cross-cultural management. 2 chapter 1 meanings and dimensions of culture outline chap1-1...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cross-Cultural Management
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Cross-Cultural Management2
Chapter 1 Meanings and Dimensions of Culture
Outline• Chap1-1 Cross-cultural management• Chap1-2 Globalization• Chap1-3 Definitions of culture• Chap1-4 Nature of culture • Chap1-5 Cultural values• Chap1-6 Dimensions of culture• Chap1-7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture• Chap1-8 Trompenaars’ s Cultural Dimensions
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Cross-Cultural Management3
Chap1-1
Cross-cultural management : Managing different culture Issues of diversity(Gender, Generational, culturalReligion, caste, Income group)
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Cross-Cultural Management4
What is Cross-Cultural Management?
CCM is a fairly new field that is based on theories and research from:
• Cross Cultural Psychology
• Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions.
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Cross-Cultural Management
• International Business• International Business comprises all
commercial transactions (private and governmental, sales, investments, logistics, and transportation) that take place between two or more regions, countries and nations beyond their political boundaries.
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Cross-Cultural Management
• Organizational Behaviour
• Organizational behavior (OB) is "the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself." (p.4) [1] OB can be divided into three levels: the study of (a) individuals in organizations (micro-level), (b) work groups (meso-level), and (c) how organizations behave (macro-level)
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Cross-Cultural Management
• Human Resources• Human resources is the set of individuals who
make up the workforce of an organization, business sector, or economy. "Human capital" is sometimes used synonymously with human resources, although human capital typically refers to a more narrow view (i.e., the knowledge the individuals embody and can contribute to an organization). Likewise, other terms sometimes used include "manpower", "talent", "labour", or simply "people".
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Cross-Cultural Management
• Anthropology• Anthropology /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/ is the study of
humans, past and present, that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences.
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Goals for Cross-Cultural Management
Cross Cultural Management seeks to
• understand how national cultures affect management practices
• identify the similarities and differences across cultures in various management practices and organizational contexts
• increase effectiveness in global management
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Globalization and cross cultural issues
Chap1-2
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Globalization
Like it or not, globalization is here…to stay.
• Most large companies have some kind of business relations with customers, companies, employees or various stake-holders in other countries…and cultures. (Global corporations)
• Many employees and managers deal with people from other cultures on a constant basis
• Most of us have a close experience with only one or two cultures…=>
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Globalization
• We do not understand people from other cultures as readily and intuitively as people from our own culture =>
• Cross cultural management helps organization members to gain better understanding of other cultures, of their culture and of the consequences of people from different cultures working together
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Definitions of culture
Chap1-3
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Culture
Definition: acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior.
Culture forms values, creates attitude, influences behavior.
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Nature of culture
Chap1-4
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Culture
Characteristics of culture include:
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Cross-Cultural Management
• Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
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• Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail below.
• · •
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Cross-Cultural Management
• Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component of culture.
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• Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.
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• Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
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Cultural diversity
(P4: Culture and types of handshake)• Cultural values(P5: Priorities of cultural values: US, Japan)(P5: examples where culture can affect
management approaches)Depict cultural diversity through concentric circles.
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Cultural values
Chap1-5
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Priorities of Cultural Values
United States 1. Freedom 2. Independence 3. Self-reliance 4. Equality 5. Individualism 6. Competition 7. Efficiency 8. Time 9. Directness10. Openness
Arab Countries 1. Family security 2. Family harmony 3. Parental guidance 4. Age 5. Authority 6. Compromise 7. Devotion 8. Patience 9. Indirectness10. Hospitality
Japan 1. Belonging 2. Group harmony 3. Collectiveness 4. Age/seniority 5. Group consensus 6. Cooperation 7. Quality 8. Patience 9. Indirectness10. Go-between
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Management Approaches Affected by Cultural Diversity
Cultural Diversity
Sort-term vs.long-term horizons
Stability vs.innovation
Individual vs.group rewards Cooperation vs.
competition
Centralized vs. Decentralized
decision making
Informal vs.formal procedures
Safety vs. risk High vs. loworganizational
loyalty
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• Introduction to the course of cross-cultural management and our international teaching team
• Goals for Cross-cultural management• Nature of culture
Summary of what we learned last week
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• A model of culture: concentric circles• Comparing culture as a normal distribution• Values in culture
• Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
We will learn today
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A model of culture: concentric circles
Explicit artifacts andproducts of the society
Implicit, basic assumptions that guide
people’s behavior
Norms and valuesthat guide the society
Outer layer: observable, e.g. language, food, buildings, art.
Middle layer: helps people understand how they should behave.
Inner layer: intangible, helpful for problem-solving and well interactions with other people.
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Comparing Cultures as Overlapping Normal Distribution
Chinese Culture
?
U.S. Culture
?
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Stereotyping from the Cultural Extremes: Brugha and Du’s research
Chinese Culture U.S. Culture
How Americans see the Chinese• in community• avoid confrontation (keep in harmony)• respect for authorities and seniors
How Chinese see Americans• individualism
• face confrontation (arguments and debates)
• respect for achievements
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Values in Culture
Values: basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant.
• Value differences and similarities across cultures: P 10: “common personal values”
U.S. Values and possible alternatives• Values in transition: work values change over
time.
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Dominant Western Values in Workforce
CareerStage
Entered theWorkforce
ApproximateCurrent Age
Dominant Work Values
1. Protestant Work Ethic
2. Existential
3. Pragmatic
4. Generation X
Mid-1940s toLate 1950s
1960s to Mid-1970s
Mid-1970s toMid-1980s
Mid-1980sthrough 1990s
50 to 65
35 to 50
35 to 35
Under 25
Hard working; loyal tofirm; conservative
Nonconforming; seeksautonomy; loyal to self
Ambitious, hard worker;loyal to career
Flexible, values leisure;loyal to relationships
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Dimensions of culture
Chap1-6
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Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
• Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede found there are four dimensions of culture.
• Hofstede’s initial data: questionnaire surveys with over 116000 respondents from over 70 different countries who worked in the local subsidiaries of IBM.
• The fifth dimension was added later.• Criticized because of its focus on just one
company. • Popular in the research field of cross-cultural
management.
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HofstedeHofstede’’ss
Five CulturalFive Cultural
DimensionsDimensions
Power DistancePower Distance
Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
IndividualismIndividualism
MasculinityMasculinity
Long-Term OrientationLong-Term Orientation
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• Power Distance: the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.
Low: people treated as equals despite social status
High: people accept authority relations• Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people feel
threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.
Low: prefer few formal rulesHigh: want clear behavioral guides
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• Individualism/collectivism: the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only (belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty).
Low: group behavior importantHigh: individual behavior important
A bipolar continuumIndividualism Collectivism Individualism Collectivism Individualism
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• Masculinity/femininity: a situation in which the dominant values in society are success, money, and things (caring for others and the quality of life).
Low: cooperation; friendly atmosphere; employment security; low stress; warm interpersonal relationships.
High: competition; challenge; recognition; wealth; advancement; high stress; tight control.
A continuumFemininity Masculinity
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• Long–term orientation: value placed on persistence, status, thrift
Low: respect for tradition, personal stability, focused on the past
High: perseverance, thrift, focused on the future
This dimension was added to depict the influence of Confucianism in Asia.
This dimension is similar to “Adjusting” proposed by Brugha and Du.
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Examples of Cultural Dimensions
CountryCountry Power Power DistanceDistance Individualism*Individualism* Masculinity**Masculinity** Uncertainty Uncertainty
AvoidanceAvoidanceLong-term Long-term
Orientation***Orientation***
IndiaIndia HighHigh LowLow ModerateModerate ModerateModerate HighHigh
FranceFrance HighHigh HighHigh ModerateModerate HighHigh LowLow
GermanyGermany LowLow HighHigh HighHigh ModerateModerate ModerateModerate
Hong KongHong Kong HighHigh LowLow HighHigh LowLow HighHigh
IndonesiaIndonesia HighHigh LowLow ModerateModerate LowLow LowLow
JapanJapan ModerateModerate ModerateModerate HighHigh ModerateModerate ModerateModerate
NetherlandsNetherlands LowLow HighHigh LowLow ModerateModerate ModerateModerate
RussiaRussia HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow HighHigh LowLow
United StatesUnited States LowLow HighHigh HighHigh LowLow LowLow
West AfricaWest Africa HighHigh LowLow ModerateModerate ModerateModerate LowLow
* A low score is synonymous with collectivism** A low score is synonymous with masculinity*** A low score is synonymous with a short-term orientation
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Additional Frameworks
Two additional perspectives, of social/cross-cultural psychologists merit attention:
Markus & Kitayama: Independent & Interdependent Construals
Triandis: Individualism-Collectivism
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Vertical & Horizontal Individualism & Collectivism
Harry Triandis: Combination of Individualism vs. collectivism and power & achievement vs. benevolence & universalism
• VI: achievement + individualism (USA)
• HI: universalism + individualism (Sweden)
• VC: power + collectivism (India)
• HC: benevolence + collectivism (Israel; rare)
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Schwartz’s Values• Universalism
• Benevolence
• Conformity & tradition
• Security
• Power
• Achievement
• Hedonism
• Stimulation
• Self Direction
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Universalism
Self-Direction
Stimulation
Hedonism
Achievement
Power
Benevolence
Security
Conformity Tradition
Self-Enhancement
Openness toChange
Conservation
Self-Transcendence
Obedience HumilityDevoutness
Helpfulness
Social Justice,Equality
Creativity,Freedom
Exciting Life
Pleasure
Success,Ambition
Authority,Wealth
Social Order
Organized by motivationalsimilarities and dissimilarities
Schwartz’s Value Map
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Empirical test of the Theory
• 75,000 + respondents, varied samples in 68 countries
• Instrument lists 57 abstract value items
• “How important is each item as a guiding principle in your life?”
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Tasks in the next session:
Students’ talks and presentations
Discussion in groups: how to learn Cross-cultural management?
Assignment after class:
Read a paper on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.
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Preview
• Integrating Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
• Attitudinal dimensions of culture
• Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions
• Integrating culture and management
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Chap1-7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture
Work Value and Attitude Similarities• Research has revealed many similarities in both work values and
attitudes• Ronen and Kraut
– Smallest space analysis (SSA) - maps the relationship among countries by showing the distance between each on various cultural dimensions
– Can identify country clusters
• Ronen and Shenkar – Examined variables in four categories
» Importance of work goals» Need deficiency, fulfillment, and job satisfaction» Managerial and organizational variables» Work role and interpersonal orientation
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A Synthesis of Country Cultures
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GLOBE Project
• Multi-country study and evaluation of cultural attributes and leadership behavior
• Are transformational characteristics of leadership universally endorsed?
• 170 country co-investigators• 65 different cultures• 17,500 middle managers
800 organisations
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GLOBE Project
• What traits are universally viewed as impediments to leadership effectiveness?
• Based on beliefs that– Certain attributes that distinguish one culture from others can be
used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that culture
– Societal culture has direct impact on organizational culture– Leader acceptance stems from tying leader attributes and
behaviors to subordinate norms
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Variable Highest Medium LowestRanking Ranking Ranking
GLOBE Cultural Variable Results
Assertiveness Spain, U.S. Egypt, Ireland Sweden, New Zealand
Future orientation Denmark, Canada Slovenia, Egypt Russia, Argentina
Gender differentiation South Korea, Italy, Brazil Sweden Denmark Egypt
Uncertainty avoidance Austria, Denmark Israel, U.S. Russia, Hungary
Power distance Russia, Spain England, France Demark, Netherlands
Collectivism/Societal Denmark, Hong Kong, U.S. Greece, HungarySingapore
In-group collectivism Egypt, China England, France Denmark, Netherlands
Performance orientation U.S., Taiwan Sweden, Israel Russia, Argentina
Humane orientation Indonesia, Egypt Hong Kong, Germany, Spain Sweden
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Chap1-8 Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
• Research produced five cultural dimensions that are based on relationship orientations and attitudes toward both time and the environment
• Universalism vs. Particularism
– Universalism - belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification
• Focus on formal rules and rely on business contacts– Particularism - belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and
practices should be applied and something cannot be done the same everywhere
• Focus on relationships, working things out to suit the parties
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Cross-Cultural Management54
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont.)
• Individualism vs. Communitarianism– Individualism - people regard themselves as individuals
• Rely on individuals to make decisions– Communitarianism - people regard themselves as part of a group
• Seek consultation and mutual consent before making decisions• Neutral vs. Emotional
– Neutral - culture in which emotions are held in check• People try not to show their feelings
– Emotional - culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally
• People smile, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm
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• Specific vs. Diffuse– Specific - culture in which individuals have a large public space
they readily share with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and associates
• People often are open and extroverted• Work and private life are separate
– Diffuse - culture in which both public and private space are similar in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as well
• People often appear indirect and introverted, and work and private life often are closely linked
Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont.)
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Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont.)
• Achievement vs. Ascription
– Achievement - culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions
– Ascription - culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is
• For example, status may be accorded on the basis of age, gender, or social connections
• Time
– Sequential approach to time - people do one thing at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the letter
– Synchronous approach - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate
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Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (cont.)
• Environment
– Inner-directed
• People believe in controlling environmental outcomes
– Outer-directed
• People believe in allowing things to take their natural course
• Cultural Patterns or Clusters
– Defined groups of countries that are similar to each other in terms of the five dimensions and the orientations toward time and the environment
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Trompenaars’ Cultural GroupsAnglo cluster
Relationship United States United Kingdom
Individualism x x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship
Universalism x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement x x
Ascription
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Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Asian cluster
Relationship Japan China Indonesia Hong Kong Singapore
Individualism
Communitarianism x x x x x
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship x x x x x
Universalism
Particularism x x x x x
Neutral relationship x x x x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement
Ascription x x x x x
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Trompenaars’ Cultural GroupsLatin American cluster
Relationship Argentina Mexico Venezuela Brazil
Individualism x x x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship x x x x
Universalism
Particularism x x x x
Neutral relationship x x x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement x x
Ascription x x
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Trompenaars’ Cultural GroupsLatin-European cluster
Relationship France Belgium Spain Italy
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship x x
Universalism x x x
Particularism x
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x x x
Achievement x
Ascription x x x
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Trompenaars’ Cultural Groups
Germanic cluster
Relationship Austria Germany Switzerland Czechoslovakia
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x x
Diffuse relationship x
Universalism x x x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x x
Emotional relationship x x
Achievement x x x
Ascription x
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Culture Maps - FrameworksEdward T. Hall
Geert Hofstede
Kluckhohn & Strodbeck
• time• space• things• friendships• agreements
&interpersonal
behavior
• power• risk• individualism• masculinity• long term orientation
&management
theories - practice
• relation to nature• orientation to time• belief about human nature• mode of human activity• relationships• space
&Int’l. business
practice
Value Pattern
s
Variations in Value
Orientations
Culture Elements
Trompenaars
• universalism– particularism• collectivism– individualism• affective–neutral relationships• specificity–diffuseness• achievement– ascription• time orientation•Internal–external control
&Int’l. business practice
Value Patterns