culinary products - industry training solutions

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Industry Training Solutions Ltd, Level 1, 515 Main St, Palmerston North 4410. 0800 464 487. www.its.ac.nz

LEARNER NOTES

18497 V6

CULINARY PRODUCTS AND TERMS

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This pack contains notes and activities relating to the following NZQA Unit Standards:

18497 v6 Demonstrate knowledge of culinary products and terms 8 credits

supervision

These learner notes have been put together to help you prepare for completing the assessments for the unit listed above. Reading these notes will help you to understand the subjects and see how your workplace practices relate to each subject.

When you have completed your research and are ready to sit your assessments, please let your teacher know and they will arrange a time and place for you to complete your assessments under supervision.

Contact details

Please feel free to contact us at any time if you need any help while working through your learner notes and activity pack, or if you have any questions at all.

Email: [email protected]

Call: 0800 464 487

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CONTENTS Describing food .................................................................................................................... 4

Cooking methods ................................................................................................................. 6

Culinary terms ...................................................................................................................... 7

Cuts of beef ........................................................................................................................ 10

Cuts of lamb ....................................................................................................................... 12

Cuts of pork ........................................................................................................................ 14

Cuts of chicken ....................................................................................................................15

Fish ..................................................................................................................................... 16

Characteristics of Shellfish.................................................................................................. 18

Cheese ................................................................................................................................ 19

Beans .................................................................................................................................. 20

Common vegetables ........................................................................................................... 21

Fungi ................................................................................................................................... 22

Leafy salad vegetables ....................................................................................................... 22

Common types of salad ...................................................................................................... 23

Fruit .................................................................................................................................... 24

Herbs and spices ................................................................................................................. 25

Spices ................................................................................................................................. 27

Soups .................................................................................................................................. 30

Sauces ................................................................................................................................ 32

Salad dressings ................................................................................................................... 32

Cold sauces .......................................................................................................................... 33

Mustards ............................................................................................................................. 34

Hot sauces .......................................................................................................................... 34

Pasta ....................................................................................................................................35

Noodles ............................................................................................................................... 37

Grains .................................................................................................................................. 37

Bread .................................................................................................................................. 38

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CULINARY PRODUCTS AND TERMS Standard industry texts:

• Foskett, D., PaskinsP., and Ceserani, V. (2010), The Theory of Hospitality and Catering (12th edition) London: Hodder and Stoughton

• Lillicrap, D.R., Smith R., and Cousins, J. (2014), Food and Beverage Service (9th edition) London: Hodder and Stoughton

• Christensen-Yule, L., Neil, L., and McRae, H. (2012), The New Zealand Chef (3rd edition) Auckland, NZ: Pearson Education

DESCRIBING FOOD

Adjectives are used to describe the ingredients used or the dish presented to the customer. They tell the customer about the texture (feel), colour, taste (flavour) and aroma (smell). The customer can also use them to describe ingredients to you they don’t recognise.

TEXTURE

How does the food feel?

• Dry - not wet. • Moist - little wet. • Tender - easy to cut or chew. • Rubbery – having an elastic texture. • Crumbly - easily breaking into small fragments. • Greasy - containing or covered with fat or oil. • Creamy - resembling cream • Crunchy - firm and making a loud noise when it is eaten.

COLOUR Colour is the first thing people notice about food. There is an expectation for food to look a certain way e.g. custard tart to be yellow. Colour can also categorise foods: white and red meats or white and yellow cheeses. They can also influence sales e.g. green connotes eco-friendliness and healthiness while red and yellow are chief food colours, arousing the taste buds and stimulating the appetite.

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TASTE

Our tongue recognises five basic tastes or combinations of these:

1. Sweet – from the amount of sugars in the food 2. Sour – from the acids in the food e.g. citric acid in lemons 3. Salt - from the amount of sodium in the food e.g. celery, beets 4. Bitter – from the number of alkaloids in the food e.g. artichokes, brussel sprouts 5. Savoury - from the amount of free glutamates in the food e.g. matured cheeses

Examples of describing tastes:

• Bitter - having a strong, often unpleasant taste e.g. coffee, dark chocolate. • Sweet - usually an enjoyable taste of sugar. • Bland - boring, not interesting. • Sour - having a sharp taste e.g. yogurt, lemon. • Spicy - having strong flavours from spice. • Savoury - not sweet e.g. bread. • Rich - rich food has a lot of butter, cream, or eggs in it. • Smoky - tasting (or smelling) of smoke • Subtle - not immediately obvious or noticeable

AROMA

These words are like the taste adjectives as our sense of smell and taste are closely linked. The aroma reaches the nose before the food reaches the mouth and we can taste it.

• Acrid - pungent, bitter, food can acquire this quality when cooked over a wood fire.

• Delicate – subtle, never overpowering.

• Fresh - clean, crisp as newly picked fruit or vegetables, or warm as newly baked bread hot from the oven

• Heady – potent, thrilling, intoxicating, powerful, strong • Savoury - spicy, pungent, flavoursome. • Sweet - pleasing and easy on the palate

Or foods themselves can describe either taste or aroma: lemony; citrusy; garlicky; gingery.

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COOKING METHODS

BAKING

Food is cooked in the dry heat of an oven. Heat is transferred from the warm air and container to the food. Most commonly used for cakes, biscuits, pies, bread.

BOILING

Boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water (100oC) or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering (83o – 98oC) is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.

ROASTING

Food is cooked in the dry heat of an oven, or on a spit, but basted with fat and oil to keep it moist. Most commonly used for large cuts of meat such as leg of lamb, beef, pork, and vegetables such as potatoes, carrots, kumara.

POACHING

Poached food is cooked in liquid (water, milk, stock etc) heated to between (71–82 °C). The food can be completely covered in the liquid (e.g. when poaching eggs) or partially covered (e.g. poaching fish).

STEAMING

Food is cooked in steam or water vapour. It is not immersed/covered in water.

BRAISING

Braised food is cooked slowly in an oven in a covered pot or casserole dish. The food sits in liquid but is not completely covered by the liquid.

GRILLING

Grilled food is cooked by dry heat radiated from a heat source such as a salamander or barbeque.

FRYING

Frying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat.

• Sautéing- is a method that uses a relatively small amount of oil or fat in a shallow pan tossing while cooking over relatively high heat.

• Stir frying - a Chinese cooking technique where ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while stirred in a wok.

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• Pan frying - minimal use of cooking oil or fat using just enough oil to lubricate the pan. For greasy foods no oil or fats may be needed. Pan frying can serve to retain the moisture in food and is typically flipped at least once to make sure cooking of both sides.

• Shallow frying - oil-based cooking technique used to prepare portion-sized cuts of meat and fish, and patties such as fritters or vegetables. Food is often battered. It is a high-heat process, promoting browning. Since the food is only partly submerged, it must be turned over partway through the cooking process.

• Deep frying - food is submerged in hot fat, commonly oil. Normally, a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this; industrially, a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer may be used. Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot. Deep frying is classified as hot-fat cooking method. Typically, deep frying foods cook quickly: all sides of a food are cooked simultaneously

STEWING

A stew is a combination of solid ingredients cooked in liquid and served in its gravy, it could also be called a soup. Generally, stews have less liquid than soups, are much thicker and require longer cooking over low heat. Stews are typically cooked at a relatively low temperature (simmered, not boiled), allowing flavours to mingle.

CULINARY TERMS

CANAPÉS

Bite-sized, cold finger food. Canapés are made from small pieces of bread, toast, crackers or even vegetables like a slice of cucumber, topped with small pieces of savour food such as meat, seafood, pickles, egg etc and decoratively garnished.

CROUTONS

Small cubes of toasted or fried bread. They add a crisp/crunchy texture to dishes.

BAIN MARIE

A water bath kept at a constant temperature to ensure cooked food is kept warm. Food is stored in containers sitting over the bath. It can also be used to control the cooking process of delicate foods such as crème brulée.

TABLE D’HÔTE

A type of menu with a fixed number of courses. There is limited choice within each course and the selling price is fixed for the menu.

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A LA CARTE

A type of menu where the choice is generally more extensive and each dish is priced separately. Dishes are cooked or finished to order.

DU JOUR

Is a French term meaning ‘of the day’ and refers to menu specials available on the day. For example, soup du jour – soup of the day.

PÂTÉ

A spread made with finely ground or minced liver (or other offal or ground meat), seasoning, herbs, fat and wine. It is cooked first and then usually served cold and can be spread on bread, toast, crackers etc.

TERRINE

A terrine is like pâté but with a coarser texture and cooked in a terrine mould – a rectangular high sided container (like a loaf pan). The top of the terrine is usually decorated with herbs or other garnishes, and/or jelly.

CARPACCIO

An Italian term for very thinly sliced raw beef or fish. The outside may be seared before slicing. Parmesan cheese, capers and olive oil may be sprinkled on it before serving. A cold sauce, such as aioli, may also be served with it.

CONCASSE

Means ‘coarsely chopped’. For example, skinned and deseeded tomatoes are coarsely chopped, and may be mixed with herbs, to make tomato concasse.

PAUPIETTE

Thin slices of meat (or fish) are spread with a savoury mixture and rolled up before cooking. Beef olives are an example of paupiettes.

RAGOUT

A rich thick stew, originally from France, made from beef, sometimes with vegetables, and often flavoured with wine, herbs and seasoning.

FARCE

A filling or stuffing.

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CASSEROLE

A casserole dish is a high sided container with a tight-fitting lid. Food is cooked in the dish in the oven, with a small amount of liquid such as stock. The cooked dish is also referred to as a casserole.

SOUFFLÉ

A light, airy sponge-like dish served in a straight-sided dish direct from the oven. It rises because air is trapped in the whipped egg whites. They are tricky to make because if left out of the oven too long it collapses because the air escapes. A soufflé can be sweet or savoury.

FLAN

A flan is a round open pie with no pastry topping. It is usually lined with a short crust pastry. It can be savoury or sweet.

COMPOTE

A chilled dish of fresh or dried fruit that has been slowly cooked in sugar syrup (which may contain liquor and sometimes spices). The fruit keeps its shape because of the slow cooking.

CREPE

A thin pancake. A classic example is crêpe suzette, a sweet pancake served with lemon.

DARIOLE

A small, high-sided, cylindrical mould used to cook small pastries, puddings etc.

INFUSION

Plant leaves (or flowers or other parts) steeped/brewed/left for a few minutes in hot water to extract the flavour. As well as teas, cold infusions of herbs such as tarragon, chilli, garlic or lemon are used to make flavoured oils.

PETIT FOURS

Tiny cakes, biscuits, pastries or sweets. Usually highly decorated.

HORS D‘OEUVRES

A variety of items such as olives, sliced meats, canapes, etc that are served before a meal. It can also mean a light dish served before a meal (an appetiser or starter). Hors d’oeuvres are designed to stimulate the appetite for the food to follow.

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BUFFET

A selection of prepared food arranged or tables or serving areas where customers can choose what food they want and serve themselves. Food may be hot and/or cold, savoury and/or sweet.

CUTS OF BEEF

Eye fillet (or fillet)

Is an oblong shaped cut that spans between the short loin and the sirloin. It sits beneath the ribs next to the back bone and does very little work, ultimately making it an incredibly tender and succulent cut. It can be roasted whole or cut into steaks and shallow fried or grilled.

Minute steaks

The minute steak can be cut from a variety of muscles but is often from the thick flank. It is cut thinly (about 1 cm) and should be cooked at a high temperature for a very little time. Best shallow fried or grilled.

Rib or short ribs

Also known as spare ribs, short ribs are taken from the forequarter after the brisket is removed. They are made up of the rib bone and layers of rib meat and fat. Marinating the ribs before cooking is recommended. They can be cooked on a barbeque or roasted in the oven.

Rump

This boneless piece of beef is cut from the hindquarter and generally has a mix of textures and levels of tenderness. This cut is best and most tender when roasted or diced for slow cooking, but can also be quickly shallow fried or grilled.

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Sirloin

The sirloin is from the lower portion of the ribs, continuing off the tenderloin from which eye fillet is cut. Sirloin is considered to be a premium prime cut with a fine grain and may have some marbling. Sirloin can tolerate high temperatures, which makes is ideal for roasting whole, or being sliced into steaks and grilled or shallow fried.

Rib and rib eye

The rib roast and rib eye steaks are cut from the rib primal portion of the rib section. It has a smooth, fine texture and exceptional tenderness. A rib roast is slow-roasted in the oven. When individually sliced between the ribs, it becomes a rib eye steak that is best when shallow fried or grilled.

Scotch

The scotch fillet is cut from the whole boneless eye of the rib. The cut has a slightly open grain and some marbling in addition to a strip of fat that runs through the length of the scotch fillet. It can be roasted whole, or cut into steaks and shallow fried or grilled.

T-bone

The t-bone is a cut that combines fillet steak and sirloin on either side of the bone. A large steak, it is best shallow fried or grilled.

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CUTS OF LAMB

Shoulder chops

Shoulder chops come from the lamb shoulder and contain a higher level of fat and connective tissue. Typically, shoulder chops are thinner than other cuts of lamb, and they can be braised slowly or cooked quickly by shallow frying or barbequing.

Loin chops

Cut from the portion of the loin from the 13th rib to the point of the hip bone, between the rack and the rump. Due to the fat interspersed within the lean component, loin chops require longer cooking to bring out the flavour and tenderness. They can be shallow fried or grilled.

Cutlet

Derived from the loin and cut from the rack, the cutlet is made up of the eye of loin muscle, a rib bone and a cap of fat. During cooking, the cap helps the cutlet retain moisture and imports a rich flavour into the meat. Cutlets are tender and suit high temperature cooking methods such as shallow fry or grill.

Rack

A full lamb rack has 6 or 8 ribs joined to the eye of the loin muscle. The lamb rack is the most tender, lean meat which suits roasting or barbequing. Or, it can be cut into cutlets for shallow frying or grilling.

Shank

Lamb shanks are a popular ingredient on winter menus do to their fabulous texture and rich flavour. Shanks are from the bottom section of the leg just below the lower leg joint. They are best braised in a slow cooker or oven.

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Noisette

The noisette is a small medallion made from the eye muscle of the lamb’s loin, which is in the lumbar region also known as the saddle. It is a lean and flavoursome cut which is traditionally shallow fried but can also be grilled.

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CUTS OF PORK

Pork escalopes

Pork escalopes are made from slices of pork fillet, or the eye of the loin. They look like thin steaks. They are beaten flat (about 5mm thick). They are then often crumbed and fried.

Eye fillet

The eye fillet is the tender loin muscle from under the spine. It is the leanest, most tender cut available and the healthiest choice. It can be roasted whole, or cut into steaks and cooked quickly on a high heat by shallow frying or grilling.

Loin chops

A pork chop is loin cut taken from the middle to rear of the back. Pork chops are leaner than other cuts of pork and suit shallow frying or grilling. They are less tender than the eye fillet.

Spare ribs

The spare ribs are cut from the lower portion of the pig, specifically the belly and breastbone. They contain more bone than meat, and also quite a bit of fat, which means they are not a tender cut and are suited to long slow roasting or barbequing.

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CUTS OF CHICKEN

Breast

The chicken breast is very tender and quick to cook. It has been taken off the bone, and can be cooked with the skin on or off. It can be cooked by shallow frying, grilling, roasting or poaching

Drumstick

This is taken from the leg of the chicken. It usually has the skin and some fat left on. It is not as tender as the breast, but because it is a working muscle, it generally has more flavour. The best cooking methods are roasting or barbequing.

Wing

The wings have a lot of skin and bone, and not a lot of meat compared to other chicken cuts. They used to be thrown away or used to make stocks, but now they are popular as a dish on their own, particularly in America. The benefit from slow cooking to make them tender. They can be roasted, baked, deep fried, or barbequed.

Thigh

The thigh is the top part of the chicken leg. It can be skinless or with the skin on, and boned (cutlet) or left with the bone in. It is not as tender as the breast, but has more flavour and suits longer cooking. The thigh is best roasted, braised, grilled or barbequed.

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FISH

CHARACTERISTICS OF FISH Tarakihi Type – round Texture – medium firm Oil content – very low

Snapper Type – round Texture – medium Oil content – medium

Orange roughy Type – round Texture – medium-firm Oil content – medium-high

Groper (Hapuku) Type – round Texture – firm Oil content – low

Blue cod Type – round Texture – firm Oil content – very low

Flounder Type – flat Texture – soft Oil content – low

Bluenose (Warehou) Type – round Texture – firm Oil content – low

Sole Type – flat Texture – soft Oil content – low

King salmon Type – round Texture – medium Oil content – high

Gurnard Type – round Texture – firm Oil content – very low

Bluefin tuna Type – round Texture – medium-firm Oil content – medium

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CUTS OF FISH

Fillet

A fish fillet is the flesh of a fish which has been cut or sliced away from the bone by cutting lengthwise along one side of the fish parallel to the backbone.

Darne

A darne is a thick, cross-section cut from a round fish, perpendicular to the spine. Steaks often retain part of the backbone.

Délice

A délice is a folded fillet of fish. Typically fillets from flat fish such as sole or flounder are used. The fillet is folded in on both sides or threaded through the thick end.

Goujons

Goujons are finger sized strips cut from the fillet. They are often crumbed and fried.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SHELLFISH

Shellfish are mainly categorized into crustaceans and molluscs.

Crustaceans have crusts on top or a shell, which act as armour. They are either cooked in the shell or out of the shell depending on the end product desired.

Molluscs are shellfish that have a hard, inedible shell. They can have a single shell, like abalones or snails; or two shells, like cockles or oysters.

Crayfish Type – crustacean Texture – medium-firm Oil content – low

Scallops Type – molluscs Texture – medium Oil content – low

Prawns Type – crustacean Texture – medium-firm Oil content – very low

Crabs Type – crustacean Texture – firm Oil content – very low

Pipis Type – molluscs Texture – firm Oil content – very low

Green shell mussels Type – molluscs Texture – medium-firm Oil content – low

Oysters Type – molluscs Texture – soft Oil content – medium

Cockles Type – molluscs Texture – firm Oil content – very low

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CHEESE

CHEDDAR: A yellow cheese (some ‘red’ variations), slightly savoury with a n acid tang and a lingering flavour. Aged cheddars are stronger tasting. It is a hard cheese that has its origins in Britain.

EDAM: A pale yellow/yellow cheese with a mild sweet and nutty taste. Traditionally it is pressed into the shape of a slig htly flattened ball coated in a red wax (black wax indicates that it has been aged for at least 17 weeks. It is a semi-soft cheese that has its origins in the Netherlands.

FETA: Feta is a white cheese. It has a milky, fresh acidity and may taste salty. It may be made from sheep, goat or cow’s milk. It holds it shape but usually crumbles eas ily. It is a fresh cheese that has its origins in Greece.

GOUDA: A yellow cheese with a sweet and fruity flavour that becomes more complex with age. Mature gouda becomes granular and can be grated. It is a semi-soft cheese that has its origins in the Netherlands

PARMESAN: Yellow, almost pale brown, cheese with a sweet and fruity aroma , and strong, rich taste. Only small amounts need to be used to give flavour. It is a hard cheese that has its origins in Italy.

BRIE: Has an edible, downy white rind and cream-coloured, buttery-soft interior that should ‘ooze’ when at the peak of ripeness. Usually made in rounds and sold as a round or wedge of a round. It is a soft ripened with white rind cheese that has its origins in France.

CAMEMBERT: Has an edible, downy white rind and cream-coloured, smooth, creamy interior. Not quite as creamy as brie. Also, usually made in rounds. It is soft ripened with white rind cheese that has its origins in France.

GORGONZOLA: An off-white/ivory-coloured cheese thickly streaked with bluish-green veins. It is rich and creamy with a savoury, slightly pungent flavour. It i s a blue cheese that has its origins in Italy.

RICOTTA: White, with mild, slightly sweet flavour. Low fat. Typically sold in containers as it does not hold its shape. It is a fresh cheese that has its origins in Italy.

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BEANS

Broad beans

Only the seeds of the broad bean are eaten. When they are young, the seeds can be eaten with the skin on and can be boiled, steamed or stir-fried and served as a vegetable. The seeds from older beans are usually peeled before eating, they can be blanched and pureed, or blanched and added to salads.

French beans

French beans are long, thin, round green beans with thin skins. The whole bean (pod and seeds) is used, and they are best used when young to avoid stringiness. They can be steamed, boiled or stir fried and served as a side vegetable, either whole or sliced; used as an ingredient in casseroles or risotto; blanched and added to salads such as potato, pasta, or leaf salads.

Runner beans

Runner beans are long, flat green beans with a thick skin. The whole bean (pod and seeds) is used, and they are best used when young to avoid stringiness. Young beans can be used in a similar way to French beans, steamed, boiled or stir fried; or older beans with strings removed can be used as an ingredient in ratatouille, soups or stews.

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COMMON VEGETABLES

Asparagus

Asparagus is the stem of the plant when it first emerges from the ground in spring (a shoot). It is green or purple. Small scale-like leaves grow along the sides and are tightly bunched at the tip. The flesh is firm and fibrous. It has a distinctive, slight sulphur flavour and succulent texture.

Kumara

A tuber (grows underground on the root of the plant) from the sweet potato family. It is available in red (purple), gold and orange varieties. Cooked flesh is sweet tasting, soft and buttery. Gold and orange varieties are sweeter than red.

Eggplant

An eggplant (aubergine) is the fruiting part of the plant. Common varieties have a very dark purple skin and creamy coloured flesh with small, edible seeds. They are shaped like an elongated pear. (Also, light purple, striped, and white types; some banana shaped, round and/or mandarin-sized). Eggplant has a mild flavour and is normally cooked with stronger flavoured foods.

Shallot

Shallots are bulbs. They are smaller than brown and red onions; about the same size or slightly larger than pickling onions. They have coppery-brown papery skin. They have a more delicate, sweeter taste and finer texture than onions.

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FUNGI

Portobello mushrooms

Portobello mushrooms have brown gills and fleshy white cap with a brown skin. They are usually larger than white button mushrooms. They are flat and open (you can see the gills) and have a dense, earthy flavour. The stalks are usually removed before use, and the caps wiped or washed to remove soil.

Black truffles

Truffles are firm, irregular shaped, roundish fungi that grow below ground. Black truffles have a black exterior and black to dark grey flesh. They have a strong earthy flavour, but white truffles are more delicately flavoured than black ones. They are used raw and unpeeled by grating them directly into dishes at the end of cooking.

LEAFY SALAD VEGETABLES

Cos lettuce

Also called romaine lettuce. It forms an elongated (stretched out) loos head. The bright green leaves are crisp and sharp flavoured.

Rocket

The dark green, deeply lobed leaves have a spicy piquant flavour. It is ideal to mix with other lettuce leaves and is commonly found in commercially available lettuce leaf mixes. The wild type (arugula) is spicier than commercial ‘salad’ types, with a narrower leaf.

Mesclun

Mesclun is the French term given to a mixture of tender young gourmet salad greens. It contains combinations of salad leaves and herbs that vary with the time of year and from brand to brand. The traditional mix is chervil, arugula, endive and a mix of lettuces in equal quantities.

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COMMON TYPES OF SALAD

Caesar

A Caesar salad is a green salad of cos lettuce and croutons. The dressing consists of olive oil, lemon juice, mustard, garlic, salt, pepper, parmesan cheese, Worcestershire sauce, egg yolk, whisked together into a smooth emulsion. It is tossed through the lettuce right before serving. Garnish with shaved parmesan.

The Caesar salad is named after an Italian (American) chef, Cesare Cardini and is attributed to being created while he was working in a restaurant in Tijuana, Mexico.

Nicoise

The Nicoise salad is a salad that originated in the French city of Nice, in the south of France. It is traditionally made of tomatoes, hard-boiled eggs, Nicoise olives, anchovies, and dressed with olive oil. Modern versions can include cooked green beans, potatoes, lettuce and tuna (either canned or fresh). It is dressed a vinaigrette of red wine vinegar, garlic, extra virgin olive oil. It is a composed salad where the ingredients are laid out, not tossed together, and the dressing is drizzled over the top.

Waldorf

The Waldorf salad at New York’s Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in 1896. The original recipe contained only apples, celery and mayonnaise. Chopped walnuts later become an integral part of the dish. The ingredients are tossed together with the mayonnaise so all pieces are coated, and usually served on a bed of lettuce.

Potato salad

Potato salad was most likely developed in Germany in the 16th century, these early potato salads were made by boiling potatoes in wine or a mixture of vinegar in spices. The German style potato salad is now generally made with bacon, onion and vinegar dressing. The American style potato salad is dressed with mayonnaise. There is no one way correct way to make potato salad; numerous regional variations exist.

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FRUIT

Stone fruit

A stone fruit has a large "stone" inside. The stone is sometimes called the seed, but the seed is inside the stone. The stones can also be called a pit. Examples of stone fruits are apricots, peaches, nectarines, plums, lychees, mangoes, and cherries. These fruits are edible and used frequently in cooking.

Hard

Most hard fruit are ‘pipfruit’, which refers to apples and pears, because of the small hard seeds (pips) in the centre of the fruit. Other hard fruit include nashi, quince, crab apple.

Citrus

Citrus have like with a leathery rind or "peel” like oranges, and lemons. Most are juice-laden, which contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. Other types of citrus fruit include limes, mandarin, grapefruit.

Soft

Most soft fruits come in the form of berries. A berry is a small, pulpy, edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present e.g. strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, cranberries, boysenberries.

Vine

As the name suggests, vine fruit grown on a vine. The grapevine is one of the world’s oldest cultivated plants. Other varieties of vine fruit include passionfruit, kiwifruit, watermelon, rockmelon, honeydew melon.

Tropical fruit

Tropical fruits are cultivated mostly in countries with warm climates. The only character that they share is frost intolerance. Common tropical fruits include bananas, pineapple, feijoa, fig, guava, mango, lychee, persimmon, tamarillo, dates.

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HERBS AND SPICES

HERBS

Herbs are plants that are savoury, or aromatic used for flavouring or garnishing food. Herbs differ from vegetables as herbs, like spices, are used in small amounts and provide flavour rather than as ingredients to food. Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices. Herbs generally refers to the leafy green or flowering parts of a plant (either fresh or dried), while spices are usually dried and produced from other parts of the plant, including seeds, bark, roots and fruits. Common herbs include:

Basil

Basil is peppery with a mild anise flavour, and a strong, pungent, often sweet smell. It is best added at the end of cooking.

Chervil

Otherwise known as French parsley, it is a delicate herb related to parsley. It has a peppery bite and a clean, light flavour which can cut down on heavy creaminess in pasta and egg recipes. The aroma of chervil is sweet smelling.

Chives

Have a refreshingly light oniony taste, which helps cut down on the heaviness of rich foods. When finely chopped, chives work well as a garnish. They have a delicate oniony aroma.

Dill

The fernlike leaves of dill are aromatic and are often used in pickling. It has a strong distinctive taste that is like a combination of fennel, anise and celery. The aroma is faint, almost similar in scent to aniseed.

Marjoram

Has a grassy, lemony taste that is almost sweet. It looks very similar to oregano, but is sweet, while oregano is spicy. Its aroma is sweet, woody and slightly campherous. It is used extensively in Mediterranean cuisine.

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Rosemary

Has a slightly minty, sage-like, peppery, balsamic taste with a bitter, woody aftertaste. It is a woody herb with a slight piney and tea-like aroma.

Sage

Sage comes in many different varieties, and the flavour varies from mild to a warm spiciness depending on the variety. It has a musky and camphorous aroma with astringent notes.

Tarragon

Is strong and tangy with lingering lemon, anise and basil undertones and a sweet aftertaste. Gently crushing tarragon leaves releases a sweet aroma with tones of liquorice and pine.

Bay leaves

Bay leaf can be whole or ground dried pieces of the plant. They are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral and somewhat similar to oregano and thyme. The leaves are most often used whole and removed before serving.

Thyme

Has a piney and peppery taste with bitter, slightly lemony and minty notes. It has an herbaceous and slightly floral aroma. Common garden thyme has short woody stems (sprigs) with tiny grey-green leaves.

Parsley

Has bright green flat or curled leaves. It has a vibrant, aromatic flavour with a slightly lemony aroma. Parsley is typically added toward the end of cooking as heat can destroy its flavour. The stalks are stronger flavoured than the leaves.

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BOUQUET GARNI

Bouquet garni is a bundle of herbs usually tied together with string and mainly used to prepare soup, stock, casseroles and various stews. Bouquet garni means ‘bunch of herbs’ in English. The bouquet is cooked with the other ingredients and is removed before to eating. Liquid remaining in the bouquet garni can be wrung out into the dish. Herbs traditionally used include bay leaf, thyme, parsley stalks.

SPICES

A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavouring, colouring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavouring or as a garnish. Many spices have antimicrobial properties (kills microorganisms). Spices are more commonly used in warmer climates, which have more infectious diseases. The use of spices is prominent in meat susceptible to spoiling. A spice may be available in several forms: fresh, whole dried, or pre-ground dried. Generally, spices are dried. Spices may be ground into a powder for convenience. A whole dried spice has the longest shelf life, so it can be purchased and stored in larger amounts, making it cheaper on a per-serving basis.

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Caraway

Caraway seeds have a strong earthy/bitter/slightly aniseed taste and aroma. They can be used whole or ground. Its strong flavour can dominate other flavours.

Chilli

Dried chilli peppers have many different flavours, ranging from earthy, floral, fruity, hot, smoky and sweet – depending on the variety. They can be used whole, as crushed chilli flakes, or ground. Chilli is used to add spice and heat to a dish.

Cinnamon

This warm, aromatic spice has a reddish brown colour and a bittersweet flavour. Great for baking as well as adding an earthiness to stews, chillies and curries. It can be used as a whole quill, or ground.

Cloves

The taste of cloves is fruity, but sharp and bitter with a hint of heat. The aroma is warm with peppery undertones. Cloves are actually dried, aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. They can be used as the whole flower, or ground.

Coriander

The spice coriander comes from the dried fruit or seeds of the coriander plant. They can be used as the whole seed, or ground. It has a lemony citrus aroma when freshly ground, with a warm, nutty and spicy flavour.

Ginger

Ginger is a rhizome that grows under the ground. For use as a spice, it is dried and ground. It is peppery and warm with lemon undertones and a fiery taste, and has a pungent aroma.

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Nutmeg

Nutmeg is the dried seed of a fruit. It has a piney, camphorlike aroma and the flavour is spicy, sweet and slightly bitter with hints of clove. It is used ground.

Saffron

Saffron comes from the stigmas of the flower. The stigmas are harvested and processed by hand which is very labour intensive and the reason why saffron is considered the world’s most expensive spice. Only a few threads of saffron are needed to add to a recipe. It has a warm, floral aroma with a delicate, honey-like, earthy taste with bitter back notes.

Turmeric

Turmeric is closely related to cardamom and ginger. For use as a spice, it is dried and ground. Turmeric has a complex, rich and woody aroma. The flavour is mildly sour and bitter, slightly pungent, warm and musky.

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SOUPS

Soup is a liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat and/or vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavours are extracted, forming a broth.

In traditional French cuisine, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of thickening agent used:

• purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch • bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream • cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce • veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream

Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains. Many popular soups also include pumpkin, carrot, and potato.

Soups are like stews and there may not be a clear distinction between the two. However, soups generally have more liquid than stews.

TYPES OF SOUP

BISQUE

Bisque is a smooth, creamy, highly seasoned soup of French origin, classically based on a strained broth of crustaceans. The key ingredient is crustaceans. A Lobster bisque, for example, contains lobster or crayfish. It is lightly thickened with either a roux, or rice, and the ingredients are blended and strained before serving to produce a smooth texture. Extra lobster is used as a garnish. The soup is usually a pale orange colour.

CHOWDER

Chowder is a type of soup prepared with milk or cream and potato and thickened with broken crackers, crushed ship biscuit, or a roux. Variations of chowder can be seafood or vegetable, but the key ingredient is traditionally molluscs, such as clams or mussels. It is not usually blended or strained before serving so has a chunky texture.

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PUREE

Pureed soups are soups that are thickened through pureeing or blending their main ingredients. Main ingredients for most pureed soups are pulses, vegetables or potatoes. Those ingredients define the type, taste and the thickness of the soup. A popular example is pumpkin soup.

CREAM

A type of thickened soup that is prepared by adding cream at the end of the cooking process. The soup is often pureed or blended to thicken the soup before the cream is added, or can be thickened with a roux. The finished soup has a smooth texture and rich flavour even when simple ingredients such as grains, vegetables, meat or fish are used as the basis for the soup. A good example is cream of broccoli soup, which is thickened with a roux.

BROTH

A broth is a non-thickened soup consisting of meat or vegetables cooked in stock. It is served containing the meat, diced vegetables and any other ingredients used.

CONSOMMÉ

A consommé is a clear, non-thickened soup made from richly flavoured stock that has been clarified, a process that uses egg whites to remove fat and sediment. It has all the solid ingredients removed/strained out before serving.

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SAUCES

A sauce is a liquid, cream, or semi-solid food, served on or in preparing other foods. They add flavour, moisture, and visual appeal to a dish and are not normally consumed by themselves.

Sauces are an essential element in cuisines all over the world. Sauces may be used for sweet or savoury dishes. They may be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, cooked and served warm like bechamel or cooked and served cold like apple sauce. In restaurants they may be freshly prepared by the cook. Many sauces are sold pre-made like Worcestershire sauce, HP Sauce, soy sauce or ketchup. Sauces for salad are called salad dressings. Sauces made by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces.

SALAD DRESSINGS

A salad dressing is a type of cold sauce that may use mayonnaise or a vinaigrette combined with other ingredients to create a topping or flavouring that can be mixed into salad greens or salad items being prepared. Salad dressings have evolved into many different types and varieties that maintain old recipes as well as new and contemporary types of ingredients.

VINAIGRETTE

Vinaigrette is a mixture of oil and vinegar. As a general rule, the ratio for making a vinaigrette is 3 to 1: 3 parts oil to 1 part vinegar or acid. It is a temporary emulsion that separates back to oil and vinegar. Vinaigrettes can be enhanced with the use of different oils and vinegars, also other ingredients are often added, such as mustard, garlic, herbs and spices. Two examples of vinaigrette derivatives include balsamic dressing and herb vinaigrette.

Balsamic dressing: use balsamic vinegar (instead of other types of vinegar) when making the vinaigrette.

Herb vinaigrette: add finely chopped herbs such as parsley, mint or basil to the vinaigrette.

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MAYONNAISE

Mayonnaise is an egg yolk, vinegar and oil emulsion considered to be a cold sauce or dressing for salads. Egg yolks emulsify the dressing so it stays stable after it has been mixed. It has a thick, creamy consistency, off white or pale colour and is not too oily or too acid. It most often serves as a base from which to develop a full flavoured dressing. Typical ingredients that are added include mustard, herbs or garlic. Lemon juice can be used instead of vinegar. It is usually used to dress more robust salads, such as potato salad, coleslaw, seafood salad etc. It can also be used in sandwiches or as a base for a dip. Two examples of mayonnaise derivatives include tartare sauce and Thousand Island dressing.

Tartare sauce: add capers, and chopped gherkins and parsley to mayonnaise.

Thousand Island dressing: add tomato sauce, lemon juice, tabasco sauce and Worcestershire sauce to mayonnaise.

COLD SAUCES

GUACAMOLE

Guacamole is an avocado-based dip, spread or salad dressing first developed by the Aztecs in what is now Mexico. Main ingredients include avocado, lemon or lime juice and seasonings, eg salt, chilli powder, red pepper.

TOMATO SALSA

Usually a spicy sauce of chopped tomatoes, onions and peppers that is commonly served with Mexican food. Main ingredients include tomatoes, chilli, onions, coriander, salt, lemon or lime juice and garlic.

BASIL PESTO

Originating in Italy, a sauce typically made with basil, pine nuts, olive oil and grated parmesan blended together and served hot or cold over pasta, fish or meat. Main ingredients include basil, pine nuts, garlic, salt, olive oil, parmesan cheese.

FRUIT COULIS

A coulis is a form of thick sauce made from pureed and strained fruits. Fruit coulis are most often used on desserts. Main ingredients include fruit, sugar and lemon juice.

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MUSTARDS

Mustard is a hot-tasting yellow or brown paste made from the crushed seeds of the mustard plant, typically eaten with met or used as a cooking ingredient.

English mustard: an extremely hot powdered mustard containing ground mustard seeds, flour and turmeric. It is also available ready prepared as a smooth paste. It is the hottest of the mustards.

French (Dijon): a smooth paste, made from brown mustard seeds, wine vinegar, water and salt. It has a pale yellow colour and slightly creamy consistency, with a sharp (acidic), strong flavour. It is typically not as hot as English mustard.

Wholegrain: a prepared mustard with visible mustard seeds and a grainy texture. It is a medium hot mustard, with some acidity, usually a milder flavour than French mustard.

HOT SAUCES

HOLLANDAISE

Hollandaise sauce is an emulsion of egg yolk, melted butter, and vinegar. Other ingredients can include water and/or lemon juice and seasoning such as salt, and either white pepper or cayenne pepper. The egg yolk prevents the ingredients from separating out, once emulsified it has a smooth consistency and buttery flavour. This is a very delicate sauce because the emulsion can easily break, and rich hollandaise is usually used as a dipping sauce for asparagus or a finishing sauce for dishes like eggs Benedict.

BÉARNAISE

Béarnaise sauce is a sauce made of clarified butter emulsified in egg yolks and white wine vinegar and flavoured with herbs. It is similar to a hollandaise but flavoured with tarragon and shallots, and is thicker than hollandaise.

BEURRE BLANC

Beurre blanc is a hot emulsified butter sauce made with a reduction of vinegar and/or white wine and shallots, into which cold, whole butter is blended off the heat to prevent separation. It is a smooth, thick and velvety sauce. Main ingredients include vinegar, white wine, shallots and butter.

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BECHAMEL

This is roux whisked with milk to make a smooth, shiny, thickened white sauce. The milk is warmed first and flavoured with a whole onion, then whisked into the roux. When cheese is added, it is called a mornay sauce. Main ingredients include butter, flour, milk and onion.

DEMI-GLACE

Demi-glace is a rich brown sauce in French cuisine used by itself or as a base for other sauces. It is made by reducing down brown stock and espagnole sauce.

JUS LIÉ

A rich stock thickened with either arrowroot or cornstarch (cornflour). It is usually made from the juices given off by the meat as it is cooked, but can also be made with a meat/vegetable stock.

SABAYON

A foamy custard made with egg yolks, caster sugar and white wine beaten together over heat till thick, often served as a dessert accompaniment. If liqueur is added, it may be called Zabaglione.

PASTA

Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine. Pasta is typically made from an unleavened dough of a durum wheat flour mixed with water or eggs, and formed into sheets or various shapes, then cooked by boiling or baking. Some pastas can be made using rice flour giving a different taste and texture, or to avoid gluten. Pastas may be divided into two broad categories: dried or fresh. Most dried pasta is produced commercially via an extrusion process, although it can be produced in the home. Fresh pasta is traditionally produced by hand, sometimes with the aid of simple machines. Fresh pastas available in grocery stores are produced commercially by large-scale machines.

FETTUCINE, TAGLIATELLE, PAPARDELLE

These are flat, wide ribbons of pasta, generally eaten with creamy, rich sauces, such as Chicken Fettuccine Alfredo.

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CANNELLONI

Cannelloni are a cylindrical type of lasagne generally served baked with a filling and covered by a sauce in Italian cuisine. Popular stuffings include spinach and ricotta or minced beef.

FUSILLI

Fusilli are a type of pasta that are formed into corkscrew shapes. Generally served with lighter, smoother sauces which will cling to the twists, such as pesto.

PENNE

A type of pasta with short cylinder-shaped pieces. Usually served with rich meaty sauces, hearty vegetable sauces, or baked cheese dishes.

MACARONI

A dry pasta shaped like narrow tubes, curved macaroni may be referred to as elbow macaroni. Served with similar sauces to penne.

SPAGHETTI, VERMICELLI, CAPELLINI

All of these are long thin cylindrical pastas, with varying thicknesses. In Italy vermicelli is slightly thicker than spaghetti, but in the Unites Sates it is slightly thinner, while capellini is a very thin spaghetti. Generally served with light, thin tomato, cream or oil based sauces.

RAVIOLI

Ravioli are a type of dumpling composed of a filling sealed between two layers of pasta dough, they are typically square, though other forms are also used, including circular or semi-circular.

CONCHIGLIE

Is a large, shell-shaped pasta that can be stuffed. Often served with heavy cream or meat sauces.

RIGATONI

Rigatoni are a form of tube-shaped pasta of varying lengths and diameters. They are larger than penne. Often used with rich, meaty sauces, hearty vegetable sauces or baked cheese dishes.

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FARFALLE

A type of pasta shaped like bows or butterfly wings, commonly served with rich, meaty sauces.

LASAGNE

Lasagne are a type of wide, flat pasta, possible one of the oldest types of pasta. It is generally made into the culinary dish called lasagne, made with stacked layers of pasta alternated with sauces and ingredients such as meats, vegetables and cheese.

TORTELLINI

Tortellini are circles of pasta stuffed with a meat or cheese filling and folded into little hats. As the filling contains lots of flavour, these are traditionally served with light, thin tomato, butter or oil-based sauces.

NOODLES

Noodles are the Asian equivalent of pasta, made from wheat, buckwheat or rice.

Udon noodles: are a flour noodle made with Japanese wheat. They are a whitish colour and can be thin or thick, round or flat. They are used frequently in Japanese cuisine, generally served hot as a noodle soup.

Cellophane noodles: are a type of thin, thread-like transparent noodle made from mung bean or rice starch. They are generally sold in dried form, soaked to reconstitute, then used in soups, stir fried dishes, or spring rolls. They are white when dry and become clear when cooked.

GRAINS

RICE

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food especially in Asia. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long, medium, and short grain.

Long grain rice tends to keep its shape, with the grains remaining separate after cooking. It is generally 6-8mm long, narrow and pointed.

Short-grain rice is more starchy than long grain rice, so the grains plump up and stick together when cooked, and it has a soft texture. It is generally 4-5mm long, and is more rounded than long grain rice.

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MAIZE OR CORN

Maize, also known as corn, is a cereal grain. The leafy stalk of the plant produces ears that yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits. Maize has become a staple food in many parts of the world.

Polenta is an Italian dish made from boiled maize (cornmeal). It may be served soft as a hot porridge, or it may be allowed to cool and solidify into a loaf that can be baked, fried or grilled. It is a bright yellow, and has a coarse to fine granular texture.

WHEAT

Wheat is a cereal grain grass widely cultivated for its seed, a worldwide staple food. Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares, 2014). Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates. Wheat can be ground into flour or semolina (hard durum wheat only), germinated and dried creating malt, crushed or cut into cracked wheat, parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats.

Couscous: is made from semolina which has been moistened, then coated in flour and rolled into small balls, about 1mm in diameter. It is quick and easy to prepare, and once prepared, is light and fluffy, and drier than soft polenta. It is a pale yellow colour and has a soft mouthfeel.

BREAD

Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been a prominent food in large parts of the world and is one of the oldest man-made foods. Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavour, texture, colour, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of manufacturing.

Bread is commonly made from wheat but also from other cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice. Usually they are in combination with wheat flour (except rye) as they have less gluten.

Common types of bread include:

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BAGEL

Originally from Eastern Europe, the bagel is characterised by its ring shape and almost chewy texture. It is a leavened bread made from yeasted wheat dough, roughly hand-sized, that is first boiled for a short time in water and then baked. It is served split in half and toasted and can be accompanied by sweet or savoury toppings. Smoked salmon and cream cheese is a popular topping.

BRIOCHE

Brioche is a leavened bread made with eggs and butter. The classical shape is in a fluted mould, but can come in all shapes of loaf. It has a rich and tender crumb that is pale yellow in colour and has a soft thin crust. It can be served as breakfast warm with butter, as a dessert or as a snack.

BRUSCHETTA

Bruschetta is grilled or toasted slices of bread rubbed with garlic and topped with olive oil a nd salt. Other optional toppings include tomato, vegetables, beans, cured meat, or cheese. The bread used to make bruschetta is generally Italian leavened white bread made from wheat flour.

CIABATTA

Ciabatta is a leavened Italian white sourdough bread made from wheat flour, water, olive oil, salt and yeast. It is long, broad, and flat with a soft chewy centre, lots of holes and a crisp crust. It is perfect for dipping into soups or sauces and also commonly used for sandwiches.

FOCACCIA

Focaccia is a flat oven-baked leavened Italian bread similar in style and texture to pizza doughs. It has a slightly crisp crust and soft chewy crumb. It usually has in dentations pressed into the top, with olive oil and salt drizzled over. It can also be studded with herbs and other ingredients such as olives. Focaccia can be used as a side to meals, or as sandwich bread.

LAVOSH

Lavosh is a thin unleavened flatbread made from flour, water and salt from the Middle East. It can be served either fresh so it remains soft and flexible, or dry as a crisp cracker bread that can be broken and served with dips or used as a cracker. Fresh lavosh can be used as a pizza base or a sandwich wrap.

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NAAN

Naan is a leavened, oven-baked flatbread usually found in Indian and South-East Asian cuisines. It is made from wheat flour, yeast, yoghurt, water and sugar, traditionally in a very hot tandoori oven. It is usually served as a side dish.

PITA

Pita are leavened round flatbreads baked from wheat flour, yeast, oil and salt, common in the Mediterranean, Middle East and neighbouring areas. They are baked at high temperatures, so the pita puffs up and forms a pocket. Pita can be used to scoop sauces or dips, such as hummus, or to wrap kebabs, or falafel, and made into a sandwich. It can also be cut and baked into crispy pita chips.

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