Literaturereview

...................................................“Societyshouldensurethatallyoungpeoplereceivethesupporttheyneed

inordertomakeafulfillingtransitiontoadulthood”

CreativeWritinginSchools:LiteratureReview.................................................

FirstStory,PaperNationsandLKMcohaveidentifiedsixkeythemestheyareinterestedinexploringaspartoftheCreativeWritinginSchoolsevaluation.Theseare:sustainability;engagement;skilldevelopment;bestpractice;networks,and;valuingcreativewriting.Torefinethesethemes,areviewoftheacademicandgreyliteraturehasbeencarriedoutfocussingonthefollowingresearchquestions:

• Howhaspreviousresearchconceptualisedtheproposedthemesandhowmightweneedtoadaptorrefinethem?

• Howhavethesethemesbeenmeasuredinthepastandwhatcanwelearnfrom

this?

• Howhavepreviousprojectssoughttoimpactintheseareasandwhatcanwelearnfromthis?

Thisdocumentsummarisesthekeyfindingsandthengoesontoexploretheminmoredepth.

ByEleanorBernardesandLoicMenzies

CreativeWritinginSchools Page2

...................................................

ContentsContents............................................................................................................................2

ExecutiveSummary............................................................................................................3

1. Sustainability...............................................................................................................3

2. Engagement................................................................................................................3

3. SkillDevelopment.......................................................................................................4

4. Bestpracticeandpedagogyforcreativewriting..........................................................5

5. Networks.....................................................................................................................5

6. ValuingCreativeWriting..............................................................................................6

Possibleimplicationsforevaluation:..................................................................................7

1.Sustainability.................................................................................................................8

2.Engagement.................................................................................................................12

3.Skilldevelopment.........................................................................................................16

4.BestPracticeandpedagogyforcreativewriting...........................................................23

5.Networks.....................................................................................................................30

6.ValuingCreativeWriting...............................................................................................33

Possibleimplicationsforevaluation:................................................................................35

CreativeWritinginSchools Page3

...................................................

ExecutiveSummaryTheheadlinefindingsinrelationtothesixthemesaresummarisedbelow: 1. Sustainability Sustainabilityreferstothedegreetowhichchangesinpracticearemaintainedovertimeandtheliteraturehighlightsthefollowingfindingsinrelationtoit:1 Schoolshavedifferentintentionsforengagingwithprojects(long-orshort-term).Itis

importanttounderstandtheirmotivationsandexpectationsattheoutset.2 Impactismoresustainablewhencross-curricularlinksaremade,andthisiseasierat

primarythanatsecondaryschoollevelforlogisticalreasons.3 Sustainabilityismorelikelytobeachievedwhenresponsibilityforaprojectisgiventoa

seniormemberofschoolstaff,andespeciallywhentheheadteacherisinvolved.4 Continuityamongstteachingstaffcanpresentaconsiderablebarriertosustainability.5 Sustainabilityisachievedmostsuccessfullywhenteacherschangetheirteachingpractice

andpedagogicalperspectivesasaresultofaproject.6 Fundingisachallengeininitiatingprojects,butrarelymentionedintermsof

sustainability.7 Therehasbeenlittle,ifany,costeffectivenessanalysiscarriedoutinthisarea.8 Thereisnosinglemodelforsuccess.2. Engagement Thisthemerelatestohowpupilsandteachersengagewithcreativewriting,theirmotivationforandtheoutcomesofparticipating,andtheirperceptionsandenjoymentofwriting.1 Thereareconcernsthatgovernmenteffortstoraisestandardsinliteracyhavebeenat

theexpenseofcultivatingexcitementaboutwriting.2 Bothstudentsandteachersenjoywritingmoreiftheyhaveautonomyandownership

overwhattheywritingabout.3 Boysconsidered‘atrisk’ofunderachievementhavebeenfoundtoenjoywritingintheir

Englishlessonsmorethanelsewhereinthecurriculum.4 Youngpeoplemakelinksbetweenenjoymentofwritingandself-confidenceinwriting.5 Youngpeople’sattitudestowritingarecloselylinkedtotheirperceptionsoftechnical

accuracy.6 Unlikewithreading,theredoesnotappeartobealinkbetweenSESbackgroundand

writingenjoyment.7 Girlsenjoywritingmorethanboys,and11-14yearoldsenjoywritinglessthanotherage

groups.8 Theterm“creativewriting”itselfhashistoricconnotationsforschoolsandteachersthat

arenotalwayspositive.9 Mostyoungwritersacknowledgealinkbetweenwritingandfuturesuccessand

wellbeing.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page4

...................................................

10 Youngpeople’screativeabilitiesaremostlikelytobedevelopedinanatmosphereinwhichtheteacher’screativeabilitiesareproperlyengaged.

11 Tofullyappreciatestudents’writingjourneys,teachersneedtobewritersthemselvesandtowritealongsidetheirstudentsinclass.

12 Artsprojectscanhelpreduceinequalitiesinacademicachievementbetweenprivilegedanddisadvantagedchildren.

13 Youngpeople’sexperienceofandparticipationinwritingathomeisunexpectedlyrich.14 Elementsofprogrammesthat‘reach-out’intothecommunityareveryhighlyvalued.

3. SkillDevelopmentTheliteratureexploresawiderangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsthoughttobedevelopedthroughparticipatingincreativewriting.Thekeyfindingsareoutlinedbelow:1 Whilethereisaconsiderablerangeofacademicresearchthathighlightsthepositive

educationalimpactofthearts,thereiscomparativelylittleontheimpactofcreativewritinginterventions,incomparisonwithmusic,dance,dramaandvisualarts.

2 Thereareawiderangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsthoughttobedevelopedbyparticipatingincreativewriting,themostfrequentlyhighlightedofwhichare:

• Creativity• Risktakingandproblemsolving• Metacognition• Confidence• Socialandinterpersonalskills• Patience,perseveranceandresilience• Communicationskills• CriticalThinking• Self-efficacy

3 Researchaboutcreativityiswellestablishedinrelationtochildrenandadults,butagapexistsinrelationtoadolescents(duetotheuniquecognitivedevelopmentsthoughttooccurduringthisperiod).Therefore,generalisingacrossthethreegroupsshouldbeavoided.

4 Creativepractitionershavebeenfoundtousestrategiestodevelopstudents’risktakingandself-beliefmoreeffectivelythanteachers.

5 Metacognitioninvolvesreflectinguponandevaluatingone’slearning,andisofparticularimportanceinwriting.Evenveryyoungwriterscanbehelpedtothinkaboutandreflectupontheirwritingprocessesinmetacognitiveways.

6 Changesinpupils’confidencelevelsareoneofthemostcommonlyreportedimpactsofcreativewritingprogrammes,althoughtherigourandrobustnessofresearchmethodologyanddatacollectioninmanystudiesisquestionable.

7 Therecanbeaperceivedtensionbetweencreativewritinginitiativesandthe‘standardsagenda’.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page5

...................................................

8 Writingisthemostcomplexandmentallydemandingofthefourlanguageskills(listening,speaking,readingandwriting).

9 Astudent’sperceptionoftheirowntechnicalwritingskilliscloselylinkedtotheirenjoymentofwriting.

4. BestpracticeandpedagogyforcreativewritingBestpracticeandpedagogyforcreativewritingwasexploredinrelationtothreemainareas:havingthetools,resourcesandqualificationforsuccess;teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewriting;andhowevidenceofbestpracticehasbeenappliedinschools.1 Thequalityofthestudentwritingenvironment(forexample,theclassroominwhich

theywrite)isseentobeofprimaryimportance.2 Libraries,andlibrariansareanimportantresourceforschools.3 Teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewritingisakeyfeatureinsuccessful

programmes.Thefollowingarefrequentareasofdifficultyforteachers:• Writingauthenticallyandunderstandingthatrisktakingisacentralcomponentin

creativity• Aproblematictendencyforteacherstoconsidercreativityandtechnique

separately• Poetry

4 Theliteratureparticularlyhighlightsgoodpracticeinrelationto:

• Developingstudents’risktaking• Leadershipandmanagementofprojects• Pedagogy(including:drama;talk;selfexpression;andknowledgeabout

language)• Teachingpoetry• Writersand‘creativepractitioners’workinginschoolsandeducationsettings• Provisionoffeedbackonwritinganddevelopingstudents’editingskills• Engagingwithcommunitiesandparents

5. NetworksEffectivepartnershipsandnetworksareessentialtoaproject’ssuccess.Thekeyfindingsfromtheliteraturearesummarisedbelow:1 Themosteffectivepartnershipstendtobedevelopedbymorereceptiveteachers,and

creativepractitionerswhounderstandtheconstraintsfacedbyschools.2 Effectiveselectionofreceptivestaffforparticipationinprojectscancatalysewider

participationandenthusiasmforaproject.3 Jointworkingoftenlackscommonpurposeduetodifferentpriorities.4 Severalbarrierstobuildingnetworksarehighlightedintheliterature,relatingto

differentpartners:

CreativeWritinginSchools Page6

...................................................

Teacherscanhinderthecreationofeffectivenetworksby:o Delegatingtheroleof‘theteacher’toavisitingpractitionero Feelingconstrainedbythecurriculumandlackingsufficientconfidenceor

trusttobuyintoavisitingpractitioner’smethodso Refusingstudentstheopportunitytoleavetheirlessonstoparticipatein

programmes

Writerscanhinderthecreationofeffectivenetworksbybeingreluctantto:o Initiatinglongertermresidencieso Joiningformalnetworkso Receivingmoreformaltraining

Additionally,schoolsthemselvescancreatebarriersasaresultof:o Concernsaboutcosto Holdingpre-conceptionsaboutstudents’willingnesstoparticipatein

creativewritingandtheirlikelihoodofsuccesso Time-tablingandlogisticalissuesexacerbatedbyanexam-focusedsystemo Perceivedindifferenceamongststaff

5 Reachingouttofamiliesandwidercommunitiesalienatedbyorisolatedfromlearning

canbeparticularlychallenging.6 Thefollowingareasareofkeyimportanceinensuringaproject’ssuccess:

• Timegiventodevelopingrelationships• Qualityandexperienceofstaffassignedtoprojects• Overallprojectmanagementresponsibilities• Geographicallocationandreach• Brokeringpartnerships

6. ValuingCreativeWriting Thevaluethatschools,teachersandthewidercommunityplaceoncreativewritingisofprimeimportancetothesuccessandsustainabilityofcreativewritingprojects.1 Theperceivedoppositionbetweencreativityandtechniqueisanimportantbarrierto

schoolsandteachersvaluingcreativewriting.2 Teachers’ownvalues(forexample,relatingtotheimportanceofgrammaranddifferent

pedagogicalapproaches)influencetheirteachingofwriting.3 Manyteachersplacelowvalueonteachingpoetryandteacherattitudestowardspoetry

itselfplayanimportantroleinthis.4 Schoolsvaluehavingan“outcomeforpublicconsumption”fromaproject,butthisisnot

alwayssharedbycreativepartners.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page7

...................................................

5 The‘celebritisation’ofwritinghaschangedthewaymanyyoungpeopleviewwriting,yetwhilstthishasensuredliteracyhasremainedhighprofile,insufficientattentionhasbeengiventotheteachingandlearningofwritingspecifically.

6 Artseducatorsandcreativepractitionersneedtoavoidallowingartssubjectstobejustifiedwholly(orprimarily)intermsofwhattheycanofferacademically.

7 Moreeffortneedstobeinvestedinensuringthatteachers,schoolsandthewiderpublicunderstandthat“inspirationdoesnothavetobeattheexpenseofstandards.”

Possibleimplicationsforevaluation:

1. Theextenttowhichaprojectleadstoanactualchangeinpracticeonthebehalfofteachersisofprimeimportance.

2. Creativityandtechniqueshouldnotbeconsideredseparatelybutasmutuallyreinforcingelementsofwriting.

3. Evaluatingprogressinskillssuchas‘creativity’and‘self-confidence’iscomplexanddemandswell-designedtoolsthatneedtobeadministeredinarigorousandrobustway.

4. Thequalityofpartnershipsandjointworkingmethodsthatunderpinaprojectplayacrucialroleinitssuccess.

5. Projectsshouldbeevaluatedfortheirwiderimpactontheschoolcommunity,notjustonthedirectparticipants.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page8

...................................................

1.SustainabilitySustainabilityreferstothedegreetowhichchangesinpracticearemaintainedovertime.1.1IntentionanddesiretocontinueSchools,andtosomeextentcreativepartners,havedifferentmotivationsforbecominginvolvedwithcreativewritingprojects,andwillthereforehavevaryingintentionsforcontinuingwiththem.Itisimportanttounderstandthesedesiresandintentionsattheoutsetofaproject.Ifanartsprogramme’simpactistobemaximisedandsustained,partnersmustdesiretomaintainchangesinpractice.However,whilstsomeschoolsengageinartsprovisiontobringaboutculturalandpedagogicalchange,othersdosofora‘one-off’experience.Thiscanbeaconsiderablebarriertosustainability.Somestafffeelthatthe“one-offnature”ofaprojectoreventisimportantforengagingyoungpeople,andthat“suchworkcouldnotbesustainedonanongoingbasis”becausethey“areboundbyexams”(Marshetal.,2009).Ontheotherhand,manyschoolsengageinprojectsinalonger-termwayandplanthem“inordertoensuresustainability”(Marshetal.,2009).Therearealsomanyexamplesofschoolleaderswhoapproachengagementfromapedagogicalperspectivetodevelop“staffwho[can]teachcreativewritinganddeveloprisk-takingskills”,withtheaimofcreating“anEnglishdepartmentthatwrites”(OwenandMunden,2010).Owen(2008)explainsthatalthoughschoolscanperceivewriterresidenciesasboth“magical”andbringing“realitytothenon-realschoolclassroom”,theyalsofrequentlyviewtheimpactasof“limitedshelflife”becausetherecomesatimewhen“whattheschoolistryingtodohastobere-established.”Horner(2010)suggeststhatsecuringsustainabilityiseasierattheprimary-thanthesecondary-levelbecauseteacherscanmorereadilymakeconnectionsbetweensubjectareasandacrosscurriculumtopics.Indeed,eveninsecondaryschoolswherecross-curricularwritinglinkshavebeensuccessfullyestablished,“maintainingtheimpetus”isoftendifficult(Horner,2010).OwenandMunden(2010)alsohighlightlogisticsasaparticularbarriertosustainabilityinsecondaryschools.Lackofcontinuityamongstteachingstaffisasignificantbarriertothesustainabilityofcreativewritingprojects(OwenandMunden,2010)andwidespreadbuy-inisthereforekey.Impactisalsomoresustainablewhenresponsibilityforaprojectisheldbyamoreseniormemberofstaff(Galton,2008;Marsh,2009).Inthemajorityofschoolswherepost-projectimpacthasbeensustained,headteachershaveplayedanactiveandimportantrole(Marsh,2009).1.2CapacityandabilitytocontinueTeachersoftenraisequestionsabouttheirschools’capacityandabilitytocontinuedeliveringaprojectoncetheinitialmomentum(suchastheinvolvementofawriter)haspassed.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page9

...................................................

Acommonthemeofsuccessfulprojectsisthatteacherschange(oradapt)theirteachingstyleorapproach,andputnewtechniquesintopractice(SQW,2012;SocietyofAuthors,2013;CapeUk,2010;Galton,2008;Cremin,2006;CreminandMyhill,2012;Marsh,2009;Horner,2010).Inthisway,teachersactivelydevelopthecapacitiesandabilitiestheyneedinordertosustainchange.Theliteraturesuggestsseveralwaysinwhichprojectscanbedesignedtoensurethatthishappenseffectivelyandnotsuperficially:

1 Teachersshouldbeencouragedtorepositionthemselvesaswritersintheclassroomandengagewithprojectsreflectively(Goouchetal.,2009;Ings,2009;Cremin,2012).

2 Creativepartnersshouldconcentratetheireffortswithfewerteachersandclasses.Changingpedagogyinvolveschallengingpersonalvaluesandbeliefsandpartnershipsneedtimetodevelopifthisistohappen(Galton,2008).

3 Writersneedbeexplicitabouttheprocessespupilshavebeenthroughandtheskillstheyhavedevelopedincludingwhytheymatter,tomakeiteasierforteacherstofollowuptheexperiencesandchangetheirroutinesandcontinuethecreativeapproachestheyhaveseeninaction(Horner,2010).

4 Teachersneedtochangethewaytheyteachwritingandschoolsneedtounderstandthatthisis“notashort-termenterprise”:theconfidenceandenthusiasmthatresultsfromresidenciescandissipateifitisnotembeddedintheweeksthatfollowandifitisnotpartofalong-termcommitmentfromtheschool,includingfromseniormanagement(Horner,2010).Galton(2008)suggestsitisprobablyatwo-yearprocesstosecurechangesandthatchangerequiresstrongleadership,aschoolstrategyforwritingandwhole-schoolinvolvementinnewpedagogicalstyles.

5 Careshouldbetakenwhenselectingteachersforparticipationifsustainabilityistobemaximised:onlythosewhoareatthepointintheirdevelopmentwheretheyarewillingtoattributefailuretotheirownefforts,ratherthanblamingitonfactorsoutsidetheirpersonalcontrol,areatastageofprofessionalcompetencewheretheyarelikelytobereceptivetothetheoreticalimplicationsbehindthecreativepractitioners’approach(Galton,2008).

• EconomicviabilityAsurveybytheSocietyofAuthors(2013)foundthatfundingwasthebiggestconcernforschoolswhentryingtoorganisevisitsbywriters.Themajorityofstatesecondaryschoolspaidfortheworkthroughoverallschool,departmentalorlibrarybudgets,withasmallnumberrelyingonparentalandcommunityfundraising.ThebursarythatwasmadeavailabletoschoolsparticipatingintheEverybodyWritesprogrammewasfoundtoenableschoolstodevelopandpurchase‘high-quality’resources,buttheprojectevaluationfoundthatthemosteffectiveresourceswerenotnecessarilythemostexpensive(Marsh,2009).Thereappearstobelittle,ifany,costeffectivenessanalysisintheareaofparticipationinartsactivities(includingcreativewriting)(EPPI,2014),butdespitethis,Horner(2010)believesthatprojectsthatpromote“positiveschoolethos”,“raisestandardsofwriting”and

CreativeWritinginSchools Page10

...................................................

haveaconcomitantimpactonpupils’enthusiasmandenjoymentareaworthwhileinvestmentforschools.Inordertominimisetheissueofcost,theSocietyofAuthors(2013)suggeststhatschoolsshouldbeencouragedto:

• Poolresources• Sharevisits• Identifylocalauthors(toreducetransportcosts)

1.3Establishmentanddisseminationofscale-ablebestpracticemodelsIngs(2009)suggeststhatthefollowingpointswereessentialinsustainingtheimpactofthe‘WritingisPrimary’project:

1 Thereisnoonemodelforimprovement.Programmesforchangeshouldbetailoredtosuittheschool’sattributes,itsstrengthsandweaknesses,anditsuniqueculture.

2 Thesustainabilityofaschool’simprovementprogrammeforwritingisenhancedbycollaborativeworkingandpeernetworkingwithneighbourorpartnerschools,sharingcommitment,ideasandpracticesaswellasteachingstaff.

3 ‘Whole-school’awarenessoftheimportanceandpleasureofwritingisessential,ideallyextendingtothecommunitybeyonditsgates.

1. Sustainability Sustainabilityreferstothedegreetowhichchangesinpracticearemaintainedovertimeandtheliteraturehighlightsthefollowingfindingsinrelationtoit:1 Schoolshavedifferentintentionsforengagingwithprojects(long-orshort-term).Itis

importanttounderstandtheirmotivationsandexpectationsattheoutset.2 Impactisseentobemoresustainablewhencross-curricularlinksaremade,andthis

iseasieratprimarythanatsecondaryschoollevelforlogisticalreasons.3 Sustainabilityismorelikelytobeachievedwhenresponsibilityforaprojectisgiven

toamoreseniormemberofschoolstaff,andespeciallywhentheheadteacherisinvolved.

4 Continuityamongstteachingstaffcanpresentaconsiderablebarriertosustainability.5 Sustainabilityisachievedmostsuccessfullywhenteacherschangetheirteaching

practiceandpedagogicalperspectivesasaresultofaproject.6 Fundingisachallengeininitiatingprojects,butisrarelymentionedinrelationto

sustainability.7 Therehasbeenlittle,ifany,costeffectivenessanalysiscarriedoutinthearea.8 Thereisnosinglemodelforsuccess.Programmesneedtobetailoredtospecific

schoolsandcontexts.9 Sustainabilityisenhancedbycollaborativeworkingandpeernetworkingwith

neighbourorpartnerschools,sharingcommitment,ideasandpracticesaswellasteachingstaff.

10 ‘Whole-school’awarenessoftheimportanceandpleasureofwritingisessential,ideallyextendingtothecommunitybeyonditsgates.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page11

...................................................

CreativeWritinginSchools Page12

...................................................

2.Engagement2.1Enjoyment‘Enjoyment’isakeyrecurringthemeintheliteratureonengagementinwritingforyoungpeople.Thereareconcernsthatsuccessivegovernments’emphasisonraisingstandardsinliteracyhasbeenattheexpenseofcultivatingexcitementaboutwriting(Horner,2010).Researchhasfoundthatyoungpeopleareambivalenttowardswritingwith49%holdingnegativeperceptionsofwritingcomparedto51%withpositiveperceptions.TheNationalLiteracyTrust(2015)reportthatwhilstyoungpeople’senjoymentofreadinghassteadilyincreasedsince2010,thesamecannotbesaidforwriting,andwhilstyoungpeople’sdailywritinglevelshaveremainedstableovertime,engagementwithreadinghassteadilyincreased(NationalLiteracyTrust,2015).Whilelowersocio-economicbackgroundhasbeenfoundtobesignificantlyrelatedtolowerreadingenjoyment(e.g.ClarkandAkerman,2006),thisrelationshipdoesnotseemtobereplicatedinwritingenjoyment(ClarkandDugdale,2009;NationalLiteracyTrust,2015).Girlsenjoywritingsignificantlymorethanboys,whoaremorelikelytobelievethatwritingis“somethingthatmustbedone”rathersomethingthatcanbeenjoyed(ClarkandDugdale,2009;NationalLiteracyTrust,2015).However,boysaremorelikelytobepositiveabouttechnology’spotentialtoincreasetheirenjoymentofwriting(ClarkandDugdale,2009).KS2andKS4pupilsenjoywritingsignificantlymorethanKS3pupils(ClarkandDugdale,2009),with11-14yearoldpupilsmostlikelytohavenegativeattitudestowardswriting(Horner,2010).Variousfactorsappeartoplayaroleinthedegreetowhichyoungpeopleenjoywriting.ClarkandDugdale(2009)highlighttheimportantroleofchoosingone’sowntopic;childrenfrequentlyexpressadesireformoreautonomyinwritingandvalueopportunitieswhentheycanexertagencyovertheprocess(Graingeretal.2003;Myhill2005;Cremin2012).Thisisalsothecasefor‘atrisk’groupssuchasunderachievingboyswhohavebeenfoundtoenjoythecreativefreedomofwritinginEnglishbutnotacrosstherestofthecurriculum(Myhill,etal.,2008).Bothteachersandstudentshavebeenfoundtoexperienceagreatersenseofachievementwhentheyaredoingsomething“forandofthemselves”(Grainger,2005),enablingthemtomake“dynamicsenseoftheirownlives”(Grainger,2005;Moffett,1968).Conversely,iftheactofwritingisdivorcedfromthewriterthemselves,disinterestanddisaffectionarelikelytodevelop(PackwoodandMessenheimer2003).Theevaluationof‘WritingTheGame’(Murphy,2015)alsofoundthatyoungpeoplestronglylinkedtheirincreasedenjoymentincreativewritingtoanincreaseintheirself-confidence. Inrecentyears,concernshavebeenexpressedaboutyoungpeople’sattitudestowritingandtheirlowself-esteemaswriters(Cremin,2006;CreminandMyhill2012;OwenandMunden,2010;Grainger,2005;BooktrustandNationalLiteracyTrust,2011).Motivationalsoappearstobeaffectedbyyoungpeople’s‘self-perceptionsandbeliefsaboutthemselvesaswriters,theirwritingcompetence,andtheirabilitytomanagewritingtasks’(BoscoloandGelati,2007;Cremin2012).Thisiscompoundedwhenyoungpeopleexpressalackofconfidenceintermsoftechnicalcompetenceratherthaninregardstothemessagesthattheymightactuallywanttoconvey(Horner,2010).

CreativeWritinginSchools Page13

...................................................

2.2ParticipationincreativewritingAnumberoffactorsrelatingtobothteachers'andpupilsaffectparticipationincreativewriting.

a) Pupils

Thereisawealthofevidencetestifyingtoparticipationincreativewriting’spositiveimpactonyoungpeople,withboysinparticularhavingbeenfoundtomovefromapositionof‘antagonism’tooneof‘enthusiasmandengagement’(OwenandMunden,2010).Theterm‘creativewriting’itself,however,isoftenavoided.Cremin(2012)suggeststhatthisisbecauseofanearliertendencyforcreativewritingtobeseenascontrived,artificialand“divorcedfromrealfeeling”(DES,1975).Thisoccursifteachersretain“toostrongagrasponthecurriculumreins”andprioritisewritinginstructionattheexpenseofdevelopingthedesire,commitment,ownershipandagencyofyoungwriters(Cremin,2012)Writingwellmattersfor“emotional,intellectualandsocialwellbeing”(Owen,2008),andthelinkbetweenwritingandfuturesuccessisacknowledgedbymostyoungwriters(ClarkandDugdale,2009).

b) Teachers

Youngpeople’screativeabilitiesaremostlikelytobedevelopedinanatmosphereinwhichtheteacher’screativeabilitiesareproperlyengagedandwhenteachersthemselvesengageinbeingwriters(ratherthanteachersofwriting).Theirinsightsintothisprocessenablethemtounderstandbetterhowyoungwritersexperiencewritingintheirclassrooms(Cremin,2006;CreminandMyhill,2012).Yeo(2007)arguesthatteacherswhowriteintheirpersonallivesdeveloptheirwritingidentitiesandtransmitthebenefitsofsuchpracticetotheirstudentsthroughtheirteachingofwriting.Onlywhenteachersarewritersthemselvesdotheylearnempathywiththeirpupils,enablingthemtogivemorespacetopupilsandtomodelwriting‘live’(Horner,2010).Teacherswritingalongsidechildreninclassalsoincreasespupils’motivationandcommitment,andresearchsuggeststhatyoungwriterssettlemorequicklyandremainfocusedforlongerwhentheirteachersaresimilarlyengaged(Goouchetal.,2009;CreminandBaker,2010).Whenteachersrevealtheirvulnerabilitiesaswriters,childrenbegintotalkmoreabouttheirownthoughtprocessesaswriters,andbegintoappreciatethatallwriters,whatevertheirageandexperience,encounterchallengesandfrustrationsastheywrite(CreminandMyhill,2012;Grainger,2005).CreminandMyhill(2012)findthatchildrenoftenobservethattheirteachersdonotlikewriting,butbysharinginthe‘discomfort’oftheirstudents,teachersareableto“mobilizeakindofcreativeenergy”(Runco,1999)oftengeneratingtemporaryresolutionstotheirimmediatedilemmasuntilotherwritingproblemsemerge.Whenteachersinoneprogrammerespondedtothecreativechallengeofwritingashortstory,theyencountered

CreativeWritinginSchools Page14

...................................................

periodsof“intenselyexperiencedinsecurity”andexpressed“considerableemotionaldiscomfortandevendistress”unbeknowntotheparticipants,theirschoolleaderperceivedtheyweresostressedherequestedthattheprogrammeshouldcease(Cremin,2006):thisfearoffailureandpossibleexposureraisesissuesofsecurity,ownershipandtrustinwritingasteachersexperiencedtherisk,andlackofcertaintyinvolvedincomposition.Participatingontheprogrammeledteacherstofeelthattheirsensitivitytochildren’s“journeysaswriters”hadincreased(Grainger,2005).AccordingtoIngs(2009),“themostexciting”outcomeofthe‘WritingisPrimary’projectwasthatteachersdevelopedadeeperunderstandingofthewritingprocessthroughtheirownpracticeaswriters,whichultimatelyledtoachangeinthewaytheytaughtwriting.Similarly,intheBigWritingproject,Harlandetal.foundthatteachersreportedarangeofimpactsonthewaytheytaughtwriting,includingontheir:repertoireofapproachesandtechniques;abilitytoteachwritinginanengagingway;ideasandresources;abilitytostretchandchallengepupils;subjectknowledgeaboutteachingwriting;andassessmentofwriting(Harlandetal.,2014). 2.3CharacteristicsofparticipantsAlthoughmanycreativewritingprojectsexist,youngpeoples’(andteachers’)likelihoodofaccessingthemvaries.TheBooktrust(2010)foundthatthosewhoalreadyparticipatehaveagreatappetiteformore,butchildrenandyoungpeoplewhodonotparticipatearerarelyrepresentedamongtheusersofnewprogrammes,atrendthatisconsistentwithotherculturalactivities.2.4EngagementwithlearninginandoutofschoolOnesmall-scalecasestudyoffourchildwritersinasingleprimaryschoolrevealedthatstudentshadanunexpectedlyrichpracticearoundwritingathome(CreminandMyhill,2012).ClarkandDugdale(2009)suggestthatyoungpeople’sengagementwithwritingoutsideoftheclassroomhasbeenfurtherimprovedbyyoungpeople’saccessto,anduseoftechnology,with60%ofyoungpeoplebelievingthatcomputersallowthemtobe“morecreative,concentratemore”andareencouraged“towritemoreoften.”Manycreativewritingprogrammesincludecommunityoutreachelementsandthesestrandsofworkareoftenveryhighlyvalued,especiallybyparents(SQW,2012).Intheevaluationof‘Write-Minded’,SQW(2012)highlightthatthepositive“unintendedconsequences”offamilyandcommunityliteracyactivitiesarethatparentsareabletoshareexperiencesandsupporteachotheralongsidetheirchildren,developingnewfriendshipsandnetworksoftheirown.Theprojectencouragedparentalparticipationinactivitiesfocusedondevelopingtheirownchild’sliteracy,andthisledtoanunanticipatedmomentumamongstthecommunityinorganisingliteracyactivities(SQW,2012).Owen(2008)describesthewayinwhichonewriter’sapproachtoworkinginschoolsimpactedonthewidercommunityby“extendinglearninglinkagesoverandbeyondtheimmediateprotagonistsintheclassroom”(Owen,2008).

CreativeWritinginSchools Page15

...................................................

2. Engagement Thisthemerelatestohowpupilsandteachersengagewithcreativewriting,theirmotivationforandtheoutcomesofparticipating,andtheirperceptionsandenjoymentofwriting.1 Concernshavebeenexpressedthatgovernmenteffortstoraisestandardsinliteracy

havebeenattheexpenseofcultivatingexcitementaboutwriting.2 Bothstudentsandteachersenjoywritingmoreiftheyhaveautonomyandownership

overwhattheywritingabout.3 Boysconsidered‘atrisk’ofunderachievementhavebeenfoundtoenjoywritingin

theirEnglishlessonsmorethanelsewhereinthecurriculum.4 Youngpeopleoftenmakelinksbetweenenjoymentofwritingandself-confidencein

writing.5 Youngpeople’sattitudestowritingarecloselylinkedtotheirperceptionsoftechnical

accuracy.6 TheredoesnotappeartobealinkbetweenSESbackgroundandwritingenjoyment.7 Girlsenjoywritingmorethanboys,and11-14yearoldsenjoywritinglessthanother

agegroups.8 Theterm“creativewriting”itselfhashistoricconnotationsforschoolsandteachers

thatarenotalwayspositive.9 Mostyoungwritersacknowledgealinkbetweenwritingandfuturesuccessand

wellbeing.10 Youngpeople’screativeabilitiesaremostlikelytobedevelopedinanatmospherein

whichtheteacher’screativeabilitiesareproperlyengaged.11 Tofullyappreciatestudents’writingjourneys,teachersneedtobewriters

themselves,andtowritealongsidetheirstudentsinclass.12 Artsprojectscanhelpreduceinequalitiesinacademicachievementbetween

privilegedanddisadvantagedchildren.13 Youngpeople’sexperienceof,andparticipationinwritingathomeisunexpectedly

rich.14 Elementsofprogrammesthat‘reach-out’intothecommunityareveryhighlyvalued.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page16

...................................................

3.SkilldevelopmentTheliteratureexploresawiderangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsthoughttobedevelopedthroughparticipatingincreativewriting.3.1EnhancementofsoftskillsArangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsarethoughttobedevelopedthroughparticipatingincreativewriting.Forthepurposeofthisliteraturereview,wewillexplorethemallundertheheading‘softskills’.Whilethereisconsiderableevidencesupportingthepositiveimpactoftheartsineducation(onbothacademicandsoftskills),muchoftheresearchfocusesondrama,music,danceandvisualart,withcomparativelylittleresearchontheimpactofcreativewriting(LorenziandWhite,2013).Anumberofearlystudiesindicatethatcreativewritinghasapositiveinfluenceonparticipants’academicattainmentandalsoontheir“personal,socialandcivicdevelopment”(Chandler,1999;Howell,2008),butrecentresearch(suchasRobertsandEady,2012),hastendedtofocusontheeffectofgroupinteractiononindividuals’literacyandwritingskillsasopposedtotheimpactofsuchactivityonindividuals’holisticdevelopment(LorenziandWhite,2013).Theprocessofparticipatinginagroupwritingprojectcanbean“affirmingexperience”thatenablesindividualstoaccess“self,imaginationandvoice”(Chandler,1999).Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatexperiencingsuccessinawritingprojectboostsstudents’self‐esteem(Nicolini,1994;LorenziandWhite,2013).AfurtherstudyconductedbyChandler(2002)foundthataspecificgroupwritingapproachfacilitatingemotionalcatharsisincreasedparticipantself‐knowledge,copingstrategies,andunderstandingandappreciationofothers(inLorenziandWhite,2013).Researchinthefieldofpsychotherapyhighlightsthetherapeuticvalueofcreativeandexpressivewritingasanagentforself‐expression(LorenziandWhite,2013;Wright,2002;BaikieandWlihelm,2005).Weinstein(2010)identifiedyouthspokenwordpoetryasavehicleforthedevelopmentofliteracyskills,self‐confidence,positiveself‐identity,communitybuildingandrespectforpeersandadults(LorenziandWhite,2013).Itisalsoimportanttokeepinmindthat“creativityisnotsimplyamatteroflettinggo”(NACCCE,1999):rathergenuinecreativework“reliesonknowledge,controlofmaterialsandcommandofideas”andinvolvesnotjustinnovation,butalsoknowledgeandskills(CreminandMyhill,2012).

a) Creativity

CreativityisadominantconceptinwesterneducationalpolicieswiththeUK,US,France,Germany,SwedenandAustriaallrestructuringtheireducationsystemstoencompasscreativityoverthelastdecade(LorenziandWhite,2013;Feldman&Benjamin,2006;Craft,2005;Shaheen,2010).Giventhebenefitsofcreativityinsolvingcomplexindividual,social,andglobalproblems,Beghetto(2005)arguesthatpromotingcreativityshouldbecentraltoeducationalefforts.However,questionsremainaboutwhatcreativityactuallymeansand

CreativeWritinginSchools Page17

...................................................

howitmightbefostered:“Creativity,itappears,albeitessential,isasomewhatelusiveconcept”(LorenziandWhite,2013). CreminandMyhill(2012)suggestthatbeforeaddressing‘creativewriting’itisessentialthat“thetangledknot”ofcreativewritingandcreativityinwritingisuntangled,claimingthatthetermitselfis“largelyrestrictedtotheschoolwritingcurriculum”withlittlemeaningtothewiderworldoutsideofformaleducation.Theygoontoargue,however,thatallwritingiscreative,andthatthiscreativitymanifestsitselfinhowawriter“recognisesand[uses]theinfinitepossibilitiesoflanguage”withseeingthingsdifferentlyatitsheart(Bruner,1979;CreminandMyhill,2012).Althoughtheareaiswidelyacknowledgedasbeingcomplex,aspectsofcreativity,andthereforecreativityinwriting,arebothbelievedtobeobservableandmeasurable(Treffinger,2003;Lassig,2013).Thereare,however,limitedunderstandingsofcreativityintheadolescentagegroup(Lassig,2103;Claxton,Pannells,&Rhoads,2005;Oakley,2007),agapinresearchthatexistsdespiteclaimsthatadolescencecouldbethecriticalperiodfordevelopmentofcreativecapacity(Rothenberg,1990).Althoughresearchoncreativitytendstogeneraliseacrossagegroups,Lassig(2013)warnsthatgiventhesignificanceofadolescenceanditsdevelopmentalandexperientialuniquenesscomparedtootheragegroups(Vygotsky,2004),wecannotassumefindingsaboutthecreativityofchildrenoradultsaregeneralisabletoadolescents. Researchincreativityhasradicallyalteredoverthelastdecade,movingfromapsychologicalapproachthatiseasilymeasurable,tooneinwhichcreativityisconceptualisedinmoresocialandculturalterms(CreminandMyhill,2012).Theideaofthecreativeindividualhasalsobeendemocratisedfroman“essentiallyelitist”viewpoint(BanajiandBurn,2007)inwhich“creativegenius”isconfinedtoanexceptionalfew,cannotbetaughtandisthereforenotnecessarilyopentoscientificstudy(SternbergandLubart,1999;Treffinger,2003),tooneinwhicheveryonehasthecapacitytobecreative(Robinson,2001).Morerecentlythesedifferenceshavebeguntobereferredtoas‘BigC’and‘smallc’creativityrespectively,butthereareconcernsthatthisdichotomyoverlooksthetypeofcreativitydemonstratedbyindividualsengagedintheprocessoflearning(KaufmanandBeghetto,2009). Traditionally,observingandmeasuringcreativityfocusesononeormoreofRhodes’(1961)‘FourP’s’:person,process,productand/orpress,withtherecentadditionofthetwoextraP’sofpersuasion(Simonton,1990;1995)andpotential(Runco,2003),ofwhichthelattershouldbeofprimaryconcerntoeducatorsaccordingtoLassig(2013):

CreativeWritinginSchools Page18

...................................................

Person Process Product Press Persuasion PotentialPersonality,intellect,temperament,physique,traits,habits,attitudes,self-concept,valuesystems,defencemechanisms,andbehaviour

Motivation,learning,thinking,andcommunicating

Theoutcomeofcreativeengagement:atangibleproduct,behaviour/sorrepertoire,orsetofcommunicatedideas

Therelationshipbetweencreativepersons,processes,andproductsandvarioussocialandenvironmentalfactors,andwhatfacilitatesorhinderscreativeengagementandproduction

Creativityandtheenvironmenthaveareciprocalrelationshipwiththejudgementofcreativityrestingoncreatorspersuadingothersthatthey,theirprocess,ortheiroutcomesarecreative

People’spotentialforcreatingmeaningsandinterpretationsthatarenewtothemasindividuals

Lassig(2013)foundthatwhenfocusingon‘process’,adolescentsapproachedcreativityinfour(non-hierarchical)ways:

• Transfer(whereexistingideasaretransferredfromonetask(ordomain)toanother)• Adaption(whereexistingideasareadaptedfromonetaskto(ordomain)toanother)• Synthesis(wheretwoormoreexistingideasarecombinedtocreatesomethingnew)• Genesis(wheretheproductissignificantlydifferenttoexistingworkthatastudent

hasbeenexposedto,andtheoriginoftheideaisnotidentifiable)Piffer(2012)studiedthe‘person’andfoundthatcreativepeopleinboththeartsandsciencestendtosharecertainpersonalitycharacteristics.Fromthisheconcludedthataperson’screativityisabiologicalphenomenonandassuchcannotbemeasuredwithpsychometricinstrumentsandimpersonalmethods(suchasstandardisedsurveys).Hethereforesuggeststhatresearchersshouldonlyuseunstructuredorsemi-structuredinterviewstocollectdata.

b) Risktakingandproblem-solving Risk-takingandproblem‐solvingareseentobeessentialprerequisitesforcreativity(LorenziandWhite,2013)andbothfeatureheavilythroughouttheliterature.Compositionitself,likeanygenerativeprocessinvolvesbeingpreparedtotakerisks(Grainger,2005),anditisimportantthatthisismodelledtoyoungpeople(alongwithrecognisingandmanagingfear)(CreminandMyhill,2012):youngpeopleneedtoseewritingasaproblemsolvingactivity(BereiterandScardamalia,1987)andasaprocessofthinkingandevaluatingthatinvolvesaninternaldialogue.Thetendencyforpupilsinschooltoberiskaverse(fromaveryyoungage)isthereforeachallenge(Galton,2008).Galton(ibid)suggeststhattheschoolsystemitself(inparticularrecenteducationalreformsfocusingonthe‘standardsagenda’)causesthis,andthatasaresultyoungpeoplehavedevelopeda

CreativeWritinginSchools Page19

...................................................

rangeofstrategiesto“[draw]theadultintogivingmoreandmorecluesuntiltheanswerbecomesobvious.”Partofthebenefitofdeployingcreativepractitionersmaystemfromthis,sincetheyhavenotbeenconditionedinthesamewayasteachersandare“morecomfortablewithsilence”allowingthemtopresenttaskswithhigherlevelsofambiguitythatareperceivedas“morerisky”bystudents,allowingthemtodeveloptheircapacityforrisktakingfurther(Galton,2008).Galton(ibid)alsonotesthatcreativepractitionerstendtousecertainstrategiesmoreeffectivelythanteachers,suchasallocatingresponsibilitywhilstdisplayinggreatconfidencethatthepupilswillbeabletocopewithoutmishap.Thisincreasespupils’self-belief,andthustheircapacityforrisktaking.Ofsted(2006)alsofoundthatyoungpeopleare“inspired”whenworkingwithcreativepractitionersandthattheydevelopcreativeskillssuchasrisk-taking,improvisation,resilienceandcollaboration.

c) Metacognition ‘Metacognition’,theprocessofreflectinguponandevaluatingone’slearning,haslongbeenunderstoodtobeofparticularsignificanceinwriting(Martlew,1983;CreminandMyhill,2012).Jacobs(2004),amongstothers,demonstratedthatveryyoungwriterscanbehelpedtothinkaboutandreflectontheirthinkingandcomposingprocessesinmetacognitiveways(CreminandMyhill,2012).Byprovidingopportunitiesforstudentstothinkmetacognitivelyabouttheircreativity,teacherscanencouragethemtoexperimentwithtakingdifferentapproachestodifferenttasks,andthentoself-assesstheoutcomesoftheircreativeexperiences(Lassig,2013):“themostvitalknowledge[students]gainaboutwriting,gradually,willbeself-knowledge(metacognition)ofthemostpracticalkind”(CreminandMyhill,2012).

d) ConfidenceIncreasesinpupilconfidenceareoneofthemostcommonlyreportedimpactsofcreativewritingprogrammes(Horner,2010;Marshetal.,2009).However,confidencedataisusuallycollectedthroughteacherobservationandpupilself-reflectionmeaningthat,whilsttherearesomeinterestingfindings,questionsremainoverrigourandrobustness. Intheevaluationof‘WritingtheGame’(Murphy,2015)youngpeoplewereabletoclearlyarticulatethefollowingconnectionsduringinterviews:

1. Positivefeedbackandsupportfromworkingwithwriterswasseentobe“highlysignificant”inraisingself-confidence.

2. Increasedenjoymentofcreativewritingwasstronglylinkedtoincreasedself-confidence.

3. Youngpeoplewere“astuteintheirunderstanding”thatwithoutgreaterself-confidence,theywereunlikelytomakeprogressintheirwriting-theyconnectedconfidencenotonlywithattainmentandachievement,butalsowitha“deeplyheldsenseofself.”

CreativeWritinginSchools Page20

...................................................

4. Theyreflectedontheirdevelopingself-confidenceas“significant”totheirsenseofthemselvesaslearners,recognisingthattheconfidenceandprogressthattheyweredevelopinginwritingrevealedtheirpotentiallearningcapacityinotherareas.

e) OthersOthersoftskillsthathavebeenexplored(andseenasimportant)increativewritingprojectsinclude:

• Socialandinterpersonalskills(Owen,2008;EPPI,2014;LorenziandWhite,2013)• Patience,perseveranceandresilience(Joubert,2001;Cremin,2006)• Communicationskills(EPPI,2014;Ings,2009)• CriticalThinking(LorenziandWhite,2013)• Self-efficacy(Chandler,1999)

3.2Pupils’literatecommunication(andperceptionof)Apupils’abilitytocommunicatemeaningiscentraltothewritingprocess.Inthissectiontheterm‘literatecommunication’meansthetechnicalskillsthatastudentneedstoconveymeaningeffectively.Researchhasfrequentlyhighlightedaperceivedconflictbetweencreativewritinginitiativesandthe‘standardsagenda’,withsometeachers(inarangeofprojects)suggestingthattheprogrammestheyhavebeeninvolvedwithandthedaytodaybusinessoftheirschoolsarenotalwayscompatible(Horner,2010;Galton,2008;Marshetal,2009).Thisiscompoundedwhenteacherperceptionsofimprovementsinpupilliteratecommunicationarenotplayedoutinsubsequentstatutoryassessment(Safford,2003).Youngpeople’sperceptionsofwhatunderpinsliteratecommunicationarerevealedwhenstudentsareaskedtoratethemselvesonhowgoodtheyareaswriters.ClarkandDugdale(2009)reportthatthemostcommonreasonscitedbythosewhoratethemselvespositivelyare:

• Usingtheirimaginations• Knowinghowtotype• Knowinghowtospell

Whenstudentsratedthemselvespoorlyitwasbecauseof:

• Poorhandwriting• Poorspelling• Notbeinggoodatcheckingtheirwork

Thisdemonstratesthat technicalaspectsofwritingareimportanttostudents’perceptionsofthemselvesaswriters.Underscoringanapproachthatemphasisesbothcreativeandtechnicalfactorsmaythereforeincreasestudents’enjoymentofwriting.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page21

...................................................

Ofthefourlanguageskills(listening,speaking,readingandwriting),writingisthemostcomplexandmentallydemanding(Ings,2009;CreminandMyhill,2012;Kellogg,2008).Articulatingthoughts,ideasandresponsesinwritingmaybepartofthe‘standards’agendabutitisalsoabout“accessandempowerment”(Myhilletal,2013).Freire(1972)conceptualisesa‘symbioticrelationship’betweenliteracyandpowerandwritingisakeytoolinthat(Myhilletal,2013).Munden(2011)alsosuggeststhatpreciseandcreativeuseoflanguageisessentialforthemaintenanceofthecomplexintellectual,industrialanddemocraticstructuresthatsurroundus.ClarkandDugdale(2009)statethatwritingismorethanacompulsorytask:itisanessentiallifeskill.Intheliterature,thedominanttheoreticalviewofwritingatpresentisthatofa‘socialact’:“whenwewrite,weareparticipatinginasocialpractice…shapedbysocialandhistoricalunderstandingsofwhatwritingisandwhattextsshoulddo”(CreminandMyhill,2012).

CreativeWritinginSchools Page22

...................................................

3. SkillDevelopmentTheliteratureexploresawiderangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsthoughttobedevelopedthroughparticipatingincreativewriting.1 Thereislittleresearchontheimpactofcreativewritingonacademicandsoftskill

developmentincomparisontomusic,dance,dramaandvisualarts.2 Thereareahugerangeofskills,dispositionsandcharactertraitsthoughttobe

developedbyparticipatingincreativewriting,themostfrequentlyhighlightedare:• Creativity• Risktakingandproblemsolving• Metacognition• Confidence• SocialandInterpersonalskills• Patience,perseveranceandresilience• Communicationskills• CriticalThinking• Self-efficacy

3 Researchaboutcreativityiswellestablishedinrelationtochildrenandadults,butagapexistsinrelationtoadolescents(duetotheuniquecognitivedevelopmentsthoughttooccurduringthisperiod).Therefore,generalisingacrossthethreegroupsshouldbeavoided.

4 Creativepractitionershavebeenfoundtousestrategiestodevelopstudents’risktakingandself-beliefmoreeffectivelythanteachers.

5 Metacognitionisofparticularsignificanceinwritingandevenveryyoungwriterscanbehelpedtothinkaboutandreflectontheirwritingprocessesinmetacognitiveways.

6 Changesinpupilconfidencelevelsareoneofthemostcommonlyreportedimpactsofcreativewritingprogrammes,howevertherigourandrobustnessofresearchmethodologyanddatacollectioninmanystudiesisquestionable.

7 Therecanbeaperceivedtensionbetweencreativewritinginitiativesandthe‘standardsagenda’.

8 Writingisthemostcomplexandmentallydemandingofthefourlanguageskills(listening,speaking,readingandwriting).

9 Astudent’sperceptionoftheirowntechnicalwritingskilliscloselylinkedtotheirenjoymentofwriting.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page23

...................................................

4.BestPracticeandpedagogyforcreativewritingBestpracticeandpedagogyforcreativewritingwasexploredinrelationtothreemainareas:havingthetools,resourcesandqualificationforsuccess;teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewriting;andhowevidenceofbestpracticehasbeenappliedinpractice. 4.1Havingthetools,resourcesandqualificationsOfferingpupilsresourcesthataredifferentfromwhatisprovided‘everyday’forwritinginschoolswasfoundtoenhancemotivationforwriting(Marsh,2009).High-qualityresourcesand“toolboxes”havealsobeenfoundtoincreasethesustainabilityofaproject(OwenandMunden,2010;Marsh,2009).Accesstolibrariesandlibrariansmayalsobeanimportantresource.AsurveybytheSocietyofAuthors(2013)foundthat89%ofsecondaryschoolrespondents(mainlyteachingstaff)saiditwasthelibrarianwhohadresponsibilityfororganisingvisitsfromwriters.Environmentwasseentobearesourceofprimaryimportanceintheliterature,withwritingclassroomsneedingtocreate“spacefortheimagination”,“serendipitousmoments”,vibrancyandplayfulness(CreminandMyhill,2012),whilstalsobeing“safespaces”andsecurewritingenvironmentsinwhichyoungpeoplecanexperimentandtakerisks(Grainger,2005;CreminandMyhill,2012). 4.2Teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewritingCommentators,researchersandOfstedhaveallquestionedwhethertheteachingprofessionissufficientlyconfident,assuredandwellinformedaboutwritingtoteachiteffectively(CreminandMyhill,2012;Rosen,1981;Geekieetal.,1999;Andrews,2008;Horner,2010;Ofsted,2009).AsnotedinSection2.2b,teachers’ownconfidenceaswriterscannotbetakenforgranted(CreminandMyhill,2012).ThemajorityofsecondaryschoolteachersaredrawntoteachEnglishbecauseofaloveofreading(literature)orbecauseofaninspirationalEnglishteacherratherthanthroughaninterestinwriting(CreminandMyhill,2012;Peel,2000;GannonandDavies,2007).Creminsummarisestheresearchonteacherconfidenceasfollows:

• Somestudiesclaimthatwhenpractitionersdemonstrate“writerly”behaviourandsharetheirchallengesaswriters,youngerwritersbenefit(RootandSteinberg,1996;Susi,1984)

• Others,however,suggestthatteachers’perceptionsoftheimportanceofwritingandtheirfaithintheirstudents’abilityaremoresignificantindicatorsoftheirefficacythantheirinvolvementaswriters(GleesonandPrain,1996;Robbins,1996)

• Someexpressconcernthatbywritingauthentically(seebelow)teachersnotonlybecomesusceptibletoexposurebutalsoloseteachingtime(CreminandMyhill,2012)

Galton(2008)developsthisfinalpointfurther:“teachersaretaughtfromtheoutsetthattobesuccessfulyouneedtokeepyourlifeandfeelingsseparatefromyourrelationshipwiththepupils.”

CreativeWritinginSchools Page24

...................................................

a) WritingauthenticallySurveyshaverevealedthatthemajorityofteacherspre-preparewritingtobesharedormodelledathomeratherthaninfrontofaclass.Thispracticewasfoundtobeparticularlyprevalentamongstlessconfidentteachersandthosewhoexpressedlowself-esteemaswriters(Grainger,2005;CreminandMyhil,2012).Bydoingthis,teachersallowthemselves“incubation”,“preparation”and“percolation”timerarelyaffordedtotheirownpupils(Cremin,2006)andtherebyavoidthe“spontaneityandrisk”necessaryforcomposition.Asdiscussedintheprevioussection,risktakingisacentralcomponentincreativity(Sternberg,1997;Craft,2000;Joubert,2001)butitisalsoacceptedasacommoncharacteristicof“successfulliteracyteachers”whoengageartistically,experimentwithpossibilitiesandremainopentoideas,astrategywhichhasbeenfoundtobenefitlearners(WilsonandBall,1997).CreminandMyhill(2012)suggestthattoexploitthis,a“shiftinthelocusofcontrolisneeded”;wherehistoricallythefocusofteachingwritinghasbeenonthe‘product’,teachersshouldinsteadfocusonthe‘process’,fosteringan“enhancedsenseofautonomyandauthorship”intheirstudents.

b) LanguageThereisa“residualandproblematic”tendencyforteacherstoconsidercreativityandtechniqueasneedingtobeaddressedseparately(OwenandMunden,2010).Thisisalongstandingproblem.Inasearlyas1927,SirCharlesCheersWakefield(inIngs,2009)arguedthattheissuewasexacerbatedby“average”teachersbeinghappytocorrecterrorsingrammarorspelling,butgivinglittlehelptostudentswiththeprocessofcomposition.Morerecently,researchhasfoundthatitismetalinguisticknowledgeitself(theawarenessandcontrolofdifferentlinguisticcomponentsoflanguage)thatteachersfindchallenging(Myhill,2013;CreminandMyhill,2012).OwenandMunden(2010)believethatthisisimportantbecauseteachersengagingwith“highlytechnicalskills”willleadtostudentinterestincreativewriting’s“manyapplications”leavingscopefor“almostanysubjectmattertobeaddressed.”Teacherswithpoorgrammaticalknowledgeare“unabletoseelanguagedevelopmentinthewritingandspeakingoftheirownpupils”(Gordon,2005),thushamperingtheteachingofwritingbecausealackofimplicitknowledgeallowsthemtodolittlemorethanimitatethefeaturesandstyleofatext(Myhill,2013).Without“well-developedgrammaticalpedagogicalcontentknowledge”linkinggrammartopurpose,teachersattempttocommunicatehighlygeneralisedprinciplesforwritingwhicharedifficultforlearnerstooperationalisemeaningfully.Teacherswholackconfidenceinthisareahavealsobeenobservedtoquicklyclosedownconversationsinitiatedbystudentsattemptingtoaskquestionsaboutgrammaticalcontentknowledge(Myhill,2013).

CreativeWritinginSchools Page25

...................................................

Beginningteachersnowhavelowerlevelsofgrammaticalcontentknowledge(Myhill,2013),aproblemcompoundedbytrainingprovidersappearingtohavea“distinctpreferenceforteacherswhohavecomethroughtheliteraturedegreeroute”combinedwithashortageofapplicantsfromlinguisticsroutes(Blake&Shortis,2010).Asaresult,manyteachershavenoformalstudyoflanguageanddrawupon“partiallyrememberedfolklore”aboutlanguageandgrammar(Derewianka&Jones,2010).Theymaythereforefeelillequippedtocopewiththemetalinguisticdemandsofthecurriculum.Myhill(2013)notesthatteacherswithlimitedgrammaticalcontentknowledgearefrequentlyhighlycapableandprofessionalteachersofEnglish,whocouldbenefitfromaddressingtheirlimitationsinthisparticulararea.Howeverwhatseemstobemissingis“anynotionofwhatpracticalstrategiesateachercantakeifsheorhewantstoimprovetheirperformanceasateacherofwriting”(Ings,2009).

c) PoetryAsmall-scalestudyoftraineeteachers’attitudestowardspoetryfoundthatonly4.2%readpoetryonaregularbasis,andathirddidnotreaditatall(Rogers,2008).Thisisalong-standingissue,alreadyhighlightedbyOfstedin1987(DES,1987)whentheynotedthat“someEnglishteachersexpressgreatuneaseaboutteachingpoetryanditappearsthattherearefewgenuineenthusiastswhoreadpoetryextensivelythemselvesandcommunicatethatenthusiasmtopupils”–afindinghighlightedoncemoreinOfsted’s2007report(Ofsted,2007).Insecondaryschools,teachershavebeenfoundtoconcentrateonpreparingpupilsforexamsattheexpenseofteachingpoetry,andevenwhentheymustdosoatGCSE,theyrarelygiveyoungpeoplethechancetowritetheirownpoetry(Rogers,2008).TheBooktrust(2010)notesthatevenwhereteachersareenthusiasticaboutpoetry,theyfeeltheyneedmoresupporttodeveloptheirskillsandconfidenceinthearea.4.3ApplicationofbestpracticeInseekingtodefinebestpracticeinpromotingcreativewriting,theliteratureparticularlyfocusesonthefollowingareas:

a) Risktakingb) Leadershipandmanagementc) Pedagogy(including:drama;talk;self-expression;andbalancingtheteachingof

knowledgeaboutlanguageandcreativelanguageuse)d) Poetrye) Writersinschoolsf) Feedbackandeditingg) Engagingwithcommunitiesandparents

Wenowexploretheseeachinturn.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page26

...................................................

a) RisktakingAshighlightedinSection3.7,risktakingisakeyelementofthecreativewritingprocess.Bestpracticethereforeinvolves“modellingthecreativeprocessforpupilswithalltheattendantrisktakingthisinvolves”(Ofsted,2003;Grainger,2005)andrevealingthechallengesinvolvedaswritersstruggleto“expresstheinexpressible”(Ofsted,2003).

b) LeadershipandmanagementInthefinalevaluationofthe‘EverybodyWrites’project,Marshetal(2009)suggestthatwhereleadershipandmanagementwaseffective:

- Therewasstrongmanagementaswellasclearaimsandthoroughpreparationandplanning,includingleadersplanningforsustainability

- Leadersmadelinksbetweentheprojectandtheschool’sdevelopmentplanandseniormanagementwereinvolved,drivingforwardawholeschoolapproach

- Leadersemphasisedtherelationshipbetweentalkandwritingaswellasreadingandwritingandencouragedaflexibleapproachtopedagogywithafocusoncreativity

- Leadersprovidedopportunitiesforstafftoengageinprofessionaldevelopmentandbuiltlinkswithexternalproviders,engagingexternalexpertisewherepossible

- Leaderscultivatedawholeschoolenthusiasmandexcitementaboutwritingprojects

c) Pedagogy

i. DramaTheuseofdramaasapre-writingactivityhasbeenhighlightedasafeatureofbestpracticeincreativewriting(Creminetal,2006;Cremin,2006;Grainger,2004).Studentconcentrationandabilitytofocusandfollowthroughontheirwrittenworkwasfoundtobepositivelyaffectedbytheirinvolvementinimprovisationaldrama(Creminetal.,2006),while“steppingintorole”(involvingtension,emotionalengagementandasenseofperspective)createdwritingthatwasauthentic,detailed,emotiveandempathetic,andmoreeffectivelycapturedthereaders’interestthroughaheightenedsenseofaudience(Creminetal.2006;Grainger2004;Cremin2006).ii. Talk

Oralrehearsalandreflectionaspre-writingactivitieshelpyoungwriterstobecomemoreawareoftheirwrittentextandhowtotalkaboutit(Fisheretal.,2010;MyhillandJones,2009).Usingtalktogenerateideasisthemostcommonuseoftalkinwritingclassrooms(Cremin,2006),butforstudentsstrugglingtowrite,talkonthe“assemblinganddevelopmentofideas”canalsobevaluable(Ings,2009).Forwriterstoo,oralrehearsalisseenasavaluableexperience:PhilipPullman(1999)notesthatasawriter,workinginschoolsofferedhimthechancetorefinehisskillsthrough

CreativeWritinginSchools Page27

...................................................

repeatedlyretellingtalesandembellishingandpolishinghiswriter’svoiceintheprocess(Cremin,2012).iii. Selfexpression

Duringthe‘WritingtheGame’programme,teachersobservedhighlevelsofengagementwithwritingfromstudentswhowereusuallyreluctantwriters.Studentssuggestedthiswasbecausetheyweregiventheopportunityto“[write]fromtheheart”(Murphy,2015).Galton(2008)suggeststhatoneofthemostsuccessfulelementsofacreativepractitionervisittoaschoolisthattheyarecomfortableexpressingtheirownfeelingsinawayinwhichteachersgenerallyarenot,thusconveyingthemessagetopupilsthat“talkofthiskindisacceptablecurrencyamongthegroup.”EmigandBritton(inCreminandMyhill,2012)alsoarguethattransactionalwriting(i.e.writingintendedtocommunicateideasandinformation,suchaslettersandspeechesandjobapplications)canonlydevelopeffectivelywhenwritersareallowedtowriteexpressivelyaspartofthelearningprocess.

iv. BalancingteachingofknowledgeaboutlanguageandcreativelanguageuseAbalancebetweenteaching‘knowledgeaboutlanguage’andteaching‘creativelanguageuse’needstobestruckwhenhelpingstudentsfindtheirauthorialvoice(CreminandMyhill,2012;Graingeretal.,2003;Grainger,2005).However,Boden(2001)warnsthatthesearenottwoopposingforcesbut“twosidesofthesamepsychologicalcoin.”Cremin(2006)suggeststhatthisbalancecanbefoundwhenteacherssetwritingtargetsthatrelatetoboth“punctuationandspelling”(forexample)aswellastargetswhichfocusonmakinganimpactonthereader(suchaswritingtoamuse,persuadeorshock).Inthisway,childrencanberecognisedas“authors,communicatorsandmeaningmakers”(Cremin,2006).Cremin(2009)suggeststhata“creativeapproachtoteachingliteracy”ishighlymotivatingandenablesteacherstomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheirpractice.Shesuggeststhatthereshouldbeeightstrandstothisapproach:

1. Profilingmeaningandpurpose;2. Usingrichtexts(singleandmulti-model)asinspirationforwriting,especially

thosethatbridgethegapbetweenachild’sown‘culturalcapital’andthatoftheschool;

3. Fosteringplayandengagement;4. Harnessingcuriosityandexploringandprofilingstudentagency;5. Encouragingcollaborationandmakingconnections;6. Integratingreflection,review,feedbackandcelebration;7. Allowingtimeforstudentstoexploreandengagewiththework(or“travel”),

and;8. Ensuringtheteacheriscreativelyinvolved.

d) Poetry

TheBooktrust(2010)exploredhowthebestschoolsteachpoetryandemphasisedtheimportanceof:

• Workingeffectivelywithpoets• Encouragingpupilstocontributetocompetitions,localfestivalsandschool

readinggroups

CreativeWritinginSchools Page28

...................................................

• Effectivesubjectleadership

e) WritersinschoolsWritersinschoolsareanimportantaspectofbestpracticeincreativewritingprogrammesbecauseyoungpeopledonototherwisegenerallyencounterpeoplewhosemainjobandsourceofincomeiswriting(Horner,2010).Exposuretoawriterprovidespupilswithsomethingneworunfamiliar(Owen,2008)andevaluationsofprojectsshowthatbringing“schoolwritingclosertothesocialworld”helpsyoungpeople,particularlythosewhoaredisaffected,seethepointofwriting(Horner,2010).Furthermore,introducinganexternalvisitorwithoutanypreconceptionsaboutindividualstudentsandwhoseauthorityisbasedonexpertiseinanartformratherthaninstitutionalauthorityallowswriterstoengagewithstudentsindifferentways(CreminandMyhill,2012).Motionalsoarguesthathearingwritersreadtheirownworkintheir“ownaccentandidiom”canbe“enlightening”(Booktrust,2010). However,Owen(2010)suggeststhattobe“ofuse”writersmustalsobeof“practicalbenefit”,addingawordofcautionabouttheconceptofthewriterinschoolasa“rolemodel”forchildren:“webesttakecare…whichattributesarebeingrolemodelled:transience,impermanenceandsolitudewouldnotratehighlyonmanyteachers’orparents’lists.”Healsonotesthatchildrencansometimesbecome“quitedistressedatthepressurestheyfelt,”leadingthemtosubsequentlywithdrawfromactivitiestheywereparticipatingin.WeturntohowteachersandwritersworktogethermosteffectivelyinSection5.

f) FeedbackandeditingStudentswhoparticipateincreativewritingprogrammesfrequentlysaythatthefeedbackthattheyreceivedontheirworkdevelopedtheirenjoymentofcreativewritingandincreasedtheirachievement(Murphy,2015).However,Wilson(2009)foundthatmanyteacherswerereluctanttoassessortocommentcriticallyonchildren’screativewriting(particularlyinregardstopoetry).Partofthechallengehereisthatjudgementisessentialtothecreativeprocessandcreativeoutcomes,andallcreativeendeavours“requiremasteryofthetoolsofthetradeandthenecessaryskillstoenablecreativeactivitytoflourish”(CreminandMyhill,2012). Teachers’confidenceinmakingsuchjudgementsthereforeunderpinstheirabilitytoprovidethefeedbackandeditingneededtodeveloppupils’creativewriting.Studentsthemselvesalsoneedtobeexplicitlytaughthowtoevaluateandedittheirwriting,sincenovicewritersfrequentlyfindthischallenging,believingthattheeditingprocessisoneof‘addition’(addingin‘wow’wordsandmoreinterestingpunctuation)ratherthanoneof‘subtraction’(takingthe“designer’sknife”(CreminandMyhill,2012)totheirownwork).

g) Engagingwiththecommunity/parents

Successfulwritingresidenciestendtoinvolvebuildingupmultipleandoverlappinglinksacrosssubjects,andyeargroupsandacrosstheschoolandcommunity.However,this

CreativeWritinginSchools Page29

...................................................

processfrequentlyproducesnewandunexpectedoutcomesandsurprises(OwenandMunden,2010):CapeUK(2010)foundthatasaresultofchildren’senthusiasmforcreativeprojects,schoolsfoundimprovementsinparentalengagement-evenwherethishadbeenlimitedinthepast.Thiswasconsideredaconsequenceofchildrentakingtheircreativeprojectworkhome.Inthecaseofthe‘ClassWriting’project(OwenandMunden,2010),subjectteachers’refusaltoallowpupilstoleavetheirlessonstoparticipateintheprojectmeantthattheprogrammewasincreasinglydeliveredatweekendsandoutsideofthemainschooltimetable.Thishadtheunexpectedbenefitofpromotinglinkswiththewiderschoolcommunity.SQW(2012)suggeststhatoverthecourseofthe‘WriteMinded’programme,lowlevelsofparentalinvolvementinchildren’slearningcontributedtothechallengeofsustaininglanguagedevelopmentandliteracyprogress.

4. Bestpractice/pedagogyforcreativewritingWehaveexploredbestpracticeandpedagogyforcreativewritinginrelationtothreemainareas:havingthetools,resourcesandqualificationforsuccess;teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewriting;andhowevidenceofbestpracticehasbeenappliedinpractice.1 Thequalityofthestudentwritingenvironment(forexample,theclassroominwhich

theywrite)isbelievedtobeofprimaryimportance.2 Libraries,andlibrariansareanimportantresourceforschools.3 Teachers’confidenceindeliveringcreativewritingisakeyfeatureofsuccessful

programmes.Teachershavefrequentdifficultiesinthefollowingareas:• Writingauthenticallyandunderstandingthatrisktakingisacentral

componentincreativity• Aproblematictendencyforteacherstoconsidercreativityandtechnique

separately• Poetry

4 Theliteratureparticularlyhighlightsgoodpracticeinrelationto:• Developingstudents’risktaking• Leadershipandmanagementofprojects• Pedagogy(including:drama;talk;self-expression;andknowledgeabout

language)• Teachingpoetry• Writersworkinginschoolsandeducationsettings• Provisionoffeedbackonwritinganddevelopingstudents’editingskills• Engagingwithcommunitiesandparents

CreativeWritinginSchools Page30

...................................................

5.NetworksEffectivepartnershipsandnetworksareoftenessentialtoaproject’ssuccess.5.1ReachWritersinschoolscanbecatalystsfortheformationofnewnetworks(OwenandMunden,2010).Thisisespeciallythecasewhenwritersworkcollegiallywithschoolstaffandshareacommonphilosophy(AinscowandWest,2006).Intheliterature,networksarecharacterisedasencompassingvaryingdegreesofreach:betweenwritersandteachers;wholeschoolstaff;students;parentsandthewidercommunity.5.2BarriersandenablerstopartnershipworkingTheliteraturesuggeststhateffectivepartnershipsbetweenorganisationsdependonfivemainfactors:

1. Time:partnersneedtoinvesttimeinestablishingtheirrelationships;findingcommonelementsintheirpracticeandbeingopenaboutthe“principlesthatgoverntheirapproach”(Galton,2008).

2. Seniorityofstaffing:whererelationshipsaredelegatedtorelativelyjuniormembersofstaff,‘buyin’and‘signoff’canbedifficultandthisfrequentlywastestime.Schoolsthereforeneedtoengageataseniormanagementlevel(Galton,2008).

3. ProjectManagement:Inordertokeepprojectsontrack,Marsh(2009)highlightstheneedforexpertprojectmanagerswhoareabletocommunicateeffectivelywithschools,writersandotherpartners.

4. Geographicallocation:notonlyisitdifficulttosupportteachersatageographicalremove(OwenandMunden,2010),butthedevelopmentoflinkswiththewidercommunityisalsoseenasimportant(Marsh,2009).

5. Brokering:Writingagenciesandliteratureorganisationscanactasvaluablebrokersbetweenwritersandschoolspartlybecausetheseorganisationsareoftenveryinfluentialwithwritersthemselves(Horner,2010).

Evenwhenjointworkingiswellestablished,however,thereremainsariskthathardworkcanbeundonewhenkeystaffmembersmoveon,orschoolprioritieschange.Strongpartnershipsandnetworksaremostlikelytodevelopwhentheyinvolve“receptiveteachers”(Galton,2008).Targetingsuchteachersinthefirstinstancecouldthereforebeanimportantenabler,allowingenthusiaststoactasmodelsandcatalysts.Involvingthemosteffectivecreativepractitionerswho“[recognise]theconstraintsthatexistinschools”isalsoimportant(Galton,2008).Barrierstopartnershipcanariseasaresulteitherofschools’actions,writers’actionsoramismatchbetweenthetwo.Twoschooldrivenfactorsareparticularlysalient:

1. Delegationofteachers’roletothevisitingpractitioner,leadingtolittleinvolvementfromtheteacherwhopositionsthemselves“tooneside”(Galton,2008;RossandKamba,1997;Horner,2010).

CreativeWritinginSchools Page31

...................................................

2. Teachersfeeling“toostrainedbycurriculumpressures”andlackingtheconfidenceortrusttobuyintothevisitingpractitioner’smethods(CreminandMyhill,2012).

Inaddition,TheSocietyofAuthors(2013)highlightsthefollowingchallengesfacedbyschoolstaffthemselveswhentryingtoconvincetheirschoolstoengageawriter:

• Cost• Resistanceto‘takingpupilsawayfromlessons’• Holdingpre-conceptionsaboutstudents’willingnesstoparticipateandlikelihoodof

success• Time-tablingandlogisticalissuesdrivenbyanemphasisonexams• Staffindifference

Writerscancreatebarrierstopartnershiptoo,particularlywhentheyresistlonger-termresidenciesandadvocatea“singlevisit”approach(RossandKamba,1997).Furthermore,RossandKambasuggestthatmanywritersarereluctanttojoinmoreformalnetworksortoreceivemoreformaltraining(ibid).Finally,barrierstopartnershipworkingcanalsoariseduetomismatchinvaluesandpractices,whichresultsinalackofcommonpurpose.WeexplorethisissueinmoredetailinSection6.1.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page32

...................................................

5. NetworksEffectivepartnershipsandnetworksareessentialtoaproject’ssuccess.Thekeyfindingsfromtheliteraturearesummarisedbelow:1 Themosteffectivepartnershipstendtobedevelopedbymorereceptiveteachers,

andcreativepractitionerswhounderstandtheconstraintsfacedbyschools.2 Effectiveselectionofreceptivestaffforparticipationinprojectscancatalysewider

participationandenthusiasmforaproject.3 Jointworkingoftenlackscommonpurposeduetodifferingpriorities.4 Severalbarrierstobuildingnetworksarehighlightedintheliterature,relatingto

differentpartners:

Teacherscanhinderthecreationofeffectivenetworksby:o Delegatingtheroleof‘theteacher’toavisitingpractitionero Feelingconstrainedbythecurriculumandlackingsufficient

confidenceortrusttobuyintoavisitingpractitioner’smethodso Refusingstudentstheopportunitytoleavetheirlessonstoparticipate

inprogrammes

Writerscanhinderthecreationofeffectivenetworksbybeingreluctantto:o Initiatinglonger-termresidencieso Joiningformalnetworkso Receivingmoreformaltraining

Additionally,schoolsthemselvescancreatebarriersasaresultof:o Concernsaboutcosto Holdingpre-conceptionsaboutstudents’willingnesstoparticipateand

likelihoodofsuccesso Time-tablingandlogisticalissuesexacerbatedbyanexam-focused

systemo Perceivedindifferenceamongststaff

5 Itcanbeparticularlychallengingtoreachouttofamiliesandwidercommunities

alienatedby,orisolatedfromlearning.6 Thefollowingareasareofkeyimportanceinensuringaproject’ssuccess:

• Timegiventodevelopingrelationships• Qualityandexperienceofstaffassignedtoprojects• Overallprojectmanagementresponsibilities• Geographicallocationandreach• Brokeringpartnerships

CreativeWritinginSchools Page33

...................................................

6.ValuingCreativeWritingThevaluethatschools,teachersandthewidercommunityplaceoncreativewritingisofprimeimportancetothesuccessandsustainabilityofcreativewritingprojects.6.1SharedvaluesandapproachesSchoolscanneedpersuadingthatcreativewritingprojectsare“somethingworthdoing”and,evenschoolswithanappetiteforsuchprojectsoftenexpressaconcernaboutsuchprogrammesbeing“adistractionfromthemainendeavour:academicresults”(OwenandMunden,2010).Afailuretovaluecreativewritingcanthereforeactasaserioushindrancetothedevelopmentofcreativewritingprojects.AsnotedinSection3,thiscanpartlyresultfromaperceivedtensionbetweencreativityandtechniqueamongstteachers(Horner,2010).AsnotedinSection5.2,establishingcommonprioritiesandexpectationsisacrucialfoundationforpartnership.This“mutualmisunderstanding”(Horner,2010)canresultin:

• Issuesofownershipandresponsibility(i.e.whoisresponsibleifthingsgorightorwrong?)

• Perceivedappropriatenessofmaterial• Pre-conceptionsofoneanother’sroles(eg.writer/teacher)(Thomasetal,2006;

CreminandMyhill,2012)

OwenandMunden(2010)citeoneexampleinwhichaschooljoinedthe‘ClassWriting’projectfor“publicitypurposes.”Thismadecollaborativeworkingimpossibleduetoalackofsharedpurpose(OwenandMunden,2010).Schoolsalsofrequentlyplaceparticularvalueonhavingan“outcomeforpublicconsumption”(Galton,2008)–avaluenotalwayssharedbycreativepractitioners,whomayfindthatitrestrictstheirworkandunderminessomeoftheirpedagogicalapproachesandprinciples.AccordingtoRogers(2008),teachertraining,carefulpreparationand“greaterunderstandingandaccommodationofeachother’sneedsandpriorities”canallplayaroleinovercomingthesedifficultiesandinbuildingsharedvalues,expectationsandpractices.6.2AdvocacyandpublicvalueDespiteconcernsaboutwritingstandardsinschoolsdeclining,ClarkandDugdale(2009)arguethatthestatusofwritinghasundergoneaculturalchangeoverthepastdecadewithauthorsbecomingcelebritiesandcelebritiesbecomingauthors.This‘celebritisation’ofwritinghaschangedthewaymanyyoungpeopleviewwriting(ClarkandDugdale,2009).However,CreminandMyhill(2012)arguethatthishasfailedtoresultinsufficientattentionbeinggiventotheteachingandlearningofwritingspecifically-mainlyduetosuccessivegovernment’sviewingcreativewritingas“littlemorethananunproblematicsetoftechnicalskills.”Furthermore,HetlandandWinner(2001)arguethatartseducatorsneedtoavoidallowingartssubjectstobejustifiedwholly(orprimarily)intermsofwhattheycanofferacademically.Insteadtheyarguethat“theartsmustbejustifiedintermsofwhattheartscanteachthatnoothersubjectcanteach.”

CreativeWritinginSchools Page34

...................................................

Therethereforeremainssignificantscopefortheadvocacyofcreativewritingeducationinordertoarticulateamorenuancedconceptionofwhatitinvolves,whyitisvaluableandthat“inspirationdoesnothavetobeattheexpenseofstandards”(Horner,2010).

6. ValuingCreativeWriting Thevaluethatschools,teachersandthewidercommunityplaceoncreativewritingisofprimeimportancetothesuccessandsustainabilityofcreativewritingprojects.1 Theperceivedoppositionbetweencreativityandtechniqueisanimportantbarrierto

schoolsandteachersvaluingcreativewriting.2 Teachers’ownvalues(forexample,relatingtotheimportanceofgrammarand

differentpedagogicalapproaches)influencetheirteachingofwriting.3 Manyteachersplacelowvalueonteachingpoetryandteacherattitudestowards

poetryitselfplayanimportantroleinthis.4 Schoolsvaluehavingan“outcomeforpublicconsumption”fromaproject,butthisis

notalwayssharedbycreativepartners.5 The‘celebritisation’ofwritinghaschangedthewaymanyyoungpeopleviewwriting,

yetwhilstthishasensuredliteracyhasremainedhighprofile,insufficientattentionhasbeengiventotheteachingandlearningofwritingspecifically.

6 Artseducatorsandcreativepractitionersneedtoavoidallowingartssubjectstobejustifiedwholly(orprimarily)intermsofwhattheycanofferacademically.

7 Moreeffortneedstobeinvestedinensuringthatteachers,schoolsandthewiderpublicunderstandthat“inspirationdoesnothavetobeattheexpenseofstandards”

CreativeWritinginSchools Page35

...................................................

Possibleimplicationsforevaluation:

1. Creativityandtechniqueshouldnotbeconsideredseparatelybutasmutuallyreinforcingelementsofwriting.

2. Theextenttowhichaprojectleadstoanactualchangeinpracticeonthebehalfofteachersisofprimeimportance.

3. Evaluatingprogressinskillssuchas‘creativity’and‘self-confidence’iscomplexanddemandswell-designedtoolsthatneedtobeadministeredinarigorousandrobustway.

4. Thequalityofpartnershipsandjointworkingmethodsthatunderpinaprojectareparamounttoitssuccess.

5. Projectsshouldbeevaluatedfortheirwiderimpactontheschoolcommunity,notjustonthedirectparticipants.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page36

...................................................

ReferencesAinscow,M.andWest,M.(Eds.)2006.ImprovingUrbanSchools:LeadershipandCollaboration.London:OpenUniversityPressAndrews,R.2008.ShiftingWritingPracticeinDCSF.GettingGoing:generating,shapinganddevelopingideasinwriting:4–21.Nottingham:DCSF.Baikie,K.,andWilhelm,K.2005.Emotionalandphysicalhealthbenefitsofexpressivewriting.AdvancesinPsychiatricTreatment,volume11,pp.338–346.Banaji,S.andBurn,A.2007.RhetoricsofCreativity:AReviewoftheLiterature.London:CreativePartnershipsandArtsCouncilEngland.Beghetto,R.2005.Doesassessmentkillstudentcreativity?TheEducationalForumVol.69,pp.254-263Bereiter,C.andScardamalia,M.1987.ThePsychologyofWrittenComposition.Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceBlake,J.,andShortis,T.2010.Who’spreparedtoteachschoolEnglish?London:CLIE.Boden,M.2004.Thecreativemind:Mythsandmechanisms.London:RoutledgeBooktrust.2010.TheMotionReport:Poetryandyoungpeople.London:TheBooktrust.BooktrustandtheNationalLiteracyTrust.2011.EverybodyWrites:Exploringwritingbeyondtheclassroom,Finalevaluationreport.[Online]London:Booktrust.[Accessedon21June2016].Availablefrom:http://fileserver.booktrust.org.uk/usr/resources/552/everybody-writes-final-evaluation-report-march-2011.pdfBoscolo,P.andGelati,C.2007.Bestpracticesinpromotingmotivationforwriting.InS.Graham,C.MacArthurandJ.Fitzgerald(eds.),BestPracticesinWritingInstruction:pp.202–221.NewYork:GuilfordPress.Bruner,J.1979.OnKnowing:EssaysfortheLeftHand.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.

CapeUK.2010.TowardsCreativeandCulturalDevelopment,reportsfromthefrontline.[Online].Leeds:CapeUK.[Accessed21July2016].Availablefrom:http://www.capeuk.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Cape-TCCD-Low-Res.pdfChandler,GE.1999.ACreativeWritingProgramtoEnhanceSelf-EsteemandSelf-EfficacyinAdolescents.JournalOfChild&AdolescentPsychiatricNursing,12,(2):pp.70-78.Chandler,GE.2002.AnEvaluationOfCollegeandLow-IncomeYouthWritingTogether:Self-DiscoveryandCulturalConnectionIssues.ComprehensivePediatricNursing.25:pp.255–269.Clark,C.andAkerman,R.(2006).Socialinclusionandreading:Anexploration.London:NationalLiteracyTrust.Clark,C.andDugdale,G.(2009).Youngpeople’swriting,attitudes,behaviorandtheroleoftechnology.London:NationalLiteracyTrust.Claxton,A.F.,Pannells,T.C.,&Rhoads,P.A.2005.Developmentaltrendsinthecreativityofschool-agechildren.CreativityResearchJournal,17(4),pp.327–335.Craft,A.2000.CreativityacrosstheCurriculum.London:RoutledgeCraft,A.2005.Creativityinschools:Tensionsanddilemmas.PaperpresentedatCreativity;UsingitWisely?.ESRCcreativityineducationseminarseries,UniversityofCambridge.Cremin,T.2006.Creativity,uncertaintyanddiscomfort:teachersaswriters.CambridgeJournalofEducation,36(3).Pp.415-433.Cremin,T.,Goouch,K.,Blakemore,L.,Goff,E.andMacdonald,R.2006.Connectingdramaandwriting:Seizingthemomenttowrite.ResearchinDramainEducation,11(3):273–91Cremin,T.2009.TeachingEnglishCreatively.London:RoutledgeCremin,T.andBaker,S.2010.Exploringteacher–writeridentitiesintheclassroom:Conceptualisingthestruggle.EnglishTeaching:PracticeandCritique,9(3):pp8–25.

CreativeWritinginSchools Page37

...................................................

Cremin,T.,andMyhill,D.2012.WritingVoices,creatingcommunitiesofwriters.Oxon:RoutledgeDerewianka,B.,andJones,P.2010.Fromtraditionalgrammartofunctionalgrammar:bridgingthedivide.SpecialIssueofNALDICQuarterly,Reading:pp.6-15DepartmentofEducationandScience(DES).1975.ALanguageforLife(TheBullockReport).London:HMSODepartmentofEducationandScience(DES).1987.TeachingPoetryintheSecondarySchool:anHMIview.London:HMSOEPPI-Centre.2014.Theimpactofyoungpeople’sparticipationinstructuredartsactivitiesontheirlearningoutcomes:Asystematicreview.London:InstituteofEducation.Feldman,D.,andBenjamin,A.2006.Creativityandeducation:AnAmericanretrospective.CambridgeJournalofEducation36,319-336Fisher,R.,Jones,S.,Larkin,S.andMyhill,D.2010.UsingTalktoSupportWriting.London:SAGEFreire,P.1972.PedagogyoftheOppressed(trans.MyraBergmanRamon).Harmondsworth:PenguinGalton,M.2008.CreativePractitionersinschoolsandclassrooms–Finalreportoftheproject:ThePedagogyofCreativePractitionersinSchools.UniversityofCambridge:ArtsCouncilEngland.Gannon,G.andDavies,C.2007.Fortheloveoftheword:Englishteaching,affectandwriting.ChangingEnglish,14(1):pp.87–98.Geekie,P.,Cambourne,B.andFitzsimmons,P.1999.UnderstandingLiteracyDevelopment.StokeonTrent:TrenthamGleeson,A.andPrain,V.1996.Shouldteachersofwritingthemselves?AnAustraliancontributiontothedebate.EnglishJournal,85:pp.42–49Grainger,T.,Goouch,K.andLambirth,A.2003.‘Playingthegamecalledwriting:children’sviewsandvoices’,EnglishinEducation.37(2).pp4–15.Grainger,T.2004.‘Introduction:travellingacrosstheterrain’,inT.Grainger(ed.)TheRoutledgeFalmerReaderinLanguageandLiteracy,London:RoutledgeFalmer,pp.1-16

Grainger,T.2005.Teachersaswriters:learningtogether.EnglishinEducation,39(1),pp.75–87.Goouch,K.,Cremin,T.andLambirth,A.2009.WritingisPrimary,finalresearchreport.London:EsméeFairbairnFoundationGordon,E.2005.GrammarinNewZealandSchools:TwoCaseStudies.EnglishTeaching:PracticeandCritique4(3):pp48-68.Harland,J.,Lynn,L.andSainsbury,M.2014.InitialEvaluationoftheImpactofBigWriting.Slough:NFER.Hetland,L.,andWinner,E.2001.TheArtsandAcademicAchievement:Whattheevidenceshows.ArtsEducationPolicyReview,102:5,pp.3-6Horner,S.2010.TheMagicDustthatLasts:Writersinschools–sustainingthemomentum.London:ArtsCouncilEngland.Howell,B.2008.Literacy,subjectivityandthegenderdivide:thefreedomofwritingimpliesthefreedomofthecitize’(Sartre,1948).GenderandEducation,20(5):pp.511-525.Ings,R.2009.WritingisPrimary:ActionResearchontheTeachingofWritinginPrimarySchools.London:EsméeFairbairnFoundation.Jacobs,G.M.2004.Aclassroominvestigationofthegrowthofmetacognitiveawarenessinkindergartenchildrenthroughthewritingprocess.EarlyChildhoodEducationJournal,32(1):17–23.Joubert,M.2001.TheArtofCreativeTeaching:NACCCEandbeyond.InA.Craft,B.Jeffrey&M.Liebling(eds)CreativityinEducation(London,Continuum),pp.17-34Kaufman,J.C.,andBegehtto,R.A.2009.Beyondbigandlittle:Thefourcmodelofcreativity.ReviewofGeneralPsychology13:pp.1-12.Kellogg,R.T.2008.Trainingwritingskills:Acognitivedevelopmentalperspective.JournalofWritingResearch,1(1):pp.1–26.Lassig,CJ.2013.Approachestocreativity:Howadolescentsengageinthecreativeprocess.ThinkingSkillsandCreativity(10):pp3–12.Lorenzi,F.,andWhite,I.2013.EvaluationoftheFightingWordscreativewritingmodel.Dublin:CREA

CreativeWritinginSchools Page38

...................................................

Marsh,J.,Nash,T.,Stirling,E.andDomaille,K.2009.Evaluationof‘EverybodyWrites’:PhasesThreeandFour.Sheffield:UniversityofSheffield.Martlew,M.1983.Problemsanddifficulties:Cognitiveandcommunicativeaspectsofwriting.InM.Martlew(ed.),ThePsychologyofWrittenLanguage.NewYork:Wiley&Sons.Moffett,J.1968.TeachingtheUniverseofDiscourse.Boston,MA:HoughtonMifflinMunden,P.2011.SharingtheArt,CraftandImagination:TheNationalAssociationofWritersinEducation.NewWriting,8(3),pp.215-237Murphy,C.(2015).WritingtheGame,Evaluation2013-2015.[Online].Newcastle:NorthumbriaUniversity.[Accessed21June2016].Availablefrom:http://www.arvon.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Writing-the-Game-Evaluation-Report-2013-15.pdfMyhill,D.2005.Writingcreatively.InA.Wilson(ed.)CreativityinPrimaryEducation,Exeter:LearningMatters,pp.58-69.Myhill,D.,Fisher,R.,Jones,S.,Lines,H.,andHicks,A.2008.EffectiveWaysofTeachingComplexExpressioninWriting,ALiteratureReviewofEvidencefromtheSecondarySchoolPhase.London:DCSFMyhill,D.,Jones,S.,andWatson,A.2013.Grammarmatters:Howteachers’grammaticalknowledgeimpactsontheteachingofwriting.TeachingandTeacherEducation,36:pp.77-91NationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCreativeandCulturalEducation(NACCCE).1999.Allourfutures:Creativity,cultureandeducation.ReporttotheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCreativeandCulturalEducation.London:NationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCreativeandCulturalEducation.NationalLiteracyTrust.2015.StateoftheNationandImpactReport.[Online].London:NationalLiteracyTrust.[Accessed21June2016].Availablefrom:http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/assets/0002/8399/National_Literacy_Trust_-_Impact_Report_2014-15.pdfNicolini,M.1994.StoriesCanSaveUs:ADefenseofNarrativeWritingAuthor(s).TheEnglishJournal,Vol.83(2):pp.56-61

Ofsted.2003.ExpectingtheUnexpected:developingcreativityinprimaryandsecondaryschools.London:HMI.Ofsted.2006.CreativePartnerships:initiativeandimpact.London:HMIOfsted.2007.PoetryinSchools:asurveyofpractice.London:HMIOfsted.2009.EnglishattheCrossroads.London:HMIOwen,N.2008.Iwanttobethefirstwhisperheardbyadeafman.In:TheBritishEducationalResearchAssociationAnnualConference,3-6thSeptember2008,HeriotWattUniversity,Edinburgh.Edinburgh:BERAOwen,N.,andMunden,P.2010.ClassWriting,ANAWEResearchReportintotheWriters-in-SchoolsEcology.York:NAWEPackwood,A.,andMessenheimer,T.2003.‘Backtothefuture:developingchildrenaswriters’,inE.Bearne,H.Dombey&T.Grainger(eds)ClassroomInteractionsinLiteracy(Buckingham,OpenUniversityPress)pp.144-156.Peel,R.2000.Beliefsabout‘English’inEngland.InR.Peel,A.PattersonandJ.Gerlach(eds.),QuestionsofEnglish:Ethics,Aesthetics,RhetoricandtheFormationoftheSubjectinEngland,AustraliaandtheUnitedStates:116–88.London:Routledge/Falmer.Piffer,D.2012.Cancreativitybemeasured?Anattempttoclarifythenotionofcreativityandgeneraldirectionsforfutureresearch.ThinkingSkillsandCreativity(7):pp.258–264.Pullman,P.1999.TalkingBooks:Children’sAuthorsTalkAbouttheCraft,CreativityandProcessofWriting:inCarter,J.pp.178–95.LondonandNewYork:RoutledgeRhodes,M.1961.Ananalysisofcreativity.PhiDeltaKappan,42:pp.305–310.Robbins,B.W.1996.Teachersaswriters:Tensionsbetweentheoryandpractice.JournalofTeachingWriting,15(1):107–28RobertsJ.,andEady,S.2012.Enhancingthequalityoflearning:whatarethebenefitsofamixedage,collaborativeapproachtocreativenarrativewriting?.InternationalJournalofPrimary,

CreativeWritinginSchools Page39

...................................................

ElementaryandEarlyYearsEducation,40(2):pp.205-216.Robinson,K.2001.OutofOurMinds.London:Capstone.Rogers,R.2008.Mappingpoetry:Areviewofthecurrentpoetrylandscape.London:NESTARoot,R,.andSteinberg,M.(eds.)1996.ThoseWhoDo,Can:TeachersWriting,WritersTeaching.Urbana,IL:NCTERosen,B.1981.AndNoneofitWasNonsense:ThePowerofStorytellinginSchool.London:BodleyHeadRoss,M.,andKamba,M.1997.StateoftheArts.UniversityofExeter:SchoolofEducationRothenberg,A.1990.Creativityinadolescence.Psychopathology,Normality,andCreativity,13(3):pp.415–434Runco,M.A.1999.Tension,adaptabilityandcreativity.InS.W.Russ(ed)Affect,CreativeExperienceandPsychologicalAdjustment(Philadelphia,Brumner/Mazel),165-194Runco,M.A.2003.Educationforcreativepotential.ScandinavianJournalofEducationalResearch,47(3),pp.317–324.Safford,K.,O’Sullivan,O.,andBarrsM.2003.Effectiveteachingtopromoteboys’literacylearningandachievement.London:CentreforLiteracyinPrimaryEducation.Shaheen,R.2010.CreativityandEducation.CreativeEducation,1(3):pp166-169Simonton,D.K.1990.History,chemistry,psychology,andgenius:Anintellectualautobiographyofhistoriometry.InM.A.Runco,&R.S.Albert(Eds.),Theoriesofcreativity(pp.92–115).NewburyPark,CA:SAGEPublications.Simonton,D.K.1995.Exceptionalpersonalinfluence:Anintegrativeparadigm.CreativityResearchJournal,8(4),371–376.SocietyofAuthors.2013.AuthorVisitsinPrimaryandSecondarySchools.[Online].London:TheSocietyofAuthors.[Accessed21June2016].Availablefrom:http://www.societyofauthors.org/sites/default/file

s/Author%20Visit%20Survey%20compressed%2023%20October_0.pdfSQW.2012.EvaluationofWrite-Minded:Asharedarea-basedliteracystrategy.SummaryReport.London:SQWSternberg,R.1997.SuccessfulIntelligence.NewYork:PlumeSternberg,R.J.,andLubart,T.1999.Theconceptofcreativity:Prospectsandparadigms.InR.J.Sternberg(Ed.),Handbookofcreativity(pp.3–15).Cambridge,UnitedKingdom:CambridgeUniversityPressSusi,G.1984.Theteacher/writer:Model,learner,humanbeing.LanguagesArts,61(4):pp.712–16Thomson,P.,Hall,C.andRussell,L.2006.Anartsprojectfailed,censoredor...?Acriticalincidentapproachtoartist–schoolpartnerships.ChangingEnglish,13(1):29–44Treffinger,D.2003.Assessmentandmeasurementincreativityandcreativeproblemsolving.InC.Houtz(Ed.),Theeducationalpsychologyofcreativity(pp.59–93).Cresskill,NJ:HamptonPressVygotsky,L.2004(translation).Imaginationandcreativityinchildhood.JournalofRussian&EastEuropeanPsychology,42(1):pp.7–97.Weinstein,S.2010."Aunifiedpoetalliance":Thepersonalandsocialoutcomesofyouthspokenwordpoetryprogramming.InternationalJournalofEducation&theArts,11(2)Wilson,S.andBall,D.L.1997.Helpingteachersmeetthestandards:newchallengesforteachereducators.TheElementarySchoolJournal,97:pp.121–38Wilson,A.2009.Creativityandconstraint:Developingasawriterofpoetry.InR.Beard,D.Myhill,J.RileyandM.Nystrand(eds.),TheSAGEHandbookofWritingDevelopment:387–401.London:SAGEWright,J.2002.Onlinecounselling:Learningfromwritingtherapy.BritishJournalofGuidance&Counselling,30(3):pp285-298Yeo,M.2007.Newliteracies,alternativetexts:teacherconceptualisationsofliteracyandcomposition.EnglishTeaching:PracticeandCritique,6(1):pp.113-131.

www.lkmco.org @lkmco +44(0)7793370459 info@lkmco.org ©2014...................................................

“Societyshouldensurethatallyoungpeoplereceivethesupporttheyneedinordertomakeafulfillingtransitiontoadulthood”

Thisreportwaswrittenbytheeducationandyouthdevelopment‘thinkandactiontank’LKMco.LKMcoisasocialenterprise-webelievethatsocietyhasadutytoensurechildrenandyoungpeoplereceivethesupporttheyneedinordertomakeafulfillingtransitiontoadulthood.

Weworktowardsthisvisionbyhelpingeducationandyouthorganisationsdevelop,evaluateandimprovetheirworkwithyoungpeople.Wethencarryoutacademicandpolicyresearchandadvocacythatisgroundedinourexperience.

www.lkmco.org.uk/@LKMco/info@lkmco.org