8). The

particulate matter component of this smoke is classified according to its size, with inhalable

material < 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter referred to as PM10 and with inhalable material <

2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter referred to as PM2.5. The World Health Organization (WHO)

guidelines for air quality suggest that, in any 24-hour period, mean particulate matter levels

should not exceed 50 μg/m3 for PM10 and 25 μg/m3 for PM2.5 (9). However, in many developing

countries, in any 24-hour period, mean concentration of PM10 is often exceeds 150 μg/m3, which

is much higher than the WHO guidelines quota (10). The adverse health effects of inhalable PM

include respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, causing aggravated coughing and difficult or

painful breathing. Also, it will decrease lung function and get chronic bronchitis. Carbon

monoxide produced by inefficient burning of biomass can reduce the capacity of blood to carry

oxygen. The symptoms of exposure to carbon monoxide include nausea, headache, dizziness and

loss of consciousness, even death. People who have coronary artery disease and fetuses are

particularly susceptible. (11) Also, hydrocarbons, oxygenated organics, chlorinated organics and

free radicals are all potentially hazardous to human health. Table 1 shows the WHO guidelines

for air quality in terms of maximal mean levels of different hazardous indoor air pollutants for

various time periods.

4

Table 1. World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (12-15)

World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines12-15

Particulate matter with diameter

of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5)

10 μg/m3 (annual mean)

25 μg/m3 (24h mean)

Particulate matter with diameter

of 10 μm or less (PM10)

20 μg/m3 (annual mean)

50 μg/m3 (24h mean)

Ozone 100 μg/m3 (8h mean)

Nitrogen dioxide 40 μg/m3 (annual mean)

200 μg/m3 (1h mean)

Sulfur dioxide 20 μg/m3 (24h mean)

500 μg/m3 (10min mean)

Carbon monoxide 60 mg/m3 (30min mean)

30 mg/m3 (1h mean)

10 mg/m3 (8h mean)

In 2000, indoor air pollution was responsible for about 3 % of the world’s disease burden

and, horribly, over 1.6 million deaths. Of these deaths, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases

accounted for 41 % and acute respiratory infections for nearly 59 %, leaving lung cancer as a

relatively minor contributor. (16) Importantly, variability in age, gender and socioeconomic

circumstances result in different levels of exposure and its consequent effects (17). For example,

it is estimated that the exposure to direct burning of biomass fuels have caused 0.4% of all

disability-adjusted life-years and 0.5% of all deaths in South Africa in early 2000 (18). It is much

higher than the global data that about 0.05% of all deaths in the world. The World Health

5

Organization states 3.7 million of global deaths related to burning fossil fuels that the world

population is around 7 billion (19). Burning of wood and agricultural waste biomass for

household cooking and heating represents up to 86% of rural energy consumption worldwide

(20). In 2004, indoor air pollution from use of these solid fuels caused 2.7% of all disability-

adjusted life years and it was responsible for nearly 2 million deaths, that is, around 3% of all

deaths in the world (21). Worldwide, indoor smoke from solid fuel combustion causes nearly

35% of deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 21% of deaths from low respiratory

infections and about 3% of deaths from lung cancer (21).

2.2 RENEWABLE BIOMASS ENERGY

Despite the negative health impacts, there are significant benefits to using biomass as a

renewable energy source. Most importantly, bioenergy could play a really critical role in a

sustainable and flexible system integrating the supply of energy, food and animal feed In China,

for example, there are more than 3.4 million households producing energy from biogas, digested

sludge, fertilizer and effluent using integrated technology. The concept of the bioenergy village

is based on the idea that the modern forms of biomass energy are able to meet all the essential

energy and food (human and animal) needs of the population. In order to minimize waste, the

system needs to be highly integrated, applying the best available techniques and making use of

locally available skills. While no one strategy can be a panacea, the bioenergy village concept

will make an important contribution to rural development (22). Presumably, as poorer families

develop and increase their incomes, they will be able to afford more modern appliances and will

need more energy. So, it will become necessary to transition from traditional biomass

6

consumption to the modern methods. However, this transition is not a straightforward process. In

2009, there were still nearly 2.7 billion people relying on the traditional biomass fuels for

cooking and heating in the world (23). While the affordability of transitioning to modern

biomass energy use is an important consideration, there also has to be a relationship with cultural

preferences. For example, in India, even very rich households still keep one traditional biomass

stove in working condition. Generally, however, there is a clear relationship between the type of

fuel use and income, especially in some developing countries (24) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. The relationship between per-capita final energy consumption and income in

developing countries (24)

2.3 MODERNIZED BIOMASS ENERGY

In fact, modernized biomass energy may have potential worldwide. It may be produced

efficiently and cost effectively for conversion to more convenient forms of energy (gases,

7

liquids, or electricity). Table 1 lists a few of the energies that can convert solid biomass into

clean, convenient energy carriers, most of which are commercially available nowadays. Most

importantly, these energies can enable biomass energy to play a much more significant role in

the future than today, if they can be widely implemented in combination with sustainable

supplies of biomass animal feed (25).

Table 2. Energies for conversion of biomass energy into modern energy services (25)

Modern biomass energy production methods are low carbon emission processes that can

bring additional social and environmental benefits. Nowadays, in Europe, three countries that

have the largest forest biomass potentials. Sweden, France, and Finland represent about 63% of

the European forest biomass potential and have 58% of the forest area available for wood supply

in Europe (26). In fact, by far, the biggest biomass pellet consumer worldwide is the European.

In 2012, nearly 15 million tons of biomass was burned and European pellet consumption for

8

Energy Scale Energy services provided

Biogas Small Electricity (local pumping, milling lighting

communication, refrigeration, etc. and possible

distribution via utility grid)

Heating

Cooking

Producer gas Small to medium

Ethanol Medium to large Vehicle transportation

Cooking

Steam turbine Medium to large Electricity (for industrial processing and grid

distribution)

Industrial process heat

Gas turbine Medium to large

heating has grown by more than one million tons per year since 2010. The Energy Strategy 2020

of the European Commission calls for increased use of sustainable biomass energy and the

European Council has presented a long-term target (27). That is, European countries are aiming

to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80% to 96% by 2050. A renewable energy projection of the

European Union regarding biomass is that it is expected to provide 56% of the sustainable supply

in the European countries by 2020 (28,29) (see Figure 3). Actually, this renewable, modern,

clean biomass energy is already available in the UK. ‘Bio-Bus’ is a very good example that the

bus use power entirely by food waste and it has gone into service between Bristol and Bath. This

‘Poo Bus’ runs on biomethane gas generated from the treatment of sewage and waste. Using

anaerobic digestion, it can make the bacteria to break down substances in the absence of oxygen

(30).

Figure 2. Projections on the stipulated production of energy from renewable resources in

the European countries based on national renewable energy action plans (30).

9

Modern forms of biomass energy are sustainable fuels that can reduce carbon emissions

significantly compared with other traditional biomass energy production (31). It is critically

important that transition to this modern biomass energy should be correctly managed. In any

practical implementation, the very first thing should be to carefully choose the particular biomass

and then the method of efficiently converting it into clean energy. The operating procedures to be

put in place should be such that the new biomass energy production will improve the industry

and speed up movement towards even more effective and sustainable sources of biomass, while

continuing to innovate and improve, paying attention to environmental and ecological benefits.

Given the large projected scale, policies required to control the industry and make sure it

integrates successfully with regional economies will have to be in place.

Currently, in the United States, states like Massachusetts have already take action, setting

smart standards for biomass energy and, commendably, defining how biomass can favorably

contribute to the overall energy policy. Additionally, there are also strict limits on the allowable

emissions of carbon neutral pollutants. Elsewhere in the United States, the use of biodiesel

mainly produced from soy oil is widespread. This biodiesel from food plants is restrained

because agricultural crops usually provide a low yield of biodiesel, namely, less than 5% of total

biomass. This low productivity cannot meet the high demand for diesel (32). In 2009, the total

fuel requirement was 11.1 × 10 9 gallons, and it is estimated that this will be 36 × 10 9 gallons for

2022 (33).

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2.4 ALTERNATIVE SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL

The single biggest remaining problem with biomass fuels is the accumulation of greenhouse

gases. In the United States, the threshold of 450 ppm CO2-equivalent level has already been

exceeded (33). Therefore, it is necessary to explore an alternative sustainable biofuel source with

a high production capacity relative to carbon emission.

In fact, all types of biomass produced by green plants can convert sunlight into plant

material through photosynthesis. For example, algal photosynthesis has been a primary driver for

the sustainable development in energy, food and feed production. With the high oil demand and

global warming, photosynthesis could make a significant contribution to the energy supply.

However, there are technically and administratively tough obstacles to overcome (see analysis

part).

The many types of biomass available that can be used for electricity production include

agricultural crops and process residues, bagasse, forestry residues and wood wastes. All of these

residues are very convenient to get and also have a low cost. People usually dedicated in the

energy crops that is grow exclusively for providing clean biomass energy production. (33) Crops,

such as corn and sugar cane, can produce the transportation fuel ethanol by fermentation. Rotting

residues and human waste can also convert to some other useful biomass energy source like

methane. Biodiesel is mainly produced from left over food like animal fats or vegetable oils. In

addition, some biomass can be converted to other liquids and cellulosic ethanol, but these

processes are still undergoing research (32-34).

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3.0 TOWARD CLEAN SUSTAINABILITY

3.1 TRADITIONAL BIOMASS FUEL

As we known, modern form of bioenergy system will widely used in the future. So, in thiss part,

there will be more details about how these energies should be managed and designed to well

adapt to an urban environment.

Where it is burned, traditional biomass fuel is the main source of indoor air pollution, so

it is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The epidemiologic evidence for

traditional biomass fuels being lung carcinogens is convincing (35). Here we will examine the

health effects resulting from traditional indoor biomass pollutants, especially in relation to

children.

For young children, who are more susceptible than adults, the risk of developing acute

lower respiratory tract infection is two to three times greater when they are exposed to the solid

biomass smoke fuel (36). It is estimated that the mortality of acute lower respiratory tract

infection is more than 2 million deaths per year in children under five-years old worldwide (37).

There was one report in 1968 of a relationship between indoor cooking smoke and childhood

pneumonia and bronchiolitis in Nigeria (38), but not until the 1980s was this followed by reports

from other areas (39). One cohort study in rural Kenya found that there is a direct correlation

between the amount of biomass pollution a child is exposed to and the risk of developing

12

pneumonia (40). Some carbon particles from biomass smoke are very similar to those found in

the airway macrophages of exposed children and are therefore a biomarker of exposure to this

kind of air pollution. It was observed that with increasing level of carbon particles in the

macrophages, there was a decreasing incidence of lung cancer (41). There are also data from

Ecuador corroborating the observation that deterioration in lung function is to be expected when

children are exposed to high levels of indoor air pollution from biomass fuel and data from

Guatemala that wheezing is more frequent in households that use an open fire compared with a

stove with chimney (42). In China, it has been shown that reduction in children’s forced

expiratory volume, forced vital capacity and peak flow is associated with the domestic use of

coal, but there is no long-term data suggesting that biomass fuel exposure might induce lung

functional disease in children (43).

In addition, there is some evidence indicating that exposure to biomass fuel smoke has an

adverse effect on birth outcomes, low birth weight and intrauterine growth retardation being

associated with indoor air pollution (44). A study from Guatemala found that there is a

relationship between the type of fuel smoke exposure and the birth weight. When households use

open fires, they will produce average levels of PM10 of approximately 1000 μg/m3. The babies

born to mothers using open wood fires were on the average of 63 g lighter compared to the

babies born to mothers using clear fuels (44). A model rationalizing the manner in which indoor

cooking smoke may induce low birth weight has been proposed (Figure 4) (45). Exposed to this

traditional biomass fuel smoke, young children may also have further chronic nutritional

problems like anemia and stunting of growth.

13

Figure 3. Pathways relating smoke exposure and childhood health (45)

Adults may also have a disease burden related to biomass fuels burning, but these are less

widely documented than cases involving children. Women living in rural areas are especially at

risk of exposure to biomass fuel smoke. For example, in Nepal, the average PM10 level

experienced by women using biomass fuel was two or three times higher than those using more

sustainable and cleaner fuels like biogas and liquefied petroleum gas in their kitchens. It was

estimated that 94% of the respondents using biomass fuel had identifiable adverse health effects

(46). In short, the use of traditional biomass fuels is beset with lots of severe problems. In

14

comparison, modern sustainable biomass energy has many more benefits, not only in reducing

the incidence of disease by lower toxic emission, but also in saving resources for recycling. For

these reasons it seems to be essential that we change from the practices associated with

traditional biomass fuels to modern cleaner and renewable biomass energy.

3.2 SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS ENERGY

Compared to fossil fuels, biomass energy has a promising future as it is more sustainable and has

low carbon emission. Furthermore, because biomass is locally sourced, transport costs are low.

Though biomass includes some byproducts like agricultural waste and food waste (vegetable oil)

these still constitute recycling because they come primarily from vegetables and plants that can

be re-grown. Thus, even biomass derived from “waste” is a renewable resource. In addition,

particularly compared to coal, biomass can be considered as a low carbon or carbon neutral

option (47). Carbon recycling occurs as follows. During photosynthesis, plants absorb sunlight

and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is assembled into more complicated organic molecules

that become components of plant tissue (i.e. biomass). When these plant materials are later

burned in industrial for energy production, carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere

again. Subsequently, during the next crop’s growth cycle, carbon dioxide will be absorbed again

and so on. This repetitive carbon cycling results in a net low carbon impact on the atmosphere.

Since petroleum-based fuel is used for transport and, also, for fertilizer manufacture, some net

carbon emission may occur with biomass during growth and transport, but this can be minimized

through careful selection of crops and procedures. Certainly, compared to traditional fossil fuels,

the net result can be a very low emission of carbon.

15

Perhaps the most important aspect of biomass compared to other energy sources is that it

is available essentially everywhere including the developing and developed countries Biomass

can be cultivated as required and produced with little logistical risk. On the other hand, sources

like natural gas, coal and oil are located in specific areas with limited accessibility – with some

countries having low reserves. Furthermore, finding and developing these kinds of energy

reserves has some significant risk. This general problem of limited access, coupled to increasing

demand for energy can be argued to have caused worsening environmental and economic trends

each year in many developing countries (47). There are renewable energy sources such as solar

thermal, hydro and wind. However, compared with biomass energy, the last two are localized

and it appears that the cost of the first two will probably always exceed the target cost (48). So,

considering all of these factors stated above (see also Figure 5), biomass energy should be

regarded as the best choice because of low carbon emission, high reliability and relatively low

cost.

Figure 4. Electricity cost and the carbon dioxide emissions per kilowatt-hour of different

types of energy (48)

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3.3 MANAGING BIOMASS ENERGY

However, managing the sustainable revolution from the traditional non-renewable sources to

modern renewable sources is still a big challenge for policy makers in terms of scheduling and

dealing with the residual environmental impact associated with biomass power. Since much of

the biomass energy we use nowadays is not from sustainable sources, the emission of carbon

dioxide will continue to increase and have an adverse impact the global warming. For instance,

wood is a really problematic source of biomass fuel. There will likely be a high demand for

wood as European countries make great efforts to meet their sustainable energy goals of 20% by

2020 (50). Unfortunately they may start looking to use the whole trees including the roots for

energy. When burning the whole tree, there high levels of carbon pollutants emitted and,

importantly, once they have been removed, those trees will no longer be able to absorb carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere in the future. Moreover, in areas like the southern United States,

where the forests can produce much more wood and paper than in other parts of the world, the

increasing demand of the biomass energy market may put more pressure on already overworked

ecosystems.

There is another energy source derived from biomass, ethanol, made by fermenting food

crops such as sugar cane and corn. Growing these food crops requires large amounts of water,

land and different types of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. So, putting a focus on these crops

will lead to unintended economic and environmental hazards to humans. Furthermore, harvesting

the food crops as biomass fuels will drive the price of livestock feed upwards. Taking all these

17

considerations into account, increasing the production of ethanol for bioenergy will be expensive

and probably lead to a net increase in emission of carbon pollution to the atmosphere. In fact,

there are other forms of biomass that could be used to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, the

primary greenhouse inducer of concern. Woody biomass like the briquettes from non-sorted

biomass waste can be a good substituent for logged wood, saving trees and improving the

renewable carbon cycle.

With the increasingly high demand for electricity, generation of electricity from biomass

should be highly rationalized. Co-firing of biomass with coal in power plants will be a good

choice for lowering air pollution in situations where biomass alone cannot meet the demand.

Generally, biomass can reduce pollutant air emissions up to 90% compared to traditional fossil

fuels used to generate the same amount of electricity (51, 52). For this type of application, the

only problem might be the small extra expense of the biomass compared to the traditional fossil

fuels, particularly coal. To extend and internationalize the generation of power with biomass, the

cost must be kept low and be executed in more convenient way and more available to the

feedstock. Meanwhile, effective policies for managing the system should be improved for energy

security. In the long run, technological development and energy management should always be

subject to further research aimed at reducing the carbon dioxide emissions.

3.4 DIFFICULTIES IN BIOMASS ENERGY

Globally, there are still many difficulties in conceiving that biomass can be a modern energy

provider, even though it has already played a significant role in many developing countries and

will continue to do so in the future. When modernized bioenergy systems can be properly

18

designed and established, they can be expected to make a significant improvement to the

renewable human energy development (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Conceptual representation of biomass energy systems and linkages to

sustainable human development (53)

Biomass energy systems are not only land intensive, but also labor intensive because they

involve interaction between local environmental factors and socioeconomic considerations. If

they are well designed and can be properly implemented, these bioenergy systems will make a

significant contribution to a renewable living environment, like solving the problems of

agricultural waste disposal and land degradation. However, if not designed well and/or not

properly implemented, they can only exacerbate the social pressure on the livelihoods of the

locals and the ecological system. In this case, poorer populations who live in rural areas will be

the first victims. For modern biomass energy development to fulfill the desire for social justice,

19

the designer must consider all of these cases comprehensively to satisfy everyone’s basic needs

and promote opportunities for improving income. In addition, the designer should also improve

the efficient using of land resources to make a contribution to a healthier local environment in

rural areas. In Europe and USA, the major obstacle could be the expensive labor intensive.

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4.0 DISCUSSION

It is quite clear that pollutants from biomass fuels affect mainly children and women, especially

in rural areas, increasing global mortality and morbidity. However, these global outcomes that

have already affected a large vulnerable population are still easy to ignore. To improve this

situation, there are several pressure areas that should be focused on today. Studies of toxicology

that can help plan proper intervention should be given a high priority and there also should be an

effort to improve exposure assessment tools and develop biomarkers to help epidemiologists to

understand the complexity of the health issues. Special attention should be given to some

specific diseases like cancer and cardiovascular disease and more epidemiological studies

examining effects on birth outcomes should be undertaken. In addition, the effects of technology

and behavioral interventions should also be examined to determine how they influence public

health.

Specifically regarding indoor air pollution, there are lots of effective and useful

interventions and implementation methods to be tried for increasing renewability and reducing

financial burden. In poor rural areas, where there is limited access to alternative fuels and

biomass is still the most convenient source, the use of improved stoves with more efficient

biomass fuels that can lower emissions of pollutants is to be encouraged. Most importantly,

people’s behavior needs to change, they should be encouraged to improve the ventilation of

homes, working areas and schools, which can significantly lower the concentration of pollutant

21

chemicals. At the same time, behavioral changes should address other forms of indoor air

pollution. The prevention and remediation of dampness in homes can reduce the risk of

exposure to hazardous microbes (54, 55). And tobacco smoking should be eliminated or reduced

in the house. There should be continual reassessments of health impact in order to determine the

magnitude of improvement related to the changes in indoor air pollution. With this information,

critical uncertainties may be identified that can be used to suggest productive areas for new

research to improve public health (56).

In the meantime, national governments also have the responsibility to take actions to

strengthen air quality management. Air pollution control regulations should focus on industrial

production and encourage (or even enforce) the use of cleaner and sustainable energy. To

decrease air pollution, national governments also should help coordinate regional and

international commitments (57). Actually, the development of renewable energy technologies

and markets should be supported at both the central government and provincial government

levels in developing countries, with increasing participation of state-owned and private sector

businesses as the systems mature. Central government support is the key to providing goals and

funding for renewable energy projects.

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5.0 CONCLUSIONS

Since the modern forms of biomass energy are expected to replace the traditional types of

biomass fuels in the future, developed and developing countries have both proposed long and

short term targets for reducing the use of traditional biomass fuels aimed at decreasing the

emission of carbon dioxide. For instance, the United States EPA has already moved to reduce

emissions of carbon dioxide from current power plants. They release draft rules on September

20th, 2015, to limit carbon emission from new coal power plants. Under this rules, new coal-

fired power plants would be limited to 1100 pounds of carbon dioxide per megawatt-hour. Also,

the rules require new plants to implement partial carbon capture and storage technology (58).

And, in the European countries, greenhouse gas emissions will be cut from 80% to 96% by 2050

compared to 1990 (59). Also, in China, the government has resolved to enforce reduction in the

level of carbon dioxide from power plants (60). Compared with the alternatives, biomass energy

used in a proper way is the best solution to reducing greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Unlike

the nuclear power, a rare source worldwide and have some nuclear accidents, biomass energy

seems more renewable and have less risk of accidents of disasters. Biomass is, therefore, a

promising resource and how to use it in the most efficient way should be the focus of future

investigation into the implementation of modern renewable biomass energy systems, their

improved design and management strategies.

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