DRAMA-ENACTMENT OF HUNTING BY EARY HUMANS MAYBE EARLIEST FORM OF DRAMA-BHARATMUNI LIKE ARISTETOTLE SAID THAT DRAMA IS BORN OUT OF IMITATION OF ACTION-SITABENA AND JOGIMARA IN SARGUJA CHATTISGARH STRUTURES HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED WHICH ARE SAID TO B AMONG THE WORLDS OLDEST THEATRES-ACCORDING TO SOME SCHOLARS 5000 YEARS AGO THESE WERE USED FOR DRAMA AND DANCE.-INDUS VALLEY HAS SEALS SHOWING MAN PLAYING ON A DRUM AND ANOTHER DISGUISED AS A TIGER-MOVABLE TOYS HAVE BEEN FOUND WHOSE LIMBS COULD BE MOVED WITH STRINGS -LIKE MODERN PUPPETS-VEDIC PERIOD-YAJURVEDA TELLS PRIESTS TO PERFORM RITUALS ASSUMING ROLES-RIGVEDA - CERTAIN VERSES ARE IN FORM OF MONOLOGUE AND DIALOGUE -EARLIEST DRAMATIC LITERATURE IN INDIA-NATYASHASTRA TRIED TO EVOLVE RULES OF DRAMA-IMMODEST ACTS WERE TO B AVOIDED ON STAGE-DEATH BLOODY BATTLE SCENES WERE TO BE CENSORED-BUDDHAS STRICTURES AND ASOKAS BAN ON DRAMATIC ACTIVITES DUE TO VULGARITYCLASSICAL THEATRE-TRADITIONAL EARLY PLAYS WERE ENACTED ON OCCASION OF FLAG STAFF FESTIVAL OF INDRA-CLASSICAL THEATRE ALSO EVOLVED FROM SHADOW AND PUPPETRY THEATRES-LINKS BETWEEN GREEK AND INDIAN CLASSICAL THEATRES HAVE BEEN FOUND-CURTAINS AT BACK STAGE WERE CALLED "YAVANIKA" YAVANA MEANS GREEK.-MRICCHAKATIKA (THE LITTLE CLAY CART) RESEMBLES LATE GREEK COMEDY OF SCHOOL OF MENANDER-GREEK DRAMAS IN COURTS OF GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGS IN NORTH WEST INDIA-SUTAS-NARRATED RAMAYANA MAHABHARAT DRAMATICALLY-BHASAS PLAYS DRAW HEAVILY ON EPICS FOR THER SUBJECT.-UPARUPAKA (SECONDARY DRAMAS) IN PRAKRIT ENACTED PUBLICALLY ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS.-FRAGMENTS OF PLAYS BY ASVAGHOSA ARE SUPPOSED TO BE EALIEST DRAMAS THAT SURVIVED-BHASA PLAYS !ST COMPLETE PLAYS " COME DOWN TO US.-SANSKRIT DRAMAS-ONE PLAY OR LONG !0 ACT PLAY.-NORMALLY PLAYS IN PALACES RICH HOMES OR IN TEMPLE COURTS ON FESTIVALS.-NATYASHASTRA -# TYPES OF THEATRES AND SPECIFIES THEIR MODE OF CONSTRUCTON-THEATRE-AUDITORIUM$THE STAGE AND BACKSTAGE.CURTAIN DIVIDES STAGE FROM BACKSTAGE.-NO CURTAIN SEPARATED STAGE FROM AUDITORIUM.-NO SCENERY ON STAGE MINIMUM STAGE PROPERTY-ACTORS USED A RICH GESTURE LANGUAGE AND FACIAL E%PRESSIONS " COMMUNICATECOSTUMES AND MAKE UP WERE CONVENTIONAL -MOST DRAMAS HAD HERO HEROINE VILLAIN AND VIDUSHAKA for comic releif.FAMOUS DRAMATISTS:-BHASA-NORTH INDIA- MAHABHARAT AND RAMAYANA-BHAVABHUTI- SECOND BEST TO KALIDAS-LIVED IN KANYAKUBA-NO USE OF VIDUSHAK-HARSHA-KALIDAS-ESTER HAS IM! ROLE-MAHENDRAVIKRAMAN-RABELAISIAN HUMOURFOLK THEATREThe origin of folk theatre, like its classical counterpart, goes back to the Vedic hymns, many of them in the form of dialogues.Though initially all forms of folk drama were religiously oriented, as time went by, the drama became oriented towards depicting the social conditions.The roots of folk theatre probably lay in the minor dramatic forms mentioned by Sanskrit dramaturgists. With the Bhakti movement, theatrical activity came in handy for propagation of different ideas and faiths. Indeed, at this time the regional varieties of folk dramatic forms got crystallised. owever, all of them have in common an imaginative and earthy use of music, dance and mime. Ankia Nat: ! synthesis of classical Indian theatrical forms and local traditions, !nkia "at is a one#act play with its roots in rural !ssam. !nkia "at is generally performed in the village hall or a pandal in an open field$ it appeals to the learned and the ignorant, drawing its themes, as it does, from the Vaishnavatradition. The language is !ssamese Bra%ubuli interspersed with Sanskrit slokas. Songs are used to e&press feelings. 'ainted masks are used. The impact is meant to be religious. Sankaradeva has written several !nkia "ats.Bhand Pather:! traditional theatre form of (ashmir, Bhand )ather combines dance, acting and music. The enactment is by members of the farming community, which means that their ideals and lifestyle influence this theatre form. *aughter is an important part of this theatre. It is generated through satire, parody and wit.Bhaona:Bhaona is a theatre form that is a presentation of the !nkia "at. There is a sutradhar +narrator, who introduces the story-in Sanskrit first and then in !ssamese or Bra%boli +as Bhaona has cultural links with !ssam, Bengal, .disha, and /athura and Vrindavan in 0ttar 'radesh.Bhavai:'revalent in the western part of India, Bhavai originated in 1a%asthan and northern parts of 2u%arat Initially the Bhavai performances were part of religious rituals to propitiate themother goddess during religious festivals.*ater, however, they came to be performed throughout the year, though even now the firstperformance of the year is presented on the first day of "avaratra, in a Shiva temple. Bhavai is a series of playlets +vesha, strung together.! playlet may me mythological or social in theme. Some of these veshas have /uslims as principal characters showing the influence of the /uslim rulers in 3eccan and 3elhi on the form. The Bhavais travel from village to village with their show. The music uses classical ragas but in a style of its own.The dance, too, is not classical though the influence of (athak, besides the folk dances of1aas and 2arba, is seen. The dance form is used to reveal a character in the play. Traditional instruments used in Bhavai performances are bhungal, 4an4 and pakhava%. 5ostumes and make#up are codified.Bhavai has social relevance for it incorporates topical issues and holds up the mirror to society and thus functions as a creator of public opinion. The Bhavai dances of 1a%asthan have some main themes such as 678Bora and Bori679 caricaturing a village baniya and his miserable wife$ 6783hola /aru679, depicting the eternal story of 3hola and /aru: and 6783okri679 depicting the ill face of an old woman.Dashavatar:! theatre form of the (onkan and 2oan people, 3ashavatar involves enactment of the incarnations of *ord Vishnu. The performers wear masks of wood and papier mache and apply stylised make#up.Jashin:! well known performing art of (ashmir, ;ashin is a combination of farces called fathers +from patra < dramatis personae,, and is performed by folk artists called bhands. =very pather ends with a comic event. Sanskrit drama has influenced the form. 'erformances take place in open air and actors mingle with the people. ! clown is a must in a pather. ;ashin is a powerful medium of satire on social evils.Jatra:The term 678%atra679 probably derives from the .raon language in which it means an important ritual dance festival. .n the occasion of the festival, dramatic performances areheld. In Bengal and .disha, where 5haitanya679s school of Vaishnavism had a great impact, ;atra is always associated with a Vaishnava festival. Thus its themes are drawn from the story of (rishna679s life.With the decline of Vaishnavite influence on the social life of Bengal from the beginning of the eighteenth century, ;atra began to draw on 'uranic and secular themes too. The new form of ;atra introduced an orchestra with indigenous and foreign instruments67-a characteristic retained to this day.This form is known as 678"utan ;atra679. It added prose dialogue in imitation of Western theatre. 3uring the national movement, ;atra turned to social themes aiming at removal of social evils such as untouchability and casteism.Jatra is a moving theatre and the professional troupes travel around performing in different places, generally between .ctober and ;une.Karyala:! folk drama of imachal 'radesh, (aryala deals with serious >uestions of life and deathbriefly, with simplicity of e&pression and diction, all enveloped in humour. Indeed, the audience is given the essence of our cultural heritage which views the world as a stage and as an unsubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived by one by rising above it.Khyal:1a%asthan has developed varieties of dance dramas known as (hyals. The tradition is more than ?@@ years old. The (hyals have been a powerful medium of entertainment as well as cultural and social education. The (hyals have singing and it involves distinctive techni>ues of instrumental music.Krishnattam:! cycle of eight plays depicting the life of (rishna from birth to death, (rishnattam is based on /anaveda679s Sanskrit poem, (rishna 2iti. The dialogues are spokenAsung bya chorus and orchestra while the actors use elaborate gestures to act out the te&t. ! similardance#drama is that of 1ama !ttam, evolved out of the 1ama cycle of plays.Kudiyattam:In the (erala of the ninth#century, the 678chakyars67967-actors67-began staging the Sanskrit dramas of Bhasa, (ulashekharavarman, etc. in temple theatres. Very elaborately presented over several days, the dramatic form involves very rich gestures: indeed every word of the te&t is practically interpreted by theatrical gesture.The /alayalam language is used by the %ester to e&plain the Sanskrit passages, thus bringing the Sanskrit classical drama to the masses. This dramatic form influenced the development of (rishnattam and 1ama !ttam, out of which grew the classical dance form of (athakali. Macha:/acha or /aach musical dance drama of /adhya 'radesh was probably born in 0%%ain about two centuries ago. The term macha refers to the stage, and the plays are performed around oli, during the harvest season./ostly based on mythological stories, folk tales of romance and valour, and historical episodes, the /acha also makes plentiful use of music67-songs in traditional folk times as well as classical ragas. Some themes from contemporary social life are also depicted.Mudiyettu:! ritualistic dance drama of an ancient descent in (erala, the /udiyettu is performed annually at (ali temples.It signifies the triumph of good over evil, as (ali van>uishes the demon 3arika. It involves elaborate drawings on floors, masks made of areca nut fronds and drum#playing.It belongs to the period when worship was conducted in kavm or grove.The salient features of the ritual dance drama includes absence of a restricted and designated stage that ensures the viewers679 involvement, near total absence of hasthamudras or hand gestures, and the theme of incarnation of Bhadrakali as the compilation of the positive forces of the universe and as the sum total of the strength of all the gods.The adversary is the concentration of all that is evil. /udiyettu is performed in Bhagavati(avus, the temples of the goddess in villages along the rivers 5halakkudy 'u4ha, 'eriyar and /aovattupu4ha. The dance is performed by the =4havathy community, who were once priests of temples. Theeyattua is considered a by#product of /udiyettu.Nautanki:This popular form of musical theatre has emerged during the last few centuries in 0ttar 'radesh. Its name is said to have been derived from the name of the heroine of the play Shah%adi "autanki. The dialogues of "autanki are mostly in verse form which are delivered in a high pitch to the accompaniment of the nakkara67-a percussion instrument.The metres used in the verses are doha, chaubola, chhappai and behar#e#tabeel. =arlier, only men acted in "autanki but women also take part in it now. The style is >uite melodramatic. 1omantic tales are preferred and the repertoire has such famous love stories as *aila /a%nu, !marsinh 1athore and eer 1an%a. 2ulab Bai of (anpur is credited with giving a new dimension to this theatre form.Prahalad Nataka:! theatre form belonging to southern .disha, particularly 2an%am district, 'rahalad "ataka enacts the popular story of 'rahalad and his father iranyakashipu. =nacted for three to seven nights by some twenty characters, the play is in a language thatis a mi& of Sanskrit and collo>uial .dia. The theatre form includes dance, mime and stylised gestures.Ram Leela:2oswami Tulsidas is considered to have started the tradition of performing plays based on the life of 1ama, known as 1am *eela, at (ashi. The episodes from the 1amayana areenacted in se>uence on the different days of the 3ussehra festival and at different places.The 1amnagar 1am *eela is famous in this tradition with the audience travelling with theperformance from place to place over a period of thirty#one days. 5haracters like 1avana and anuman wear striking masks.3ialogues are conducted in a stylised manner. The 1am *eela is presented in different ways in many places in the northern region. !ccording to a B@@C 0"=S5. report, the most representative 1am *eelas are those of !yodhya, 1amnagar, Varanasi, Vrindavan, !lmora, Satna and /adhubani.Ramman:1amman is a religious festival and ritual theatre of the 2arhwal imalayas. The twin villages of Saloor#3ungra in 0ttarakhand, in late !pril, celebrate 1amman in honour of the tutelary god and local deity, Bhumiyal Devta5omple& rituals are involved in the festival that includes recitation of a version of the 1ama epic and legends, songs and masked dances. =ach caste or group has a distinct role.The brahmans lead the prayers and perform the rituals and the Bhandaris +kshatriyas, wear the sacred mask of the half# man, half#lion deity, NarasimhaThe youth and the elders perform the events. 1amman combines theatre, music and traditional tales67-both oral and written67-to enact the environmental, cultural and spiritual concept of the community.Ras Leela:(rishna has always held an attraction for the devotees of the Bhakti cult. In the Bra% region of 0ttar 'radesh there developed in the DEth#DFth centuries a dramatic style67- (rishna *eela. This developed into the 1as *eela. The themes of the 1as *eela are taken from the /ahabharata, Bhagavata and other 'uranas and from folklore centred round (rishna.These operatic plays were performed in temples, or even by the road side. The 1as involves (rishna and 1adha and the gopis dancing together and separately. The *eela is the dramatisation of episodes from (rishna679s life, especially his childhood pranks andheroic deeds. 5hild actors perform in the plays. 1as *eela is thus probably the only theatre with such a long continuous tradition involving children.Saang aryana has a rich tradition of folk theatre called Saang for S4vang,. /usicians sitin the middle of an open air stage around which the audience sits. The actors#cum#singers# cum#dancers move round the stage. The plot is based on a popular legend.5omic scenes are interwoven in the performance. The form is characterised by softness of emotions and accomplishment of rasa. There are two styles of Saang the 1ohtak style in !aryanvi and the !aathras style in Bra"#hasha.$amasha:/aharashtra has a flourishing theatrical tradition. Initially Tamasha started as a singing and dancing party. It was in the later 'eshwa period that Tamasha took on a definite shapeand achieved its present format. Women began appearing on the stage. The theatre is simple67-devoid of special props orda44ling costumes and make#up. .nly the %ester puts on a funny dress. Tamasha has its own distinct style of dancing and singing. The *avani dance is interwoven in the presentation. The Tamasha reflects the social and sometimes even political aspirations of the people. Ithas deeply influenced modern theatre and film.$herukkoothu:! uni>ue form of rural entertainment and communication in Tamil "adu, Therukkoothu combines music, dance and drama. *iterally it is 678street theatre679, performed in the open. Some influence of classical Sanskrit drama on it is apparent. There is a kattiyakaran67-parallel to the sutradhar67- who, however, has a more elaborate role, taking on different parts besides those of %ester and commentator.The tradition is oral, and the players have to be specially talented as they have often to compose poems impromptu and sing in tune and tala. )emale parts are played by the males. The stories are taken from the epics and other classical legends. !t some places the (oothu is performed for several days.There is an element of ritual involved, and the audience often involve themselves totally in the performance. In the course of the performance, day#to#day problems, too, are discussed in a clinical and dialectical way. While the acting is stylised, the effect is profound.$heyyam:Basically a form of ancestor worship in (erala, the ritualistic dancer in Theyyam represents local gods and goddesses who are held to be protectors of the village. The costumes and make#up are striking.%akshagana Bayalata:! theatre#form of Karnataka, Gakshagana Bayalata has developed from the ancient Bhagavatara !ta. They were plays enacted in the open air and the troupes were maintained by temples. The actors put on elaborate make#up, colourful dresses and huge head#dresses. The themes enacted are drawn from the epics and the 3asavatara of on Vishnu. 0dipi, the hone of /adhavacharya, and the /ookambika Temple are said to havebeen the home of Gakshagana.3r (ota Shivaram (aranth led the movement to revive this ancient art form which had, over the years, fallen into obscurity. e evolved his own style called Gaksha 1anga. It is also a predominantly male preserve.There are five or si& types of roles, and generally each dancer is trained for one. Similarities to (athakali are obvious to an observer. The dances are mostly of the pure nritta variety marked by footwork and body movements, e&pressing basic human passions and celebrating the victory of good over evil.&atra:Hatra has a special significance for the people of 2oa$ indeed, it is an integral part of theirsocio#religious life. Hatra is the annual celebration of a particular deity at a particular temple. 2oans679 passion for drama is evident in Hatuas, for several dramas are performed on these days in a given year.'tring Pu((ets:The puppet theatre of India has a long and old tradition. 'tring, rod, glove and shado) puppets were well#known and traditional puppeteers went from place to place to entertainpeople with legends from myths and historical romances. The puppets show the influenceof the paintings, sculpture, costumes and decorative arts of the regions to which they belong.Ra"asthani Katha(utli shows have become famous among the string puppet variety +marionettes,. The puppets are made of wood and cloth and dressed in medieval 1a%asthani costume. 5arved from a single piece of wood, the puppets are like big dolls with colourful costumes67-long trailing skirts. They do not have legs. 'uppeteers manipulate the puppets with strings, varying from two to five on each.The strings are tied to their fingers +not to a prop,. The 1a%asthani puppets are e&pertly manipulated to present historical romances. The legend of !marsinh 1athore is very popular, with plenty of opportunity to show duels, fights and dances.Typical of this show is the accompaniment on a whistle67-boli67-producing shrill notes. The Sakhi (undhei of .disha, 'uda "ach of !ssam, /alasutri Bahuly of /aharashtra and 2ombeyatta of (arnataka are other variations of string puppetry in India.The *om#eyatta (u((et +igures are styled like the Gakshagana characters, with %oints atthe legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. )ive to seven strings on the puppet are tied toa prop. The episodes enacted are based on prasangas of Gakshagana plays. )olk and classical elements are fused in the music that is played.Bommalattam of Tamil "adu is a remarkably skilful art in which huge realistic puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer with the help of strings attached to a circular metal ring on his head and two rods in his hands. The art is found in (arnataka and !ndhra 'radesh also.'hado) Pu((ets:Shadow puppets are flat, leather puppets made translucent. When they are pressed againstthe screen with a strong source of light behind it, silhouettes are created on the screen. Shadow puppets, mostly made of animal hides, beautifully coloured and ornately perforated, are popular in !ndhra 'radesh, /aharashtra, (arnataka, .disha and (erala. The puppets have several %oints to facilitate movement.While the Tolpavakoothu of (erala and the Tholu Bommalata of !ndhra 'radesh mainly depict episodes from the epics, the Togalu 2ombeyatta of (arnataka deals with secular themes and characters. Tholu Bommalata puppets are large with %ointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees.The classical music of the region influences the music played in the shows. The Togalu 2ombeyatta puppets are usually smaller in si4e, but the puppets depicting kings and religious characters are larger than those depicting the common people.The Ravanachhaya shado) (u((ets made of deer skin belong to .disha. They are %oint less67-that is, each is in one piece. They have to be manipulated with great skill for this reason .uman and animal characters are used as well as props like tree, mountains and chariots. The puppets are generally small in si4e*love (u((ets:2love puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer in full view of the audience. They are also called sleeve, palm or hand puppets. There is the head made of cloth, wood or papiermache. The rest of the puppet is dressed in a long#flowing skirt. The puppeteer uses three fingers to manipulate a puppet and produce a wide range of movements. This tradition is popular in the states of .disha, West Bengal, 0ttar 'radesh and (erala.In .disha, glove puppets enact tales of 1adha and (rishna. The puppeteer is skilful: he manipulates the puppet even while playing the dholak with one hand. In 0ttar 'radesh, the glove puppets enact social themes. The 'avakoothu is a fascinating variety from (erala..riginating in the eighteenth century under the influence of (athakali, the puppets in thisform are one#to#two feet in si4e. They are carved of wood but %oined together with thick cloth. 'aint decorates their faces$ peacock feathers and pieces of gilded tin are among the materials used to decorate them. They enact episodes from the epics 1amayana and /ahabharata.Rod Pu((ets:1od puppets are larger than glove puppets. They are manipulated by rods from below. It is found in West Bengal and .disha. The 'atul "ach of West Bengal is a variety of the rod puppet art form. The big doll carved of wood is tied on to a pole fastened to the waist of the puppeteer who is behind a huge screen and controls the puppet679s movement with the help of rods.The Bengal rod puppets found today are generally three# to#four feet in height and wear costumes resembling those of the actors who perform the ;atra plays. The puppets have three %oints$ the main rod supports the head and is %oined at the neck$ the hands are attached to the rods at the shoulders. Interestingly the puppeteers who manipulate the puppets also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the puppetsThe .disha rod puppets +(athikundhei "ach, are smaller, combining elements of string and rod puppets +the hands are tied to strings,. The puppeteer sits on the ground and manipulates the puppets to the accompaniment of music that blends folk and classical tunes.The rod puppet shows in the state are more operatic than those elsewhere. The puppet dance here is a rare and unusual type of stylised indigenous drama and dance based on mythological stories. The puppets are usually the representations of various characters and animals of a particular drama.The Gampuri rod puppets of Bihar are made of wood. They are different from the rod puppets of West Bengal and .disha in 67Ithat they do %oints have %oints and are of one#piece each. igh skill is re>uired to manipulate them as they are %ointless.In each mode, there is background music based on the classical and folk music of the particular region. The puppeteers deliver the songs and dialogues in prose. The puppeteers have to be not only skilful with their hands but also versatile at singing and dialogue delivery.