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Overview of The Researcher’s Notebook

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OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK

The Researcher’s Notebook is a series of assignments and exercises that provide students with an opportunity practice the craft of criminal justice research. This resource allows students to apply the methodological principles they learn in the classroom, and become more skilled at evaluating the research of others.

Specifically, the Researcher’s Notebook provides students with an opportunity to;

Develop a viable research question, Write an introductory section of a research report, Develop an outline for a literature review, Access literature that is relevant to their topic, Learn how to recognize the most authoritative literature available on a subject, Annotate a literature review outline with information from the literature, Learn how to know when they have accessed ‘enough’ literature, Write a literature review, and Develop a research plan that, if implemented, would produce the data necessary to

answer the research question.

The Researcher’s Notebook responds to a long held desire among methods instructors to engage students in the criminal justice research process through meaningful practical exercises that, in the end, will not require an excessive amount of assessment near the end of the semester or quarter. The assignments and exercises that culminate into a research proposal are content driven. This enables you to assess student work in a more objective and efficient manner. In addition, the assignments and exercises are distributed throughout the semester or quarter specifically to reduce the usual ‘end of the term’ crunch time.

An important dimension of the Researcher’s Notebook is that the focus of the student assessment is on the process rather than the product of research, i.e. the traditional ‘research paper’. We’ve all read ‘research papers’ that appear to have been written the evening before they were due. The Researcher’s Notebook requires students to complete narrowly focused parts of the research process over the course of a semester or quarter. In doing so, you are able to assess student learning at a more detailed level, and if necessary, make corrections at appropriate times.

For your convenience, assessments are provided for each of the six assignments. These rubrics are consistent with the requirements outlined in the assignment and enable you to efficiently evaluate student performance. Of course the point value of each assignment may be adjusted depending on your personal preference or teaching objectives.

The Researcher’s Notebook begins with the creation of a researcher’s notebook. This is an interactive tool that has proven to be highly effective at helping students organize large amounts

of information and remain focused on a narrow research topic over an extended period of time, such as a semester or quarter. (See Assignment #1 – Developing Your Researcher’s Notebook) (link here) The exercise associated with this assignment is designed to provide students with specific guidance for creating this interactive tool. Normally, the students are asked to develop their notebooks within the first week of the term.

Next, students are asked to develop a viable research question. (See Assignment #2 – Developing Your Research Question) (link here) There are two exercises associated with this assignment that guide students through this important step in the research process and demonstrate how research questions are developed. The materials in the exercises are consistent with the content in the textbook on the elements of a good research question. Normally, Assignment #2 is completed very early in the semester or quarter.

Then, the students are asked to write the introduction to their research proposals. (See Assignment #3 – Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal) (link here) It is with this assignment that the content driven nature of the process is most evident. The assignment requires the students to develop a short introductory section that contains five specific content elements. Of course you may revise these to fit a particular style, but in the end the content specific nature of this assignment enables the objective (i.e. more efficient) assessment of student performance. There are two exercises associated with this assignment that guide students through this important step in the research process and demonstrate how introductory sections should be written. Normally, Assignment #3 is completed within the first two weeks of the semester or quarter.

Next, the students are asked to develop the literature review of their research proposals. (See Assignment #4 – Developing Your Literature Review) (link here) This assignment begins with the development of an initial outline for the literature review, provides a structure for the search for sources, offers suggestions on how to annotate information from the sources into the literature review, and culminates with the production of a cogent review of the literature. It is with this assignment that the focus on the process, rather than the product, of research is most evident. You may find it helpful to assess the student’s annotated outlines as well as the final draft of their literature review sections. This will allow you to assess whether the students used individual sources multiple times throughout the literature review and grouped similar research findings together prior to writing the first draft. There are eight exercises associated with this assignment that guide students through this important step in the research process and demonstrate how introductory sections should be written. Normally, Assignment #4 is completed before the middle of the semester or quarter.

The next assignment turns the student’s attention to the development of a research method that, if implemented, would likely produce the data necessary to answer the previously developed research question. (See Assignment #5 – Designing Your Research Method) (link here) Ideally, instructors would prefer to have enough time for a student to actually conduct a research project that includes data collection and analysis. Unfortunately, there is simply not enough time in a semester or quarter to do this. So Assignment #5 asks the students to do the next best thing – develop a methodological plan. The assignment anticipates that the students will develop an

outline of the methods section of their research proposal. However, you may ask them to convert this outline to a paragraph format. Among other things, the assignment requires the students to:

Revisit the research question, Develop null and alternative hypotheses (if necessary), Clearly define their concepts, Operationalize their concepts, Identify the unit of analysis, Develop a list of the variables and their attributes, Discuss how they will insure the validity and reliability of their measures, Discuss how they will (if necessary) protect human subjects, Comprehensively discuss the actual method they intend to use during the data collection

process, Identify the sampling strategies they intend to use, Develop the instruments they intend to us, if any, Develop a-priori assumptions as part of an initial analysis plan, and Identify the anticipated weakness of the research proposal.

The five exercises associated with Assignment #5, in addition to the materials from the textbook, are designed to help students with completing this assignment. Ideally, Assignment #5 is completed before the final week of the semester or quarter. Given the objective nature of the assessment this should provide you enough time to provide feedback prior to the end of the term.

The final step in the Researcher’s Notebook requires the students to synthesis the three parts of their research proposals into a single document. (See Assignment #6 – Synthesizing Your Research Proposal) (link here) This assignment requires students to revisit previously completed steps in the research process to insure the final research proposal is coherent. This reinforces what the students learned in Chapter 2 about the internally cyclical nature of the research process. While it represents an important learning opportunity, this assignment may be overlooked in the interest of time. After all, the nature of the Researcher’s Notebook resource is to place more focus on the process of research rather than the product of research. Ideally, the synthesized research proposal could be submitted on the final day of the semester. Because all of its critical parts (the research question, the introduction, the literature review and the methodological plan) have been previously evaluated additional assessment at the end of the term is not as time consuming.

THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK

Assignment #1Developing Your Researcher’s Notebook

DUE: Enter due date here

Points Available: 25

The Researcher’s Notebook is a highly effective technique for organizing large amounts of information for a research project or paper. This method is particularly useful for individuals that simultaneously manage multiple priorities or for those unable to work on a single project from start to finish without an interruption.

Using a loose-leaf binder, tabbed dividers, your own paper, and the instructions on the resource CREATING A RESEARCH NOTEBOOK create a notebook for your research proposal. Do a good job because you will use this notebook throughout the term as you complete your research proposal. Bring your notebook to class on the due date and to each class thereafter.

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. Whether your notebook has all of the required sections and tabs.


Assignment #2Developing Your Research Question



A research question is an interrogative statement. This simply means that research questions are actual questions, as opposed to statements. There are four criteria for a good research question (see the section titled Elements of a Good Research Question in Chapter 7 in Research Methods in Crime and Justice for more information on this topic.) Research questions must be;

Measurable Unanswered Feasible Disinteresting

Use the exercises called “Developing a Research Topic” and “Topic Selection/Research Question Demonstration” to develop a question for your research project. Your research question must;

Be an interrogative statement, i.e. an actual question, Include measurable concepts, Be reasonably feasible, Unanswered, or at least covering an unsettled area of the research, and Disinteresting, i.e. not personal, to you as an individual.

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. Whether your research question meets the criteria listed above.


Assignment #3Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal



The introduction to your research proposal should communicate what your research proposal is about. Introductions should contain;

The purpose of the research, The problem or issue, The intended audience of the research project, The sources of information used during the research process, The research methods you used during the research process, The intended outcome of your research, and How your research paper is organized. .

Of course at this point in the research process it is likely that you will know all of the information listed above, but it is important at this point to put something down on paper. You will file this introduction in the Proposal section of your Researcher’s notebook and refer to it over the course of the term to remain on track.

Write a two to three page document that includes the elements listed above. Use the exercises titled “Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal” and “Introduction Worksheet” to guide you through this process.

Manuscript requirements1. Double spaced, one inch margins all around2. 10 to 12 point font3. Number pages4. Name and title at top of first page (no separate title pages)

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. Whether or not your introduction contains the required content, as outlined above.2. Whether or not you adhered to the manuscript requirements.3. The extent to which you ‘make the case” for your research. For example, does your

proposed research respond to an actual problem or issue.4. Grammar, spelling and punctuation.


Assignment #4Developing Your Literature Review



The literature review is a summary of the research on your topic. It should clearly indicate;

What we know (from previous researchers) about a research topic, What we do not know (from previous researchers) about a research topic. What previous researchers agree on in a research topic. What previous researchers disagree on in a research topic.

Write a literature review relevant to the research topic discussed in your introduction. You will actually turn in two versions of your literature review – an annotated outlined and a first draft.

Annotated outline1. Develop an outline for a literature review that is relevant to your topic.2. Locate an appropriate number of independent and reliable sources on your topic.3. Identify the important parts from each source that you want to use in your literature

review.4. Using these parts annotate your outline (see the instructions in the exercises titled

Creating a Researcher’s Notebook and Annotating the Literature Review Outline). Be careful to as we discussed to include the origin of the source (i.e. author’s last name and year following the citation).

5. At the end of the annotation process save a copy of your annotated outline.

TURN IN YOUR ANNOTATED OUTLINE WITH THE FIRST DRAFT OF YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW.

Literature review1. Using the annotated outline write a draft of your literature review.2. The draft must be typewritten and from three to five pages in length.3. Sources used in text must be identified using an appropriate citation style (APA, MLA). 4. Attach your reference page to the draft.5. In addition to the above requirements your paper must conform to the following

manuscript requirements.a. Double spaced.b. One inch margins all around.c. Include your name in the upper right hand corner.d. Number the pages in the lower right hand corner.e. 10 to 12 point font.f. Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors.

The following resources may be helpful to you as you develop your literature review.

o Exercise #4a – Brainstorming the Literature Review Outlineo Exercise #4b – Bubble Sheet Outline Demonstrationo Exercise #4c – Planning and Managing the Literature Review Searcho Exercise #4d – Starting the Literature Review Processo Exercise #4e – Annotating the Literature Review Outlineo Exercise #4f – Organizing What We Know/Don’t Know and What We Agree

On/Disagree Ono Exercise #4g – Writing the First Draft of Your Literature Reviewo Exercise #4h – Creating the Theoretical Context

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. Grouping of similar research findings from multiple sources.2. Identification of conflict and agreement among the previous researchers.3. Integration of single sources throughout the outline.


Assignment #5Designing Your Research Method



The best way to learn how to conduct research is to actually complete a research project. Unfortunately this is not possible within the time constraints of a typical semester or quarter. So the next best thing is to apply what you are learning from the classroom and develop a research plan.

The overall objective of this assignment is to develop an outline that describes exactly how you intend to collect the data or information you need to answer your research question. Ideally, this outline should be detailed enough for you to determine whether or not the data collected using it would be responsive to your research question.

Write an outline of a research plan that includes the following elements.

Revisit the research question and revise as necessary. Develop null and alternative hypotheses, if necessary. Clearly define the concepts in your research question. Operationalize the measurement of your concepts. Identify your unit of analysis. Develop a list of the variables and their attributes that you intend to use. Discuss (if applicable) how you will insure the validity and reliability of your measures. Discuss (if applicable) the strategies you will use to protect human subjects Comprehensively discuss the actual research method (e.g. survey, experiment, secondary

analysis, etc.) you will use during the data collection step. Identify the sampling strategies (if applicable) that you intend to use. Develop the measurement instruments (e.g. survey, pretests/posttests, coding sheets, etc)

you intend to us, if any. Develop a-priori assumptions for your analysis. Identify the anticipated weakness of your research proposal.

Not all of these will apply to every research plan. For example, some research projects may not include a sampling plan or a-priori analysis statements. However, you will be evaluated on the extent to which you addressed or considered each of these issues.

The following resources may be helpful to you as you develop your literature review.

o Exercise #5a – Creating a Variables and Attributes Tableo Exercise #5b – Writing the Hypotheses (include worksheet)

o Exercise #5c – Creating and Defending Conceptual Definitions (include worksheet)

o Exercise #5d – Operationalizing Your Conceptual Definitionso Exercise #5e – Will Your Method Work?

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. The extent to which you have considered the methodological concepts that are relevant to

your research project. For example, if your research requires the collection of a sample, then your research plan should discuss how you intend to collect the sample.

2. Whether or not you have accurately applied the methodological concepts. 3. Would the proposed method produce the data necessary to answer the research question?


Assignment #6Synthesizing Your Research Proposal



At this point you have three documents – an introduction, a literature review and an outline of a research plan. The purpose of this assignment is to provide you the opportunity to merge these three documents into a single document.

A research proposal, sometimes called a prospectus, is the first three sections of a research report – the introduction, the literature review and the methods sections. In an academic environment a research prospectus would be presented to a thesis or dissertation committee. If the committee agrees with the researchers plan then they may approve the student to complete the research project. The functional equivalent of this routinely occurs in criminal justice practice. Often practitioners are asked to offer proposals for conducting agency sponsored research or to secure the necessary resources.

Merge and rewrite if necessary your introduction, literature review and research plan into a single document in the form of a research proposal. Use the resource titled, Tips for Synthesizing the Introductory, Literature Review and Methods Outline Sections, to help you with this process.

Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)1. The extent to which your introduction, literature review and methods plan are congruent.

For example, your literature review should be relevant to your research question and the methods plan should produce the data necessary to answer your research question. This may require extensive revision.

2. The readability of your manuscript. The information should be well organized. 3. Grammar, spelling and punctuation

Exercise #1a – Creating a Researcher’s Notebook

The notebook method is a highly effective technique for organizing large amounts of information for a research project or paper. This method is particularly useful for individuals that simultaneously manage multiple priorities or for those unable to work on a single project from start to finish without an interruption. Use the following instructions to create a notebook for your research project.

1. To set up your notebook you will need a two (2) inch three ring binder and a set of eight tabbed dividers. Pockets on the inside of the notebook are helpful. In this notebook you will keep all the information relevant to your project. The notebook should be divided into the following sections.

TASK LISTINFORMATION TO LOCATEINSTRUCTIONSPROPOSAL SOURCES AND NOTESOUTLINE / WORKING DRAFTBIBLIOGRAPHYFINAL PAPER

2. In the front of the notebook keep a "TASK LIST". On this list write down all the tasks you can think of that are necessary to complete or progress to the next stage of the project. Be sure to include the anticipated time necessary to complete each task. Ideally, the tasks on the list should require different amounts of time. For example, one task, reading a short article, might take 15 minutes. Another task, finding five articles, might take thirty minutes. Normally during the course of a day you will find several fifteen to twenty minute increments of uncommitted or transitional time. Occasionally, you may even find as much as an hour. This time can easily be devoted to your project if you have previously identified the length of time necessary to complete each task.

The "Task List" is critical for individuals (most of us) that cannot devote enough time to complete a single project before moving on to another. At the end of each research or writing session make a list of things you need to do when you are able to return to the project. When you return to the project, the "Task List" reminds you where you stopped. But more importantly, the "Task List" tells you where to start. This improves your continuity and speeds up the research and writing processes.

3. In the "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section keep a working list of the information, articles, books, policy manuals, people, etc. that you want to locate or contact for information during your research. Typically, during the research process you will find information that leads you to another source of additional information. For example, after reading an article you may notice that the bibliography includes references to other articles that might be useful to your project. Similarly, individuals that you contact may refer you to another person or department for further information on your topic. When you identify these additional sources

of information, list them in the "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section. Later, after you have located all of your ‘original’ sources, and when you have enough time, you can look up the other articles or contact the additional people for more information.

The "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section supports another very important part of the research process called pyramiding. Since most research projects result in relatively short documents (e.g. articles) it is critical to use only the most authoritative sources. In almost every topic there are a few individuals that are recognized as experts. Typically, these experts are cited again and again in the bibliographies of other articles relating to the subject of your research. When you reach this level of repetition you can be relatively sure that you have found the most authoritative research on your topic.

4. In the "INSTRUCTIONS" section keep information relating to the mechanics of writing your paper. You will refer to this section often as you begin to write your final paper. At a minimum this section should include the names and addresses of potential publishers and the manuscript and citation formats.

5. Keep your original proposal or idea in the "PROPOSAL" section. It will be necessary for you to periodically refer to your proposal while conducting your research or writing the paper. The comments on the proposal made by previous reviewers should be instructive as you begin the research. In addition, because the research

6. In the "SOURCES AND NOTES" section you will include copies of articles, policies, interviews and all other materials that you may use as sources in your paper. As you research your topic you will find that some of the information in the articles you locate does not relate to your topic. The key to effective research is to separate what you can use from what is not relevant to your project. This process starts by recalling the purpose and content requirements of your paper. Knowing this you can readily identify the information that is relevant to your topic as you read through the source. Many researchers simply copy and highlight key passages from the sources. This may be necessary if you do not have ready access to a library. However, the most effective way to conduct research is to make notes on the sources. These notes should include information (quotes, statistics or concepts) from the sources that are relevant to your project, or what you might highlight if you copied the source. Your notes should include the full bibliographic citation of the source and the page number(s) from which each relevant quote, statistic or concept is found. At first, this will be a tedious and time-consuming process. However, making notes in this way will be of substantial benefit later as you begin writing your first draft.

7. The initial and subsequent drafts of your paper will be filed in the "OUTLINE/WORKING DRAFT" section. It is in this section that you will "assemble" your first draft and eventually the final paper.

Admittedly, the process of transferring information from your sources and notes into the paper’s format is tedious and time consuming. However, using the following steps as a guide can save a substantial amount of time.

a. From the outline of your research paper, develop an expanded outline. b. Remove your sources and notes from the notebook and place them in the upper left hand corner of your desk. c. From the first source or set of notes in your stack, identify the information (quotes, statistics or concepts) pertinent to your project. This is usually the information you have previously highlighted or written down in the form of notes. d. Using your outline as a guide, determine where each quote, statistic or concept from your sources or notes should "fit" into the paper. You should anticipate that different quotes, statistics or concepts from a single source may be cited in several places throughout your paper. e. Transfer each quote, statistic or concept into the appropriate section of your expanded outline. Be sure to include the parenthetical citation (author's last name and the page number) as you transfer the information. f. This process continues until all information from all sources is incorporated into the expanded outline.

When all information from your sources has been transferred into the expanded outline you are ready to begin actually writing the first draft. The first step is to read over your outline looking for information that may be included in the wrong place. Second, it is usually a good idea to double check the number of citations between sections. Third, arrange each quote, statistic or concept in a logical manner within each subsection of the paper. For example, if you are outlining the development of a legal principle, it is normally a good idea to arrange court findings chronologically. Finally, write the transitional sentences between the citations. When this is completed your first draft is ready for review.

8. In the "BIBLIOGRAPHY" section keep a running list of the sources you intend to use in the final report. If you are using a computer keep it on a disk. If you do not have access to a computer or prefer not to use one, you may put the references on index cards. The cards can be easily alphabetized later. Keeping a separate bibliography section saves an immense amount of time during the final stages of writing the paper.

9. Keep your final paper in the "FINAL PAPER" section. This version of the paper will be used to make revisions during the publication or review phase of your research.

Exercise #2a – Developing a Research Topic

The objective of this exercise is to assist you with developing a research topic and question. Ideally a research topic or question should be;

Measurable. A research question should have the capacity to be measured. For example, the question, Is chocolate better than vanilla? cannot be measured. A better question would be; Which flavor (chocolate or vanilla) is more popular? You can measure ‘popularity’ but it is not likely we would agree on way to measure ‘better’.

Unanswered. Very few research questions in social sciences are completely unanswered. With the exception of new or emerging social trends and phenomena, most issues in the social sciences have been asked and answered by another researcher. This does not mean that future social science researchers have little more to do than learn from the research of their predecessors. Societies are changing every day, sometimes dramatically. Who could have predicted the effects of social media on social interactions prior to the popularity of Facebook? Old research needs to be replicated. Lingering questions from past research need to be explored. New research and analytical techniques need to be applied to old data. There is always more to do.

Doable. All research projects have practical limits. Money, time and access to expertise are always finite. A researcher may want to conduct a nationwide survey of prison inmates, but unless he or she has considerable funding and time it is not likely to happen.

Interesting but not passionate. It is important for a researcher to be interested in a

research topic. The investment of time necessary to complete a research project can be considerable. Often researchers spend weeks, months and even years working on a single project. Being interested in a research project’s topic is essential for maintaining focus over the long haul. Being passionate about a research topic, however, can be counterproductive. Researchers should avoid topics that they are passionate about. Emotional involvement in a research topic can restrict a researcher’s objectivity.

Begin the process by thinking generally about the topics that might interest you.

Brainstorm. List as many topics or issues you can think of without taking the time to judge their suitability Brainstorming works best when it is done in groups and out loud.

What is or was your favorite subject in school? What classes have you taken that you wished would have lasted longer? What subjects do you seem to have a knack for? If you could take any class for free what would it be?

What do you want to do after college? Do you have a career path in mind? Is there something you are considering doing after college that you would like to learn more about? Who do you know that has an interesting job?

Narrow. By now you should have a list of six to twelve general topics. Some of the topics on your list may be related. If so try to combine them into a single topic. Carry the list around with you and over the next few days circle the three topics that interest you the most. From this list decide on a topic.

Do a quick search. Go to the library or get on the Internet and do a quick search to see how much research is available. If you have selected a good topic then you should feel overwhelmed by the volume of information available. If not then you might consider using different search terms, looking in other databases, or expanding your topic area a bit.

Make a decision. This may be the hardest part of the research process. Deciding on a topic is difficult because it is a commitment. You might be worried that your topic is too new to have any previous research available for your literature review. This is usually not a problem. There is almost always some research on a topic. You might also be pleasantly surprised to learn that most of the research on your topic was done within another academic discipline. Besides, the lack of knowledge about a particular topic is, within itself, an important finding. Who knows, your research might be the first. You might be worried that your topic has been studied too much and that your research will not produce any new findings. Here again, this is usually not a problem. You can always replicate another researcher’s project or study an issue from an alternative perspective.

Now that you have a topic that you think will work for you begin developing the research question. Start by;

Narrowing the focus. The research should be a single subject and very specific. Many inexperienced researchers and writers make a mistake by attempting to cover too much. Your research question should be sufficiently narrowed to insure it can be comprehensively covered within the limit of your research assignment.

Asking a question. Research questions are interrogative. This means that they are questions. Write your research question in the form of a question.

Developing some preliminary search terms. Search terms are used in indexes, databases or on the Internet to find research sources that are related to your topic. Often publishers ask researchers to write a few search terms for the articles appearing in their journals to make it easier for subsequent researchers (like yourself) to find relevant articles.

Exercise #2b – Topic Selection/Research Question Demonstration

Let us assume that, after considering many subjects, you have decided to conduct research on domestic violence. This is a good topic; however, in its present form it is too broad for even a semester long research project. Try to narrow the focus a little as you develop your research question. Here is an example.

Domestic violence

Mandatory arrest polices for domestic abusers

Do mandatory arrest policies reduce repetitive domestic violence?

Are victims of domestic abuse less likely to call the police if they know the police department has a mandatory arrest policy?

Does a mandatory arrest policy increase the probability of officer injury?

From this single topic we have created three viable research questions. This process is tedious and time consuming, but in the long run you will appreciate having narrow research question.

The next step is to develop some search terms. These terms will be used while you are looking for research on your topic as part of the literature review process. These terms can be used on the database indexes available to you at the library (e.g. CJ Abstracts) or on the Internet. Let’s assume our research question is;


Some preliminary search terms might be;

Effects of mandatory arrest policiesResults of mandatory arrest policiesDomestic abuse or mandatory arrest unintended consequencesDomestic violence injury or injuries (public health research)Domestic violence victim studies

Exercise #3a – Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal

Once you have selected a topic and written a research question the next step is to write the introduction. You should write the introduction prior to looking seriously for the research you will use in your literature review. The reason for this is simple. It is very easy to get distracted when you get into the literature. You may find yourself wandering into other areas of inquiry. You need something to remind yourself periodically of what your focus is in order to keep on task. A properly constructed introduction keeps you from being distracted during the entire research process and most especially as you look for information to include in your literature review.

One way of approaching this important task is to consider the content of the introduction. What information should be in an introduction? Of course the answer to this question may vary depending upon who you ask and you are encouraged to seek guidance from your professor. As a starting point, the following items should be covered in the introductory section of any research project.

The purpose of the research. Research is intended to explore, describe or explain. Exploratory research tends to focus on new or emerging issues. Descriptive research describes a condition existing at a point in time. Explanatory research might attempt to identify the cause of a social phenomenon or behavior. Each of these purposes is legitimate but they are not mutually exclusive. It is possible for a research project to have more than one purpose. Ideally, in this section you should succinctly state your research question.

The problem or issue. This section of the introduction attempts to convince the reader that reading the report is worth the time. On a daily basis we are all bombarded with information, most of which we never ask for. So, why would I want to read your research? Does it cover a topic that affects me?

The intended audience of the research project. This tells the reader who should care about the research. Don’t assume that everybody will be interested in your research topic. Decide on what type of individuals would be benefited by knowing the information. Is this research done for police officers, school teachers, corrections workers, or probation officers? Who would care about this research? Be as specific as possible and use this as an opportunity to make a case on the relevance of your research.

The sources of information used during the research process. This section provides context to the research and further informs the reader on the relevance of the research from their perspective. Where did you go to find your information? Does your research include scholarly literature or did you just read a few magazine articles? Who (e.g. what experts) did you talk to when you were looking for information? Did you use data that had been collected by another person?

The research methods you used during the research process. This section informs the reader how you went about the process of gathering the data or information you needed to answer the research question. Did you do a survey? If so, who did you send it to? Did you do an experiment? Did you use secondary data? If so, from where did you get this data? Normally, you will describe your research method in greater detail in another section. For now, a brief description is all that is necessary.

The intended outcome of your research. This section is closely related to the purpose of the research. It is a little different in that it attempts to explain to the reader how the research should be consumed and/or responded to. Is this something that requires immediate action? Should this information be filed away to be used at some time in the future?

How your research paper is organized. This is the most mechanical part of the introduction. In this section you normally inform the reader of how the paper is organized and briefly what is included in each section.

Sometimes researchers have difficulty writing the introduction because they are afraid that once their research is done they will have to revise their introduction. Frankly, it would be rare for a researcher to not change the introduction once the research is completed. At this point in the process, even though you have done some planning, there is really know way to know exactly how the research will turn out. It is very likely that your research project will change. You may revise your research question or amend your research method along the way. That is fine and should be expected. The important thing is to get your intentions down on paper at the outset so you can stay on task during the process. Revising something you have already written is far easier than staring at a blank computer screen.

Exercise 3b – Introduction Worksheet Sometimes it helps you get started if you turn the content requirements into questions. What is the purpose of your research (explore, describe, explain)?

What is the title (or subject) of your research project?

What is the problem or issue your project will be addressing, or why is your project important to the reader?

What is the intended audience of your project?

What are the sources of information or method(s) do you intend to use in your project?

What is the intended outcome of your project, or how do you hope to use your project after it is completed?

Exercise #4a – Brainstorming the Literature Review Outline

The overall objective of the literature review is to summarize the available research on a particular topic. Immediately after writing the introduction but before actively looking for the research on your topic you should create an outline for the literature review. This outline should represent your initial perception on how you would like to arrange information so that it communicates to the reader;

What previous researchers have learned about a particular topic (what we know), What previous researchers have not learned about a particular topic (what we don’t

know), The issues previous researchers agree on, and The issues previous researchers do not agree on.

There are a number of effective outlining tools available. Some of these are even available on-line. You might even have a favorite outlining method, and if so, you should follow whatever method works for you. But, in case you don’t, one of the most effective outlining strategies is sometimes called a bubble sheet. Here is how it works.

1. On a blank sheet of paper write down as many sections of your literature review you can think of. Sometimes it helps if you think about the controversies of your topic. You will likely want to include a section on the history of your topic. You might also want to include a section on the legal issues relating to your topic. At this point don’t be overly concerned with how the outline will look in the end. Just allow you mind to wander and fill up the entire page even if you have to write sideways and in the margins.

2. Circle each item you have written down. These are the bubbles.3. Draw lines to connect similar items. This will produce groups of similar topics.

Eventually these will become the sections and subsections of your outline.4. Transfer the groups of similar items into a standard outline format. 5. Look over your new outline to see if it makes sense to you. Each of the sections should

be distinct. For example, if you have one section on the ‘history’ of your topic and another section on the ‘development’ of your topic you might consider combining these two sections into a single section called ‘history and development’.

6. At this point do not be concerned about a section having only one subsection. You likely learned in high school English that you are not supposed to do this. But, you are in college now and besides - this is only a preliminary outline anyway.

Exercise #4b - Bubble Sheet Outline Demonstration


Police liability relating to mandatory arrests and failure to arrest

Are there any unintended consequences related to mandatory arrest policies?

Legal aspects of mandatory arrest policies

History of mandatory arrest policies

How many domestic violence cases are there?

What is the extent of injuries and death associated with domestic violence?

How dangerous is domestic violence enforcement for cops?

Is there any evidence that mandatory arrest policies actually deter repeat offending?

Is there any evidence that women are less likely to report domestic abuse if they know their domestic partner will be arrested?

How many states, cities, or departments have mandatory arrest policies?

What do mandatory arrest policies require the police to do?

What is domestic violence?

Would mandatory arrest policies apply to college roommates?

Do mandatory arrest policies apply to divorced people?

How has domestic violence changed in the past twenty years?

How has domestic violence enforcement/training changed?How are cops trained to respond

to domestic violence?

BA

D

E

C

Preliminary Literature Review Outline

Using the bubble sheet create a preliminary outline for the literature review. The outline below was created from the bubble sheet on the previous page. You may notice that some of the items changed when they were transferred into the actual outline. Note that the letters (A, B, C, D, and E) were entered onto the bubble sheet after the groupings of similar topics. This established the order for the sections in the outline.

A. Domestic Violence1. Definition2. History of domestic violence

a. Historical trendsb. Extent of injury and death

B. Mandatory arrest policies1. How and why domestic violence and mandatory arrest policies happened2. Growth and extent of mandatory arrest policies

C. How mandatory arrest policies work1. How domestic violence enforcement has changed from “take no action it is a civil matter” to mandatory arrest2. Dangerousness of domestic violence enforcement2. How mandatory arrest polices are applied (situational examples)3. How mandatory arrest polices have changed domestic violence enforcement

D. Legal aspects of mandatory arrest policies1. Why mandatory arrest policies are necessary2. Liability issues relating to enforcement

E. The effectiveness of mandatory arrest policies1. Do mandatory arrest policies deter repeat offending?2. Are there any unintended consequences associated with mandatory arrest policies?3. Is there any evidence that victims are less likely to report domestic violence when they know their domestic partner will be arrested?

Remember, this is only a preliminary outline for the literature review. You should anticipate that this outline will change during and after the annotation process (i.e. when you arrange cited materials from the literature to the outline).

Exercise #4c – Planning and Managing the Literature Review Search

The objective of the literature review section in a typical research report is to communicate what previous researchers know, don’t know, agree on and disagree about a particular subject. Researchers will look over a great deal of research in order to find enough relevant information to achieve this objective. Unfortunately, there is no single source of research information and researchers often find it necessary to access information from numerous sources.

Starting the literature review process really depends on what the researcher already knows. Researchers who know little about their research subject might consider reading textbooks wherein multiple issues relating to the subject are discussed at length. On the other hand researchers who know a great deal about a particular subject may choose to access the academic literature wherein the information is more specific and timely. The following table outlines the advantages and disadvantages of the most common sources of research and information available to researchers.

Sources Advantages Disadvantages

Books Often provide comprehensive information on a topic.Helpful for researchers who are unfamiliar with a topic.

Even newly published books contain information that is years old.

Academic or scholarly journals Provide more current information than books.

Topic coverage is narrower and more specific.

Newspapers, magazines, and other popular media

Provide timely information.Easily accessible.

Depending on the focus of the publication, key information (e.g. on the research methodology) is often missing.Not all popular media sources are authoritative.

Internet sources Wide variety.Easily accessible.Often free.Can provide timely information.

It is often difficult to determine the objectivity and accuracy of information appearing on a website.

Experts Can provide practical and timely information about a topic.

Experts may have a bias.

Where a researcher goes to find relevant information on a topic also depends on where other researchers active in a particular topic are likely to publish their research. Finding books on a particular topic is often accomplished by reviewing library collections or full service book retailers like Amazon, Barnes and Noble, or Borders Books.

Scholarly literature is effectively located by accessing indexes that ‘point to’ research reports and articles in numerous journals. These indexing services are available on-line at research libraries (or through their websites) and are organized into general topic areas. Criminal Justice related topics are often found in indexing services like Criminal Justice Abstracts, Criminal Justice Periodical Index, LexisNexis, Social Science Citation Index and many others. These particular

indexes tend to provide access to more scholarly materials. Researchers interested in more applied research subjects or evaluations of criminal justice programs may want to consider accessing the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Because Criminal Justice is a multi-disciplinary, researchers may want to search indexes in other topical areas. For example, some of the research on injuries and deaths related to domestic violence may be found in indexing services that focus on public health research.

The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature and similar services indexes articles published in newspapers and magazines. Most university libraries have access to this or a similar indexing service. Some libraries are repositories of government documents. The United States government is the most prolific financier and filer of research information in the history of the world. Criminal Justice researchers often find government sponsored research reports quite useful. For example, the United States Department of Justice, through the Bureau of Justice Statistics publishes dozens of reports each year on a wide variety of Criminal Justice related research topics.

The Internet is an exciting place to find information. During the past two decades the amount of information available on-line has grown exponentially. Unfortunately, along with this convenience comes a bit of caution. Information on the Internet is often unfiltered by an editing process and sometimes may even be biased. Researchers are cautioned to be highly suspect of the information they find on the Internet by paying attention to sponsorship and advocacy. For example, the research on the effectiveness of a controversial inmate rehabilitation program may not be impartial when it appears on the website of the company that sells or advocates for that particular program. Google is likely the most commonly used Internet search engine. This and similar services adhere to rather complicated searching algorithms that may produce the most popular websites rather than the most comprehensive.

Finding and accessing experts on a particular topic is easier than most researchers think. Nearly all experts are willing to share their knowledge and experience with researchers. Often experts are quoted in newspapers, magazines, websites and even the scholarly literature. Finding the expert’s contact information is relatively easy when their companies and/or employers are also mentioned in the article. In addition, there are numerous on-line and printed directories that contain the names and contact information of recognized experts in nearly every field.

Finally, very early in the process it will be necessary to develop a set of search terms. These words and phrases are used by indexing services to both organize and later locate relevant articles and information. Often researchers are asked to list search terms along with the articles they publish in order to insure accuracy in the indexing and searching processes. Developing effective search terms for locating relevant research is as much of an art as it is a science. The most difficult part is finding the words or combination of words that produce access to the most relevant information. Inexperience researchers often find it necessary to ‘read up’ on topic before developing search terms in order to become familiar with the common terms used by other researchers. Even experienced researchers sometimes find this process a bit tedious. Many university libraries are staffed with experienced research librarians that can assist researchers with the search process.

Exercise #4d - Starting the Literature Review Process

Instructions: Complete the following worksheet prior to searching for sources to include in your literature review.

1. Write the title of your research project in the block below.

2. Based on your current knowledge of this research subject, which of the following source(s) will provide you the information you need initially? (Check all that apply.)

Sources

Books

Academic or scholarly journals


Internet sources

Experts

3. Which of the following source(s) are likely to contain research on your topic? (Check all that apply.)

Sources

Books

Academic or scholarly journals


Internet sources

Experts

4. List all of the possible words, combinations of words or phrases that are relevant to your topic. These will be your initial search terms.

5. Access the literature (books, indexes, Internet, experts) and locate sources that are relevant to your topic. List the citations for these sources below.

6. Briefly read these sources to determine whether your initial search terms are effective at finding relevant research. If not, revise your search terms and repeat step #5.

7. Once you are confident that your search terms are effective continue the pyramiding process as described in the CREATING A RESEARCH NOTEBOOK exercise, specifically relating to the Information to Locate and Sources and Notes sections.

Exercise #4e – Annotating the Literature Review Outline

To ‘annotate’ is to add critical or explanatory notes to a text. For example, some textbooks feature information set out in shaded boxes or in the margins. These annotations are intended to provide students with additional insight on a particular issue, topic or concept.

In this instance we are using the term to describe the process by which you will add and organize the information you found in the previous research that is relevant to your topic to your literature review outline.

Although a bit tedious, this process has two distinct advantages. First, in the long run it saves research time. At first this process may appear cumbersome and time consuming, and it is. Writing the first draft of the literature review from an annotated outline, however, takes less overall time and requires fewer revisions than less structured processes. Second, this process results in a much better product. The annotation process helps researchers identify areas of the research wherein there is general agreement or disagreement among scholars. In addition, the annotation process identifies unexplored issues within a research agenda. Here are the step by step instructions.

1. Print out a one page copy of your literature outline and place it in a place where you can refer to it easily.

2. Using a word process (or paper if you prefer) expand your literature review outline by adding blank spaces between the sections and subsections. At first, about a half of a page between each section and subsection should be enough. At this point it is too soon to make substantive changes to your outline. Just add some space. This is your expanded outline.

3. From the “Sources and Notes” section of your notebook select a source (article, interview notes, book, etc.) that includes information you want to include in your literature review.

4. Identify the parts (e.g. quotes, statistics, definitions, findings, etc.) in this source that you want to include in your literature review. This is normally the information you either highlighted in the article or made notes about from the article because it is relevant to your own research. Some sources may have numerous parts you want to use. Others may only have one.

5. Read the first item (e.g. quote, statistic, definition, finding, etc.) in that source. Using your one page literature outline, find the most appropriate section or subsection in your literature outline to place this information. You define the most appropriate section or subsection. Don’t worry about making a mistake at this point. You can always change your mind later.

6. Reproduce (retype or cut and paste) the item you identified in Step 5 in the place you selected onto your expanded literature outline. BE SURE to enter the textual or parenthetical citation information at the end of the item. Normally, this includes the author’s last name, the year the source was published or accessed and the page number it came from in the original source.

a. If this item is a quote reproduce it exactly as it appears in the original source. Include quotation marks so you will remember that it is a quote and include the page number it came from in the original source.

b. If it is not a quote summarize the information as you see fit. At this point don’t worry about spelling, grammar or manuscript format (e.g. font size, font style, margins, etc.). Just get it into the place you want it.

7. Select another item from the same source and repeat steps 5 and 6 until each of the items from that source are annotated to your literature review outline. Don’t forget to periodically, like each time you finish entering the information from a single source into your expanded outline, SAVE your expanded outline.

8. Enter the citation information from the source into the “Bibliography” section of your notebook.

9. Then, select another source.

10. Repeat steps 5 through 8 until you have exhausted your supply of sources.

When you are finished be sure to save your work. This is your annotated outline. At this point do not be worried about the format or ‘look’ of the annotated outline. You should expect some sections or subsections to have numerous entries while some have very few, or even none. The information in each section of subsection will appear to be disorganized at first. That is because it is and it will be until you prepare the outline for writing the first draft of the literature review.

Preparing the annotated outline for writing the first draft

1. Read over your annotated outline looking for information that may be included in the wrong place. If you find something simply move it to the place you think is more appropriate. Don’t be alarmed if you have to move something several times. You might even decide to delete it altogether.

2. Look at the sections or subsections that have very few or no annotated sources. There are several possible causes for this. First, you may not have found the research information necessary to include this section. If this section or subsection is important to your research then attempt to find additional information. It may be necessary to narrow your search terms. Second, there may not be any research findings relevant to this section. In this case you’ve likely discovered a void in the research, i.e. something that has not been adequately researched. It might even be the main focus of your own research. Note this lack of information in the overall outline of your research report, ideally in the conclusion, so you can mention it as a possible future research recommendation. Third,

you might want to reconsider revising your outline by eliminating the section or subsection altogether or merging it into another part of the literature review.

3. Read over the sections or subsections that have a lot of annotated sources. Here again, there are several reasons for this. First, it may be that there is a great deal of information in the research on this particular aspect of your research. Second, if there is a logical way of reorganizing the sources you might consider revising your outline by adding sections of subsections.

4. Organize the annotated sources within each section or subsection into a logical order. This order is up to you. Here are some tips.

a. Some subjects, like the history or development of an issue, follow a chronological pattern by date. One thing happens and then another.

b. Other subjects, like legal issues, can be organized into a chronological or conceptual order. Legal concepts normally develop over time and often in a chronological order, i.e. one case after another. Sometimes major legal decisions are a culmination of numerous seemingly unrelated judicial findings. For example, the right to privacy was ‘created’ from various concepts that arose from multiple streams of jurisprudence.

c. Nearly all research subjects contain some controversy wherein some scholars agree and others disagree about how research findings should be interpreted. As a result it is not uncommon to find evidence of controversy within the annotations in a single section or subsection. Often the best way to organize these annotations is to group congruent sources together. For example, the juvenile delinquency researchers who argue in support of social disorganization theory are in one group and the researchers who argue in support of social learning theory into a separate group.

Final thoughts

Before moving on to write the first draft of the literature review here are some suggestions.

1. Some of the sources you initially thought would be good may not have an appropriate place in your literature review. If so, consider them for another section of your final research report, like the introduction.

2. The research method used by a previous researcher might be helpful to you as you develop the method for your own research. If so, you might want to consider including the descriptions of how they did their research into the methods section of your own research report.

3. Never completely discard a source. You might find it useful later one. Keep it in the “Sources and Notes” section of your notebook for possible later use. section wherein you

Exercise #4f – Organizing What We Know/Don’t Know and What We Agree on/Disagree on

Remember that one of the objectives of a literature review is to communicate;

What we (as researchers) know and don’t, and What previous researchers agree on and disagree on

about a particular issue. Here are a few tips for doing that.

What we know or agree onDuring the annotation process you likely found some research issues are relatively ‘settled’. This means that the findings among previous researchers in this issue are relatively consistent. These are the things that ‘everybody knows’ to be true. But, assume nothing. It is important for you to read and understand the research and identify any slight differences between seemingly similar research findings. Here is an example.

Your research on mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence research revealed surprise. Throughout the extensive literature on this topic only ten researchers have asked whether convicted domestic abusers engaged in other forms of violent or criminal behavior. All ten found that individuals convicted of domestic violence also engaged in other forms of violence and anti-social behavior, including animal abuse and the extensive use of alcohol and drugs. Furthermore, each of these researchers found convicted domestic violators always owned at least one firearm. No other researchers you found for your literature review asked this question. During the annotation process you decide to include a new subsection in the part of your outline that discusses the ‘typical domestic abuser’. Here is how you might write in this subsection of your literature review;

Ten researchers find that convicted domestic abuse violators also routinely engage in other forms of criminal, violent or abusive behaviors, including animal abuse and extensive use of drugs and alcohol. In addition, these researchers find domestic abusers own at least one firearm (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004; Harris, 2000; Isaac, 2009; Johnson, 2010 and Lewis, 2008). The literature review search failed to reveal evidence of an alternative finding.

The passage above communicates a great deal. First, the relatively long list of researchers (fictitious names) that agreed with your statement suggests a sustained consistency in the findings between numerous researchers over a ten year time frame. Second, it is likely this issue is ‘settled’, meaning additional research into this issue is likely to reveal the same finding. Third, decision makers interested in this issue may use the consistency of this finding to change policy or procedure. Finally, communicating that no evidence exists that would refute this finding adds credence to the notion that scholars tend to agree on this particular issue.

What we don’t know or disagree onIn one subsection, toward the beginning, of your literature review outline you include a subsection wherein you define the term “Domestic Violence”. You found fifteen researchers who offered a definition. Eight of these define domestic violence as;

The inflicting of physical injury by one family or household member on another.

Three of these define domestic violence as;

The actual or threatened imposition of physical violence by one household member onto another.

Two researchers define domestic violence as;

The inflicting of physical injury by one member or former member of a domicile onto another.

And, two researchers define domestic violence as;

The inflicting or physical or psychological trauma by one member of a household onto another.

You can see there are important differences between these definitions. Some researchers limit the definition to include actual physical injury. Others include the threat of physical injury. And, some include psychological trauma. Some definitions would not include a former member of a domicile, such as an ex-spouse or former roommate. Here is how you might write this subsection of the literature review.

Most researchers define domestic violence as the inflicting of physical injury by one family or household member on another (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004; Harris, 2000 and Isaac, 2009). Other researchers include the threat of physical violence in their definitions of domestic violence (Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008 and Moore, 2010). Some researchers expand the definition to include psychological trauma (Nash, 2009 and Ogden, 2007). Two researchers also expand the definition of domestic violence to include both current and former members of a household, thereby including ex-spouses and roommates (Patterson, 2005 and Quinn, 2008).

This passage communicates that a majority of the researchers tend to agree upon a definition. But, more importantly, a large minority of researchers have an alternative view of how to define this term. Both messages are equally important to the readers of your research.

At this point who is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ is not important. Your job as a researcher in the literature review is to communicate the full extent of the research findings for a particular subject. Editorial comments on the value or viability of another researcher’s work are better placed in other sections of the research report.

A Picture is Worth a Thousand WordsMost people are visual learners. They remember the things they see better than the things they hear or touch. Adding pictures to a literature review often improves a reader’s understanding of the material and makes the communications process more effective.

Normally pictures, in the form of photographs, are not appropriate in the literature review of a scholarly article, unless of course the focus of the research is on visual objects. Graphs, charts and tables, however, have the same effect. Here is an example.

A researcher finds fifteen studies on the effect mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of domestic violence incidents. This researcher summarizes these studies’ findings in the literature review as follows.

In seven of the available studies the frequency of domestic violence incidents decrease following the adoption of a mandatory arrest policy (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004 and Harris, 2000). Five studies find that frequency of domestic violence incidents is unchanged following the adoption of a mandatory arrest policy ( Isaac, 2009; Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008; Moore, 2010 and Nash, 2009). Three studies find that the frequency of domestic violence incidents actually increases following the adoption of a mandatory arrest policy (Ogden, 2007; Patterson, 2005 and Quinn, 2008).

This summary, although technically accurate is rather repetitious and somewhat tedious to read. As an alternative this researcher might consider communicating this message in the following table.

Research findings on the effect of mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of domestic violence incidents are somewhat inconclusive (see Table 1.).

Table 1. – Effects of mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of domestic violence incidents.

Effects Decrease in frequency of

domestic violence incidents

(7 studies)

No change in frequency of


(5 studies)

Increase in frequency of


(3 studies)

Studies Allen, 2000Bates, 2001Charles, 2001 Edwards, 2002 Fuller, 2003Grant, 2004 Harris, 2000

Isaac, 2009Johnson, 2010Lewis, 2008Moore, 2010Nash, 2009

Ogden, 2007 Patterson, 2005 Quinn, 2008

Which format does a better job of communicating the same information? Which looks better to you?

Exercise #4g – Writing the First Draft of Your Literature Review

After preparing your annotated outline (i.e. organizing the annotations in each section and subsection) and developing effective communications strategies (e.g. tables, graphs or charts) you are now ready to begin actually writing the first draft. Here are a few tips.

1. Remove everything from your desk (or screen) but your annotated outline.

2. Reformat each of the sections (in bold) and subsections (in italics) so you will be able to keep up with where you are at during the process. You might even want to highlight these with a different color. You can always reformat them when you are done in order to comply with whatever style manual (e.g. APA, Turabian, MLA, etc.) you are required to follow. For now these headings are just a guide.

3. Within each section or subsectiona. Re-read the annotations to reacquaint yourself with the information.b. Using transitional phrases and sentences rewrite the section or subsection to

summarize the research findings within that section or subsection.c. Try to summarize similar findings from multiple researchers into a single

sentence and list the studies (Author’s last name and year of publication) at the end of each summary.

d. Incorporate the annotations along with their parenthetical and/or textual citations as you write.

e. After finishing move on to the next section or subsection.

4. Try to avoid starting a major section with the information from its first subsection. Instead write a brief description of what will be discussed in that section as a short introduction.

5. Don’t be reluctant to either relocate or remove an annotation during the writing process if necessary.

6. When all the sections and subsections are written go back through the document, revising as you to, to insure the manuscript is readable.

7. Revise and/or delete section and subsection headings in accordance with the rules of your style manual.

8. Continue to revise the manuscript until you are satisfied with its quality.

A Few Writing Tips

Use active rather than passive verbs. o Active

Mandatory arrest policies reduce the frequency of domestic violence incidents.

o Passive The frequency of domestic violence incidents is reduced by mandatory

arrest policies.

Use the present rather than the past tense. o Present

These researchers find that….o Past

These researchers found that….

Watch noun/verb agreement. The noun and its verb in a single sentence must both be either

o Singular, or The mandatory arrest policies state….

o Plural The mandatory arrest policy states….

Write short rather than long sentences. o Sentences that take up three or more full lines are too long. This one contains 59

words. While mandatory arrest policies have their place it is important to

consider the value of police discretion in the decision making process because not all domestic violence incidents are the same, what works in one situation may be a disaster in another, so the police officer must have the maximum level of discretion when making an enforcement decision.

o Two, or even three, short sentences are better than one long one. This one communicates the same information in only 43 words.

Mandatory arrest policies can be an effective enforcement tool. It is, however, important to consider not all domestic violence incidents are the same. Because of this police officers must be afforded the discretion to decide for themselves the most appropriate enforcement strategy.

Don’t write to impress. Avoid the use of complicated words, qualifying phrases and parenthetical clauses when you write. Impress your reader with what you know about the topic, not with your vocabulary.

o This sentence impresses nobody. While the causes of domestic violence are diverse and as complicated as

the relationships between cohabiters, society has an obligation to protect victims of violence regardless of the context within which the victimization occurs.

o This one is more like it. The causes of domestic violence are complicated. It is important for

society to protect individuals who are victimized by violence.

Write with the audience in mind. Scholarly writing is different than magazine writing because their audiences are dissimilar. Use words and phrases that are understandable and have relevance to your audience.

Tell the story. Often new scholarly writers are reluctant to write conversationally, or as if they are telling a story. This is probably because much of what they see in academic journals is formally written. Avoid this if possible. Write the literature review (and the rest of the research report for that matter) as if you are communicating your ideas to a friend.

Give yourself some time. Don’t wait until the last minute to write your literature review. Wait a day or so after you’ve prepared the annotated outline before you attempt the first draft of the literature review. Write the first draft and then leave it alone for a day or so before revising it. Then look over it, revising if you must, the day a few days before it is due just to be sure you have it right.

Use the ‘buddy system’. Find a classmate or friend willing to read your manuscript and offer suggestions for improving it. Pick somebody who writes well. Many colleges and universities have free writing clinics and tutors. Pick somebody who is not afraid of being frank about your writing. Your reviewer should be comfortable enough to be constructively critical of your work without risking your relationship.

Exercise #4h – Creating a Theoretical Context

A theory is a cause and effect statement that attempts to predict the outcome of events or conditions. Theory is an important part of the research process. Research is often done to either develop or test a theory about human or social behavior. Inductive research begins with a single observation of human or social behavior and ends with the creation of a theory to explain why an individual or group of individuals behaved in the way they did. Deductive research begins with a theory and culminates with a series of observations that tests the viability of the theory.

Either way, theory is necessary in criminal justice research. Well developed and tested theories communicate what we believe to be true about human and social behavior. When research is able to demonstrate the viability of a theory the researcher provides valuable insight into human behavior. This insight guides future researchers as well as influences public policy. The following is a demonstration of how a researcher identified the theoretical context of a research project on mandatory arrest policies.

The researcher developed the following question.

Do policies requiring the police to arrest individuals suspected of domestic violence reduce the incidence of domestic violence in a community?

What theory proposes that individuals will refrain from certain behaviors when the penalty for getting caught (in this case an arrest and likely prosecution) is relatively certain? Assuming individuals will behave in ways to avoid punishment one might suggests that specific deterrence or rational choice theory would be a viable explanation.

Let’s suppose our researcher developed a different question?

Do policies requiring potential domestic abusers to submit to rigorous marriage counseling or anger management programs reduce the incidence of domestic violence in a community?

This question makes a different assumption about human behavior, doesn’t it? It assumes individuals who have a tendency to be domestic abusers can develop pro-social behaviors when exposed to appropriate training. Maybe the theoretical context of this question would fit within the social learning or cognitive learning theory traditions.

Normally, a researcher’s theory is presented early on in the research report. Ideally, this should be done either just before or just after the literature review. Because theoretical statements and hypotheses are linked it is usually advantageous to present then in the same section of the report.

Exercise #5a – Creating a Variables and Attributes Table

Before writing the hypotheses and conceptual definitions in your research project it is usually a good idea to create a variables list. Placing all of your variables and their attributes in one place helps you keep track of them over the course of your research. More importantly, this exercise helps to identify duplication and gaps in your measurement.

Using the form below, list the attributes, level of measurement and classification for each of the variables you intend to gather during your research project. Place this page in your notebook so you can find it later when you need to make changes.

Name of variable Attributes Level of measurement(circle one)

Classification(circle one)

NominalOrdinalIntervalRatio

DependentIndependentIntervening









Name of variable Attributes Level of measurement(circle one)

Classification(circle one)

Nominal Dependent

OrdinalIntervalRatio

IndependentIntervening













Exercise #5b – Writing the Hypotheses (worksheet included)

A hypothesis is a statement usually derived from a theory that makes a prediction. There are several types of hypotheses.

Difference and Association HypothesesSome hypotheses predict that two groups are different or that the exposure to something causes change. These are called hypotheses of difference. Here is an example.

The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic violence.

This hypothesis predicts that potential domestic abusers will change their behavior (e.g. decide not to abuse their spouses) when they believe they will be arrested for doing so. Furthermore, this hypothesis proposes that domestic abusers will not be deterred without the threat of an arrest.

Some hypotheses predict that things are associated, that is, they happen together. These are called hypotheses of association. Here is an example.

The adoption of a mandatory arrest policy for domestic abusers is associated with a reduction of domestic violence incidents in a community.

The distinction between hypotheses of difference and hypotheses of association is most critical during the analysis phase of the research process. The type of hypothesis and the level at which the data are measured determine the statistical techniques that are available to the researcher.

Null and Alternative HypothesesHypotheses come in pairs. Research is intended to gather and analyze information or data in order to support or falsify a hypothesis. These hypotheses can either predict a difference or establish an association. The hypothesis the researcher wants to prove is normally referred to as the alternative hypothesis, but may also be referred to as the research hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is a statement of no difference or association. The structure of research requires the researcher to develop a null hypothesis for each alternative hypothesis. Here is an example.

The Null Hypothesis (Ho:) The threat of mandatory arrest does not influence potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic violence.

The Alternative Hypothesis (Ha:)The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic violence.

Notice that in the previous example the null hypothesis is not the opposite of the alternative hypothesis. For the null hypothesis to be the opposite it would have to state that the threat of

mandatory arrest encourages domestic abusers to engage in domestic violence. Instead, the null hypothesis merely states that the threat of mandatory arrest does not influence potential domestic abusers in any way.

The Researcher’s DecisionThe focus of every research project is initially on the null hypothesis. After gathering and analyzing the information or data the researcher must answer the following question.

Does the information or data I collected and analyzed support the null hypothesis?

If the answer to this question is yes the researcher accepts the null hypothesis and rejects the alternative hypothesis. In other words, the researcher failed to prove his original alternative hypothesis. This, however, should not be considered a failure. Instead the researcher has contributed to the literature and now should be challenged to revise his alternative hypothesis and begin a new research project.

If the answer to this question is no the researcher rejects the null hypothesis as false and accepts the alternative hypothesis. In other words, the researcher proved his original alternative hypothesis.

Hypothesis Worksheet

Let’s write the alternative and null hypotheses for your research project using the following example.

Ha: The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic violence.

Ho: The threat of mandatory arrest does not affect a potential domestic abuser from engaging in domestic violence.

These hypotheses, like all hypotheses, have at least two variables, one dependent (the effect) and one independent (the cause). In our example;

The independent variable (or cause of the dependent variable) is: The threat of mandatory arrest.

The dependent variable (or the result of the independent variable) is: Engaging in domestic violence.

Follow these steps to help you write your alternative and null hypotheses.

1. Write your research question in the following blank.

2. Write the independent and dependent variables in your research question in the following spaces. You may have more than one independent variable, but for now use only one.

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Our example hypothesis, again like all hypotheses, has an action word or phrase. This word or phrase describes the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. In our example;

The action word/phrase is: Deters.

3. Write the action word or phrase for your research question in the following blank. Be specific about how you think the independent variable will affect (i.e. change or be associated with) the dependent variable. You might try using synonyms or similar phrases.

4. Now, in the blank below write the three elements of your alternative hypothesis (the independent variable, the action word/phrase, and the dependent variable) into a single predictive sentence.

5. This alternative hypothesis is (select one) A hypothesis of difference A hypothesis of association

6. Write your null hypothesis in the following blank. Be sure your null hypothesis is a statement of no difference or association.

Repeat this process if your research has more than one hypothesis.

Exercise 5c – Creating and Defending Conceptual Definitions (worksheet included)

Research in the social sciences is a bit more challenging than in the physical sciences. Physical scientist (e.g. chemist, physicist, etc.) have standardized measures. Every chemist in the world knows and agrees that the stability of a chemical compound depends on the strength of the bonds between its molecules. The things social scientists are interested in are much more difficult to measure. How to you measure the strength of family bonds?

Social scientists define the things they measure through a process known as conceptualization. This process develops precise definitions for vague concepts and begins the measurement process. More often than not the conceptual definitions developed by social scientists omit (sometimes on purpose) certain aspects of a phenomenon. Here is an example,

Professor: How would you define the concept – poverty? Student: Poverty is when you are poor?Professor: Poor? What does that mean?Student: When you don’t make enough money to live on, that is poor.Professor: So, if I get laid off of my job and cannot afford my mansion does that mean that I am poor?Student: No, that just means that you have to adjust your standard of living. Poor means you don’t earn enough money to buy the basic necessities like food, clothing and shelter.Professor: Oh, I understand. I have a friend who gets $850.00 per month from his retirement account, or about $10,200 per year. This is $630.00 below the federal poverty guideline. Would you consider him poor, or, I mean in poverty?Student: Yes, I would. By that measure your friend would not be able to afford the basic necessities.Professor: OK, but my friend has millions of dollars in investments, his house and cars are paid for and he grows most of what he eats. Is he still poor?Student: No, your friend had options that poor people don’t.Professor: What about my other friend who makes a great deal of money but lives in a small house, drives an old car and never picks up the tab at lunch? He also washes out bread sacks to reuse them and hasn’t thrown away an empty margarine tub in years. He was raised during the Great Depression and developed very thrifty habits. Is he poor?Student: No, but he acts like he is poor.Professor: So poverty can be defined in terms of what a person earns in salary, but are you also saying that this concept can be defined in behavioral terms. You can see how maddening this can be for a social scientist.

Writing the Conceptual DefinitionOne strategy for developing a conceptual definition is to look to the literature for guidance. In an earlier exercise we wrote a section of a literature review that outlined the various definitions for the concept – domestic violence. Here is what we learned.

Most researchers define domestic violence as the inflicting of physical injury by one family or household member on another (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004; Harris, 2000 and Isaac, 2009).

This definition would not include people who threaten family or household members with violence. If a man says to his wife, “If you overdraw the checking account one more time I am going to sock you?” That would not be domestic violence using the above definition. So, we find another definition in the literature that would.

Other researchers include the threat of physical violence in their definitions of domestic violence (Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008 and Moore, 2010).

This definition only includes the threat of physical violence. What about psychological trauma. If a woman says to her mentally retarded child, “You are an idiot. You’ll never amount to anything but a babbling moron?” That would not be domestic violence using the above definition. So, we find another definition in the literature that would.

Some researchers expand the definition to include psychological trauma (Nash, 2009 and Ogden, 2007).

These researchers include psychological trauma in the definition of domestic violence. But none of these definitions include former spouses or roommates. So, again, we find another definition in the literature that would.

Two researchers also expand the definition of domestic violence to include both current and former members of a household, thereby including ex-spouses and roommates (Patterson, 2005 and Quinn, 2008).

After considering all of the available definitions we can either chose the one we like the best or develop a new one, like this;

Domestic violence – The actual or threatened infliction of physical injury or psychological trauma by a current or former household member onto another current or former household member.

Another effective strategy is to write a definition and then ask other informed researchers to critique it. Here are some good discussion prompts.

This is how I define [name of concept]. What do you think about this definition? Can you think of any kinds of people that would not be included in this definition that

should be? Can you think of any kinds of people that are included in this definition that should not

be?

Can you think of any situations that would not be included in this definition that should be?

Can you think of any situations that are included in this definition that should not be? Are there any parts of this definition that should be deleted, or included? Is there any portion of this concept that I have not accounted for in my definition? Is my definition too broad, too narrow?

This process is a bit like a ‘what- if game’, but the results of it can be quite helpful. For additional guidance on how to do this you might read the sections in Chapters 2 and X how to pretest a survey instrument.

A third strategy is to focus your conceptual definition on the narrowest part of the phenomenon that is most important to your research. For example, you might be interested in juvenile crime, but are you interested in all forms of juvenile crime? Do you distinguish between status offenses (behaviors that are only against the law for juveniles) or any offense committed by a juvenile? Are you interested in violent crime, property crime or both?

Once you’ve narrowed your focus (sort of like the process you went through when you wrote your original research question) write your definition as precisely as possible. Pretend you are a lawyer or legislator writing a legal definition. After that you can expand your definition if necessary.

Defending the Conceptual DefinitionNew researchers are often apprehensive about writing their conceptual definitions. Mostly they are concerned that they get it right. As well they should. Haphazardly written conceptual definitions cause numerous problems during the research process, especially during the data collection and interpretation phases.

Nearly every conceptual definition in the social sciences is missing some dimension of the phenomenon it purports to define. Few are perfect. The keys to defending your conceptual definition are;

1. Be as precise as possible,2. Be purposeful by including the dimensions you want to include,3. Be aware of what your definition does not include, and4. Be upfront about your definition’s weaknesses.

Above all, remember that this is your definition, so you decide.

Conceptual Definition Worksheet

Use the following steps to develop the conceptual definitions for your research project. Attach additional sheets of paper as necessary.

1. Write your alternative hypothesis(es) in the space below.

2. List the variables/concepts that appear in your alternative hypothesis(es). For this exercise there is no need to differentiate between independent, dependent and intervening variables.

3. Using various sources (dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauruses, research literature, etc.) look up definitions and/or synonyms for the variables/concepts you listed in the previous section. Use the following table to list and compare the definitions you find for each variable.

Variable/Concept Definitions and/or Synonyms




4. After comparing the definitions you found from various sources and considering your research objective, write preliminary conceptual definitions for each of your variables in the table below.

Variable/Concept Preliminary Conceptual Definition

5. Share your conceptual definitions with interested colleagues, friends, peers, co-researchers and your professor. Play the ‘what-if’ game. Revise your conceptual definitions as necessary.

Exercise #5d – Operationalizing Your Conceptual Definitions

In a previous exercise we developed the following conceptual definition for domestic violence;

Domestic violence – The actual or threatened infliction of physical injury or psychological trauma by a current or former household member onto another current or former household member.

How would you go about actually measuring whether this social phenomenon occurred or not? The answer really depends on the research methodology you choose to use while gathering your data. Here are two examples.

Secondary analysisThis research methodology gathers data from existing sources. For example, if you

wanted to gather information on the crime rate over the past decade then you might use the Uniform Crime Reports published annually by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation. Or, if you wanted to know something about the growth of the prison population over the past decade you might use the annual reports from the United States Bureau of Prisons or your state’s prison system.

The effectiveness of secondary analysis as a research methodology depends on two things. First, the manner in which the concept is measured within the existing data set must be similar to how you intend to measure it in your research project. For example, let’s say you’ve defined “youthful offenders” as “any convicted criminal offender between the ages of eight and thirteen years of age”. Not a bad conceptual definition. Unfortunately, the existing data set you intend to use defines “youthful offenders” as “any convicted criminal offender between the ages of nine and fourteen years of age”. Now you have a choice to make. You can change your conceptual definition to match that of the existing data set. You can collect a whole new data set that uses your own definition. Or, you can use the existing data set and report the difference between the definitions.

Second, the existing data set must have been collected in a manner similar to how you intend to collect data. If random selection is important to you then the existing data set should have been collected randomly. If your research requires a national survey then the existing data set should have been collected from a sample drawn from throughout the nation.

In our case let’s assume you choose to collect your sample of cases from official reports of domestic violence incidents made to the local police department. As long as the definition of domestic violence used by the police department (likely the legal definition) is similar to the conceptual definition you created then this would be an acceptable secondary data set for your research project. If not, then you’d have to keep looking for another data set or collect your own data.

The police data set might work fine for your domestic violence research, but remember that not all domestic violence incidents are reported to the police. In fact, a fair amount of them are not. If you choose to use the police data then you’d miss collecting data from research subjects who experienced domestic violence (per your definition) but did not report it to the police.

Survey or InterviewSurveys and interviews are common research methodologies among social scientists.

Although very different in how they are administered, these research methodologies essentially require the researcher to ask research subjects to respond to a question, or more likely, a series of questions.

It would probably be a mistake to ask the survey respondents or interviewees, “Are you a victim of domestic violence?” You really don’t know how your respondents define the term domestic violence, but it is a safe bet that they don’t define it like you do. You could ask, “Have you ever been physically injured or psychology traumatized by someone you live with now or someone you lived with in the past?” A “yes” or “no” answer to that question would not be very useful. You may recognize this as a double barreled question. So, it might make sense to break up your conceptual definition into smaller parts and ask simpler questions.

Have you ever been physically injured by somebody you live now? (circle one - YES or NO)

Have you ever been physically injured by somebody you used to live with? (circle one - YES or NO)

Has anybody you live with now caused you psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)

Has anybody you’ve lived with in the past caused you psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)

Have you ever been threatened with physical injury by somebody you live with now? (circle one - YES or NO)

Have you ever been threatened with physical injury by somebody you used to live with? (circle one - YES or NO)

Has anybody you live with now threatened you with psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)

Has anybody you’ve lived with in the past threatened you with psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)

In general the manner in which you operationalize your concepts should insure that all, or

most, of the key parts of the conceptual definition are measured. During the conceptualization process you identified the various dimensions or perspectives of your concept. During operationalization your task is to be sure you have a strategy for measuring each of these aspects.

It is normal for an operational measure, particularly in the social sciences, to be a bit lacking. Social concepts are often multi-faceted and difficult to measure. Just do the best you can but recognize where your operational definition might be lacking. It helps sometimes to seek guidance from a well informed peer just to be sure your operational definition covers all parts of your conceptual definition.

Exercise #5e – Will Your Method Work?

Nothing is more frustrating to a researcher than when the research method does not produce the kind of data or information that is responsive to the research question(s) or hypothesis(es). Social science data is notoriously incomplete and inaccurate. Gathering enough data and information to make solid research conclusions is both expensive and time consuming. Because of these issues social science researchers must work extra hard to be sure their research method will provide the type of data or information they need to answer their research question(s) and/or be responsive to their hypothesis(es).

Most of the problems in this regard have to do with one of the following issues.

1. The research method is poorly planned and implemented2. The research method used is inappropriate for the research context or situation.3. The research method does not produce data at the necessary level of measurement.4. The sample is not representative of the population of interest.

Of course, there is a lot more that can go wrong even in the simplest of research plans. These are just the most common problems. Let’s address them individually.

The research method is poorly planned and implementedYou might be familiar with Murphy’s Law.

“Anything that can go wrong, will go wrong.”

Criminal justice research often involves gathering information from people or social environments, neither of which are predictable. Nobody can legitimately predict what might go wrong in every situation; however, we do know that the less we know about the people and environment we intend to gather information from the more likely things will go wrong.

Consider this analogy. How much do you plan your daily commute to and from where you live and where you work or go to school? Because you already know the way and what to expect along the way, not much planning is required. You’ve travelled it dozens of times, maybe more. In contrast, how much would you prepare for a road trip in a foreign country? You would study the laws, learn the signs and rules of the road, get a good map, learn the language, and do a lot more to be sure your road trip is safe. You might even learn so much that you decide it is safer to use public transportation.

The same is true about planning a research method. The less you either know or can predict about the people or environment from which you plan to gather your information, the more you have to plan for possible contingencies. At each step in the research process you must ask yourself, What could possibly go wrong? If you answer, Nothing! you are likely not thinking it through enough. There is always something! Maybe instead of accepting Murphy’s Law, criminal justice researchers should adopt the following standard.

Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst!

The research method used is inappropriate for the research context or situationThere is no universally perfect research method. All research methods have advantages and disadvantages. For example, survey research is not well suited for determine causal relationships. While a survey might determine the level of correlation between variables, it would not provide much insight into the other two causal rules – temporal order or the lack of plausible alternative explanations. Even the classic experimental design, considered by many researchers to be the ‘purest form of research’, is ineffective when the research subject’s mere participation in the experiment causes them to change their behavior, a threat to validity known as reactivity.

Each of the chapters in this textbook that describe a criminal justice research method includes a section wherein the relative advantages and disadvantages of the method are outlined. Your decision on which method to use should be based on your knowledge of these opportunities and constraints. If you are unsure, ask your professor. Ultimately, you should choose the method that is most likely to be successful in your particular situation.

Don’t be afraid to create ‘hybrid’ methods wherein useful elements from several methods are merged into a single method. For example, sometimes surveys are a good pre- or post-test for an experimental design. Also, it is possible that your particular research questions will require the use of multiple methods. The research method does not produce data at the necessary level of measurementData collection is expensive and time consuming. There are few things that are more frustrating, or embarrassing, to a researcher than finding out that the data that were collected by the method are not sufficient to answer the research question. Here is an example.

A researcher set out to determine the average age at which frequent drug users stop using illicit drugs, i.e. aged out. On the survey the researcher asks;

Check the box beside the age range when you stopped regularly using illicit drugs

15 – 18 18 – 21 22 – 25 26 – 30 31 – 40 40 – 55 Over 56

The responses to this question would provide some insight into the age when frequent drug users stopped regularly using illicit drugs. Unfortunately, with this data the researcher would not be able to calculate an average, at least in the traditional sense. The best the researcher could hope for is to report the most frequently checked age range.

The researcher should have simply asked;

At what age did you stop regularly using illicit drugs?

Collectively, these responses would allow the researcher to calculate the mean, derive the median and determine the mode age at which frequent users stopped regularly using illicit drugs.

This is a simple example. More complicated hypotheses often require more complicated statistical analysis. This is especially true of hypotheses that include numerous independent and intervening variables and those alleging a causal relationship between variables.

As a general rule of thumb, data should be collected at the most precise (i.e. highest) level of measurement possible. You may recall from the textbook (Chapter 6) that data collected at a higher level of measurement may be converted to a lower level of measurement, but the opposite is not true.

The sample is not representative of the population of interestAll samples are representative of something. However, a researcher should insure that a sample is representative of what it is intended to represent. This issue is more serious in probability samples. You may recall from the textbook (Chapter 8) that the main reason a researcher uses a probability sample is to infer what is learned from the sample onto the population from which it came. For example, what a researcher learns about a random sample of juvenile offenders may be inferred to be true of the entire population of juvenile officers, if the sample were selected properly.

In most cases the problem occurs when bias is present in the sampling process. Researchers should take great care when developing probability samples in order to avoid bias.

Exercise #6a – Tips for Synthesizing the Introductory, Literature Review and Methods Outline Sections

Up to this point the three major assignments in this project have been produced somewhat independently of each other. You wrote the introduction early in the term. This introduction included a research question. Then, by mid-term you completed a literature review. Near the end of the term you produced a document that described how you intended to collect the data necessary to answer your research question – the same question that you developed at the beginning of the course.

Along the way, even though you may have adhered very closely to the procedures outlined in your Researcher’s Notebook, it is inevitable that the focus of your research project drifted a little. This is normal. After all, when you first wrote your research question you were relatively uniformed about your research topic. During the literature review process you became informed of the controversies within your research topic. You might have even become more interested in a related topic. These happenstances may have caused you to rethink your research question. In a similar way when you first indicated how you intended to conduct the research (in the introduction) you knew very little about research methods. After learning about the advantages and disadvantages of the various research methods you might have discovered a better method than the one you proposed in the introduction.

So, your task now is to merge the introduction, literature review and methods section into a single document, which we will call a research proposal. Here are a few tips for doing this.

1. Reread your introduction. Pay particular attention to the content requirements and how they might be changed in lieu of what you now know.

a. Given what you now know about the previous research (from the literature review);

i. Should you revise your research question?ii. Are there additional problems or issues that you were not aware of that

should be added to your introduction?iii. Do you still think that your intended audience would be interested in this

research?iv. What sources did you actually use and where did they come from?v. Should you rethink the intended outcome of your research?

b. Given what you now know the actual method that you intend to use should you revise the methods part of the introduction?

2. Next, focus on the literature review. Pay particular attention to the relevance of your literature review to;

a. Your research purpose, andb. Your proposed method

3. Finally, write the methods section from your outline.a. Be sure to explain how your method will respond to your research question.

b. Consider adding a section to the methods section that discusses how this research will add to the previous research. For example, you may be proposing to conduct an experiment when all of the previous researchers in this topic used a survey.

4. As you write the methods section ‘tell the story’ of how you intend to conduct the research. Describe the steps the same way you might describe how you are planning to take a trip or vacation – progressing from one place to another. Try to avoid technical jargon to the extent possible.

Now you have three compatible documents. The content in the introduction, most notably the research question, is relevant to the information in the literature review. The proposed method will produce data relevant to the research question.

The rest of the process is stylistic. Begin by adding the literature review to the end of the introduction and adding the rewritten methods section to the end of the literature review. Go back through the entire document to be sure margins, headings, indentations and other stylistic issues are consistent.

Assessment for Assignment #1Developing Your Researcher’s Notebook

Point value: 25

Key assessment criteria1. Did the student create a binder that includes all of the required tabs?2. Does the student appear to be prepared to use the notebook (e.g. blank paper in the

appropriate sections)3. Has the student actually begun using the notebook? In particular has the student entered

any tasks on the Task List?

Assessment for Assignment #2Developing Your Research Question

Point value: 25

Key assessment criteria1. Is the research question interrogative, i.e. an actual question?2. Does the research question include measureable concepts?3. Is the proposed research feasible?4. Is the research question in a relatively unsettled or controversial area of the research?5. Does the student appear to be disinterested in the question enough to insure objectivity?

Use the following assessment form for student feedback.

Student’s name:

Assessment criteria PointsAvailable

PointsEarned

Is the research question interrogative, i.e. an actual question? 5

Does the research question include measurable concepts? 5

Is the proposed research feasible? 5

Is the research question in a relatively unsettle or controversial area of the research?

5

Does the student appear to be disinterested in the question enough to insure objectivity?

5

Total Points 25

Comments:

Assessment for Assignment #3Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal

Point value: 25

Key assessment criteria1. Does the introduction include all of the required content requirements?

a. The purpose of the researchb. The problem or issuec. The intended audience of the research projectd. The sources of information that will be used during the research processe. The research methods that will be used during the research processf. The intended outcome of the researchg. How the research report is organized.

2. Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?a. Double spaced, one inch margins all aroundb. 10 to 12 point fontc. Numbered pagesd. Name and title at the top of the first page (no separate title pages)

3. Overall did the student ‘make the case’ for the research?4. Grammar, spelling and punctuation


Student’s name:

Assessment Criteria Pointsavailable

Pointsearned

Does the introduction contain all of the required content requirements? 10

Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements? 5

Overall, did the student ‘make the case’ for the research? 5

Grammar, spelling and punctuation. 5

Total points 25

Comments:

Assessment for Assignment #4Developing Your Literature Review

Point value: 100

Key assessment criteria1. Did the student submit an annotated outline and if so;

a. Does it appear as if the student grouped similar research findings from multiple sources?

b. Did the student identify conflict and agreement among the previous researchers?c. Did the student integrate information from single sources throughout the outline?

2. Did the student submit a final draft of the literature review, and if so;a. Does it appear to have been written from the annotated outline?b. Is it an appropriate length (three to five pages)?c. Are the sources cited appropriately in the text?d. Did the student submit a reference page or bibliography?e. Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?

i. Double spaced?ii. One inch margins all around?

iii. Name include in the upper right hand corneriv. Pages numbered in the lower right hand corner?v. 10 to 12 point font?

vi. Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors?


Student’s name:


Points earned

Annotated outline (60 points)

Does it appear as if the student grouped similar research findings from multiple sources?

20

Did the student identify conflict and agreement among the previous researchers?

20

Did the student integrate information from single sources throughout the outline?

20

Final draft of the literature review (40 points)

Does the final draft appear to have been written from the annotated outline?

5

Is it an appropriate length (three to five pages)? 10

Are the sources cited appropriately in the text? 10

Did the student submit a reference page or bibliography? 10

Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?Double spaced?One inch margins all around?Name include in the upper right hand cornerPages numbered in the lower right hand corner?10 to 12 point font?Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors?

5

Total points 100

Comments:

Assessment for Assignment #5Designing Your Research Method

Point value: 100

Key assessment criteria1. Did the student consider the methodological concepts that are relevant to the proposed

research project?a. Are there any methodological processes or procedures that should be included in

the proposed method but are not?b. Are there any methodological processes or procedures that are not included in the

proposed method but should be?2. Did the student accurately apply the methodological concepts, processes and procedures?3. Would the student’s proposed method produce the data necessary to answer the research

question?


Student’s name:


Points earned

Did the student consider the methodological concepts that are relevant to the proposed research project? (30 points)

Are there any methodological processes or procedures that should be included in the proposed method but are not?

Comment:

15

Are there any methodological processes or procedures that are not included in the proposed method but should be?

Comment:

15

Did the student accurately apply the methodological concepts, processes and procedures?

Comment:

20

Would the student’s proposed method produce the data necessary to answer the research question?

Comment:

50

Total points 100

Overall comments:

Assessment for Assignment #6Synthesizing Your Research Proposal

Point value: 25

Key assessment criteria1. Did the student revise the introduction, literature review and methods plan so that they

are congruent with each other?2. Is the manuscript well organized and readable?3. Is the manuscript relatively free of grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors?


Student’s name:


Pointsearned

Did the student revise the introduction, literature review and methods plan so that they are congruent with each other?

10

Is the manuscript well organized and readable? 5

Is the manuscript relatively free of grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors?

5

Grammar, spelling and punctuation. 5

Total points 25

Comments:

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