csce 3121 computer organization lecture 1 bryant’s book chapter 1
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CSCE 312 1
Computer Organization
Lecture 1
Bryant’s Book Chapter 1
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Course Overview
• Topics:– Theme– Five great realities of computer systems– Computer System Overview– Summary
– NOTE: Most slides are from the textbook and the co-author Randal E Bryant of Carnegie Mellon University
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Course Theme• Abstraction is good, but don’t forget reality!• Courses to date emphasize abstraction
– Abstract data types– Asymptotic analysis
• These abstractions have limits– Especially in the presence of bugs– Need to understand underlying implementations
• Useful outcomes– Become more effective programmers
• Able to find and eliminate bugs efficiently• Able to tune program performance
– Prepare for later “systems” classes in CSE & ECE• Compilers, Operating Systems, Networks, Computer Architecture,
Embedded Systems
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Great Reality #1• Int’s are not Integers, Float’s are not Reals• Examples
– Is x2 ≥ 0?• Float’s: Yes!• Int’s:
– 40000 * 40000 --> 1600000000– 50000 * 50000 --> ??
– Is (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)?• Unsigned & Signed Int’s: Yes!• Float’s:
– (1e20 + -1e20) + 3.14 --> 3.14– 1e20 + (-1e20 + 3.14) --> ??
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Computer Arithmetic• Does not generate random values
– Arithmetic operations have important mathematical properties• Cannot assume “usual” properties
– Due to finiteness of representations– Integer operations satisfy “ring” properties
• Commutativity, associativity, distributivity– Floating point operations satisfy “ordering” properties
• Monotonicity, values of signs• Observation
– Need to understand which abstractions apply in which contexts– Important issues for compiler writers and serious application
programmers– Entire courses offered on computer arithmetic (ECEN 653)
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Great Reality #2• You’ve got to know assembly• Chances are, you’ll never write a program in assembly
– Compilers are much better & more patient than humans• Understanding assembly key to understanding machine-level
execution model– Behavior of programs in presence of bugs
• High-level language model breaks down– Tuning program performance
• Understanding sources of program inefficiency– Implementing system software
• Compiler has machine code as target• Operating systems must manage process state
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Assembly Code Example• Time Stamp Counter
– Special 64-bit register in Intel-compatible machines– Incremented every clock cycle– Read with rdtsc instruction
• Application– Measure time required by a procedure P
• In units of clock cyclesdouble t;start_counter();P();t = get_counter();printf("P required %f clock cycles\n", t);
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Code to Read Counter– Write small amount of assembly code using GCC’s asm
facility– Inserts assembly code into machine code generated by
compiler
static unsigned cyc_hi = 0;static unsigned cyc_lo = 0;
/* Set *hi and *lo to the high and low order bits of the cycle counter. */void access_counter(unsigned *hi, unsigned *lo){ asm("rdtsc; movl %%edx,%0; movl %%eax,%1"
: "=r" (*hi), "=r" (*lo) :: "%edx", "%eax");
}
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Code to Read Counter/* Record the current value of the cycle counter. */void start_counter(){ access_counter(&cyc_hi, &cyc_lo);}
/* Number of cycles since the last call to start_counter. */double get_counter(){ unsigned ncyc_hi, ncyc_lo; unsigned hi, lo, borrow; /* Get cycle counter */ access_counter(&ncyc_hi, &ncyc_lo); /* Do double precision subtraction */ lo = ncyc_lo - cyc_lo; borrow = lo > ncyc_lo; hi = ncyc_hi - cyc_hi - borrow; return (double) hi * (1 << 30) * 4 + lo;}
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Great Reality #3
• Memory Matters• Memory is not unbounded– It must be allocated and managed– Many applications are memory dominated
• Memory referencing bugs especially pernicious– Effects are distant in both time and space
• Memory performance is not uniform– Cache and virtual memory effects can greatly affect program
performance– Adapting program to characteristics of memory system can lead to
major speed improvements
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Memory Referencing Errors• C and C++ do not provide any memory protection
– Out of bounds array references– Invalid pointer values– Abuses of malloc/free
• Can lead to nasty bugs– Whether or not bug has any effect depends on system and compiler– Action at a distance
• Corrupted object logically unrelated to one being accessed• Effect of bug may be first observed long after it is generated
• How can I deal with this?– Program in Java, Lisp, or ML– Understand what possible interactions may occur– Use or develop tools to detect referencing errors– Use debugged library routines
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Great Reality #4
• There’s more to performance than asymptotic complexity• Constant factors matter too!
– Easily see 10:1 performance range depending on how code written– Must optimize at multiple levels: algorithm, data representations,
procedures, and loops
• Must understand system to optimize performance– How programs compiled and executed– How to measure program performance and identify bottlenecks– How to improve performance without destroying code modularity and
generality
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Great Reality #5
• Computers do more than execute programs• They need to get data in and out
– I/O system critical to program reliability and performance
• They communicate with each other over networks– Many system-level issues arise in presence of network
• Concurrent operations by autonomous processes• Coping with unreliable media• Cross platform compatibility• Complex performance issues
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Course Overview
• Topics:– Theme– Five great realities of computer systems– Computer System Overview– Summary
– NOTE: Most slides are from the textbook and the co-author Randal E Bryant of Carnegie Mellon University
Terms
• Bit, byte, word• KB, MB, GB…• sec, ms, us, ns, ps
Hardware Organization
Mainmemory
I/O bridgeBus interface
ALU
Register file
System bus Memory bus
Disk controller
Graphicsadapter
USBcontroller
Mouse Keyboard DisplayDisk
I/O busExpansion slots forother devices suchas network adapters
hello executable stored on disk
PC
CPU
Inside Pentium 4
• CPU: Central Processing Unit• ALU: Arithmetic/Logic Unit• PC: Program Counter• USB: Universal Serial Bus
Hardware Organization
Main Memory
• A temporary storage device that holds both a program and the data it manipulates.
• Consists of a collection of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips.
• Logically a linear array of bytes.
Processor
• The engine that interprets instructions stored in main memory.
• At any point in time, the PC points at some machine language instruction in main memory.
• A processor repeatedly executes the instruction pointed at by the PC.
• A processor operates according to a very simple instruction execution model, defined by its instruction set architecture (ISA).
Abstraction
• Both hardware and software consists of hierarchical layers (abstraction).– To cope with the complexity of computer systems.
• The interface between the hardware and low-level software: Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
ISA
• Includes anything programmers need to know to make a binary machine language program work correctly.
• Includes instructions, I/O devices, and so on.• Modern ISAs:– 80x86/Pentium, PowerPC, DEC Alpha, MIPS,
SPARC, HP, …
What is Computer Architecture?
Computer Architecture =
Instruction Set Architecture +
Machine Organization
What Is Computer Architecture?
I/O systemInstr. Set Proc.
Compiler
OperatingSystem
Application
Digital DesignCircuit Design
Instruction Set Architecture
Firmware
Datapath & Control
Layout
Register File, ALU
• The register file is a small storage device that consists of a collection of word-sized registers, each with its own unique name.
• The ALU computes new data and address values (add, subtract, multiply, divide, or, and, xor, etc.)
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Memory Hierarchy
Local disks hold files retrieved from disks on remote network servers.
Main memory holds disk blocks retrieved from local disks.
Registers
On-chip L1
cache (SRAM)
Main memory(DRAM)
Local secondary storage(local disks)
Larger, slower,
and cheaper
(per byte)storagedevices
Remote secondary storage(distributed file systems, Web servers)
Off-chip L2cache (SRAM)
L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved from the L2 cache.
CPU registers hold words retrieved from cache memory.
L2 cache holds cache lines retrieved from memory.
L0:
L1:
L2:
L3:
L4:
L5:
Smaller,faster,and
costlier(per byte)storage devices
Memory Hierarchy
DISK
MEMORY
CACHE
REGISTERSFaster
Slower Larger
Smaller
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Cache Memory
Mainmemory(DRAM)
MemorybridgeBus interfaceL2 cache
(SRAM)
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
Cache bus System bus Memory bus
L1 cache
(SRAM)
Memory Hierarchy
• Storage at one level serves as a cache for storage at the next lower level.
• The register file is a cache for the L1 cache, L1 is a cache for L2, and so forth.
Operating System• A layer of software interposed between the
application program and the hardware.• All attempts by an application program to manipulate
the hardware must go through the OS.• Two primary purposes of OS– Protect HW from misuse by runaway applications.– Provide applications with simple and uniform mechanisms
for manipulating complicated and often wildly different low-level hardware devices.
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OS abstracts HW
Application programs
Processor Main memory I/O devices
Operating systemSoftware
Hardware
Processor Main memory I/O devices
Processes
Files
Virtual memory
Process
• The operating system’s abstraction for a running program.
• Multiple processes can run concurrently on the same machine.– Traditional systems (uniprocessor) can execute
only one program at a time.– Multicore processors can execute several
programs simultaneously.
Process
• In either case, a single CPU can execute multiple processes concurrently by having the processor switch among them.
=> Context switch• The OS keeps track of all the state information
(context) that the process needs in order to run.
• Context: PC value, register file values, …
Process
• At any point in time, a uniprocessor system can only execute the code for a single process.
• When the OS decides to transfer control from the current process to another process, it performs a context switch by saving the context of the current process, restoring the context of the new process, and passing control to the new process.
Thread
• A process can actually consists of multiple execution units, called threads, each running in the context of the process and sharing the same code and global data.
Virtual Memory
• An abstraction that provides each process with the illusion that it has exclusive use of the main memory.
• Each process has the same uniform view of memory, called virtual address space.
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Memory Performance Example
• Implementations of Matrix Multiplication– Multiple ways to nest loops
/* ijk */for (i=0; i<n; i++) { for (j=0; j<n; j++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum; }}
/* ijk */for (i=0; i<n; i++) { for (j=0; j<n; j++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum; }}
/* jik */for (j=0; j<n; j++) { for (i=0; i<n; i++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum }}
/* jik */for (j=0; j<n; j++) { for (i=0; i<n; i++) { sum = 0.0; for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum += a[i][k] * b[k][j]; c[i][j] = sum }}
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0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
matrix size (n)
ijk
ikj
jik
jki
kij
kji
Matmult Performance(Alpha 21164)
Too big for L1 Cache Too big for L2 Cache
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Blocked matmult Performance (Alpha 21164)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500
matrix size (n)
bijkbikjijkikj
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Course Perspective
• Most Systems Courses are Builder-Centric– Computer Architecture• Design pipelined processor in Verilog
– Operating Systems• Implement large portions of operating system
– Compilers• Write compiler for simple language
– Networking• Implement and simulate network protocols
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Course Perspective (Cont.)
• Our Course is Programmer-Centric– Purpose is to show how by knowing more about the underlying
system, one can be more effective as a programmer– Enable you to
• Write programs that are more reliable and efficient• Incorporate features that require hooks into OS
– E.g., concurrency, signal handlers
– Not just a course for dedicated hackers• We bring out the hidden hacker in everyone
– Cover material in this course that you won’t see elsewhere
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Summary
• The computer system is more than just hardware!• We need to understand both the hardware and
system interfaces to properly use a computer• We shall focus on more details to such concepts
through out this course.