Creation Research

Dongchan Kim National Radio Astronomy Observatory

Charllottesville, VA 22903, U. S. A.

Preface

Are we evolved or created? We will exploring the following topics to find answer:

● First Life on Earth

● Evolution or Adaptation?

● Did we evolve from apes?

● Existence of Alien

● Creation of Universe

● Age of Universe

● Instinct of Animals

● Shell Building of Nautilus

● Math in Nature If you have any questions or suggestions, please contact: Dr. Dong-Chan Kim National Radio Astronomy Observatory 520 Edgemont Road Charlottesville, VA 22903-2475 U. S. A. Email: dkim@nrao.edu

Version: May, 2018

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How the first life appeared on Earth?

How did the first life arise on earth? Are we the product of random process of nature? The fundamental question to be answered between the evolution and creation is how the first life appeared on the Earth. If it appeared naturally, we are the product of evolution. Otherwise, we have to acknowledge that God created us. All living creatures on the Earth are composed of cells. As shown in the Figure below, cell itself is composed of protein, the protein of amino acids, and the amino acids of organic and/or inorganic matter. Therefore, to produce a living cell, amino acids has to be produced from (in)organic matter and protein has to be produced from amino acids. So, let's take a close look at each step how these processes can occur on early earth.

H, C, N, O, H2O,

CH4 etc...

(In)organic matter Amino acids Protein Cell

Fig. 1 Hierarchical structure of cell

a) Organic matter to amino acids: Evolutionists claim that the amino acids can naturally be formed from organic compounds. The first experiment to produce the amino acids from organic compounds was performed by Miller in 1952. He assumed that the early atmosphere of the Earth was composed of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water. With this mixture of gas and apparatus shown in the Figure below, he obtained 4 kinds of amino acids. Miller's experiment become strong weapon for the evolutionists to claim that the life arized naturally. Before accepting their claim, we need a close inspection to see if this experiment has no flaws.

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Figure 2. Miller experiment

Miller used an arc lamp to simulate lightning. The arc lamp uses 50,000 Volts and creates 250 degrees of heat whereas the voltage of lightning is 100 million Volts and creates 50,000 degrees of heat. Here, we see a big differences between the arc lamp and lightning. How about organic compounds Miller used to simulate early atmosphere? Miller's compound gas consists of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water. We do not have fossil record of early earth atmosphere, but if we analyze composition of comets, we can identify what kinds of gases are existed on early earth since the comets are left-over building block of solar system. As shown in the next Figure, the most abundant gases in descending order are water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia, methane, etc.. The 2nd and 3rd most abundant gases in comets are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, respectively, but Miller's compound gas does not contain these. Another problem we need to consider is Miller's assumption of reducing atmosphere (devoid of oxygen) of the early earth atmosphere. This could be a big problem since if the early earth atmosphere was non-reducing, it will be impossible to produce the amino acids from (in)organic matter due to oxidation (i.e. amino acids will be destroyed as soon as they formed). There's no consensus about the condition of the early earth atmosphere among scientists. Miller (1953) and Chyba & Sagan (1997) claim reducing atmosphere, Albeson (1966), Pinto et al. (1980), Zahnle (1986) claim weakly-reducing atmosphere, and Trail et al. (2011) claim non-reducing atmosphere.

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The Nature paper of the Trail et al. (2011) is interesting to mention. They studied the oxidation state of hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) and reported that out-gassing of earth's interior later than 200 Myr into the history of solar system formation could have resulted in a non-reducing atmosphere. The first life appeared on earth is about 500 Myr after the formation of the earth. Thus, if this is the case, then the life on earth could not appear naturally due to oxidation of amino acids. In summary, Miller's experiment has some major defects and can not be regarded as an evidence of production of amino acids by random process in the early earth atmosphere. b) Amino acid to DNA/Protein Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids joined together in chains. Some proteins are just a few amino acids long, while others are made up of several thousands. To continue discussion, let's assume that these amino acids were created naturally. Then, the next step toward the formation of life is how the DNA, RNA, and protein were formed from amino acids. As shown in Figure 3, the central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA makes RNA makes proteins. The process by which DNA is copied to RNA is called transcription, and that by which RNA is used to produce proteins is called translation. Evolutionists first thought that DNA is the origin of life since DNA contains blueprint of the protein. However, it is later found that enzymes are needed to produce the protein, but enzymes themselves are composed of protein. Thus, it is impossible to form protein from DNA.

Fig 3. The central dogma of molecular biology

To solve this problem, they proposed RNA world hypothesis. The RNA world hypothesis claims that the RNA, unlike the DNA, can function as a messenger RNA (mRNA) and a catalyst (ribozyme). Because of this, it can self-replicate RNA and hypothesized to have been the precursors to all current life on Earth. To know more about the RNA world

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hypothesis, I have searched literatures and found some interesting paper published to Biology Direct in 2012 by Harold Bernhardt. The title of the paper is ‘The RNA world hypothesis: the worst theory of the early evolution of life’.

In the paper, the author describes the following problems in the RNA world hypothesis:

i) RNA is too complex a molecule to have arisen prebiotically,

ii) RNA is inherently unstable,

iii) catalysis is a relatively rare property of long RNA sequences only, and

iv) the catalytic repertoire of RNA is too limited.

What this paper tells us is that the RNA world hypothesis is not even accepted by evolutionist and has serious problems. Thus, the origin of life from natural processes confronts another unsolvable impasse.

c) RNA/DNA to cell:

Here once again, to proceed further, let's assume that the DNA, RNA, and protein were created naturally. Then, the next step toward the creation of life is to form cells from these components. As shown in Fig. 4, cell is consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of minuscule but distinct structures called organelles. A cell nucleus that contains DNA and RNA needs cooperation with other cell members to form a functional cell.

Apparently, each cell component does not know how the cell members need to be arranged to become a functioning cell. Thus, it's hard to imagine each cell member positions itself to a specific place in the cytoplasm and cooperates with other cell members to become a living cell. The process of creating a living cell is similar to building a house. To build house, many kinds of preselected construction materials are needed. These construction materials can not be assembled by themselves to become a house, but need constructor. The constructor actually build the house based on a blueprint.

Similarly, cell members can not assemble themselves to become a cell, but need the Creator. Another fact people usually pay less attention is that there are not many acceptable explanations about the origin of cell members. Without cell members, the nucleus can not survive inside the cell. Here again, the origin of life from random processes faces another hurdle.

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Fig. 4 Cell structure

Chirality is a geometric property of some molecules and ions. A chiral molecule/ion is non-superposable on its mirror image. The L-amino acid and D-amino acid are chiral with each other. Under the natural conditions, the L-amino acid and D-amino acid are produced in a similar proportion (50% each). However, almost all proteins in the living organisms are made of L-amino acids and D-amino acids are very rare in nature and have only been found in small peptides attached to bacteria cell walls. If the living organisms are product of a random process, their proteins should be composed of about 50% each of L-amino acids and D-amino acids. But, in reality, it's not! This is another evidence that the life was not produced from natural processes.

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Evolution or Adaptation?

Evolutionists use three concepts to explain evolution mechanisms: i) natural selection, ii) genetic drift, and iii) mutation. Natural Selection leads to an evolutionary change when some individuals with certain traits in a population have a higher survival and reproductive rate than others and pass on these inheritable genetic features to their offspring. It was first introduced by Darwin after observing a variation of Galapagos finches (Figure 5 below). Natural Selection is the leading mechanism for supporting the evolutionism.

In 2015, a week after Darwin’s 206th birthday, a team of researches published the result of genetic analysis of 15 species of Galapagos finches in the journal Nature. According to the paper, the Galapagos finches with various beaks were branched out from a common ancestor that lived about 2 million years ago. What they found is that a variation of gene named ALX1 contributed most for the variation of the beaks in finches.

figure 5. Variation of beak in Galapagos finches

Mutation can be defined as a change in the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of a living organism. In term of fitness, mutations in living organisms occur in three forms: neutral, harmful, or beneficial mutation. Figure 6 shows the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) of mutations in vesicular stomatitis virus. Out of all mutations, 39.6% were lethal (fitness=0), 31.2% (0<fitness<1) were non-lethal deleterious, and 27.1% were neutral (fitness=1).

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Figure 6. Distribution of fitness effects (DFE) in mutations

The natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation cause microevolution (evolution within the same species). The evolutionists claim that an accumulation of microevolutions leads to macroevolution (evolution from one species to another one). However, no evidence of macroevolution was found (note here that ring species is not an evidence of macroevolution).

Darwin also realized this and described the problems of his evolution theory in Chapter 6 of the Origin of Species. One of the difficulties he stated is that "why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms.". This is so called Darwin's dilemma and clearly states that there exists no evidence of macroevolution.

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Figure 7. Milankovitch cycle

Thus, I claim that the microevolution should not be called evolution but adaptation for the following reason. The Earth's rotation axis changes in a period of 25,400 years. As a result of the precession, Earth's equatorial line changes: tropical region can become subtropical region and vice-versa. In addition to the precession, change of axial tilt and eccentricity causes global climate change on Earth about 100,000 year cycle. This cycle is called 'Milankovitch cycle'. Climate change caused by Milankovitch cycle inevitably induces environmental change for all living creatures.

God gave a special ability for all creatures to adapt slowly changing environment. This ability was hidden in the DNA, and when needed the gene expressions are properly controlled to adapt the varying environment. Otherwise, significant fraction of the living creatures may have already extinct long times ago on the surface of the Earth.

Let's illustrate how the gene expressions are controlled in response to environmental change by showing a few examples.

If a human skin is exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the sun, tumor suppressor gene called P53 is activated. The activated P53 gene induces gene expression of melanin-generating gene called Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). The POMC gene promotes to generate Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The ACTH induces Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) and in turn, MSH synthesize melanin with the Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R).

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Figure 8. Gene expression of melanin by adapting changing environment

The process of generating melanin in response of the UV radiation is an example of a short-term response of gene expression of DNAs, but most of the gene expression with respect to the changing environment is a long term response.

Compared to other ethnic groups, the Eskimos (Inuit) has special ability to adapt a cold weather. According to the recent research published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, two specific genes WARS2 and TBX15 in Inuit that are associated with adipose tissue differentiation and body-fat distribution are different than other populations in such a way that they produce more brown fat (BAT). The brown fat, unlike white fat which just contains calories, burns white fat and produces energy and heat. This is another example of gene expression in response to the changing environment.

Figure 9. Inuit has better ability to adapt a cold environment due to WARS2 and TBX15 gene expression to have more brown fat

By comparing mitochondrial DNA between polar bear and brown bear, scientists find that the polar bear was originated from brown bear about 150,000 years ago. Evolutionists claim that this is one of the latest examples of evolution, but it should be called adaptation

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in response to cold weather occurred when the temperature of the Earth is about 10 to 15 degrees lower than current temperature.

Figure 9. Phylogenetic tree of polar bear

Variation of beak in Galapagos finches is a form of ALX1 gene expression to adapt changing environment for survival and should be called adaptation, not evolution. In fact, all microevolutions evolutionists claim as an evidence of evolution should be called adaptation since microevolution never leads to macroevolution.

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Did we evolve from apes?

Where did we come from? Paleoanthropologists claim that the modern humans called Homo Sapiens branched out about 2.5 million years ago from australopithecus. By tracing mother-side mitochondrial gene, they also claim that the modern humans came out of Africa (Out Of Africa (OOA) theory) about 100,000 years ago. Did we really come from apes?

Anatomically, there exist big differences between the modern humans and other hominins such as craniodental features, skeletal morphology, and especially the brain size. In the previous section, we saw that a major change for the Galapagos finches during 2 million years is just the shape of beak. So, it's hard to believe that the australopithecus was so much evolved to become human during such a short period of time of just 2.5 million years.

Figure 9. Did we evolved from apes? This problem can be investigated further if we compare DNA sequences between the human and australopithecus. The mapping of human DNA was completed in 2003, but we do not have DNA information for the australopithecus. Let's assume that the DNA of the australopithecus is similar to humans closest relative chimpanzee. Chimpanzees have about 30-50 IQ points and their short term memory is known to be better than humans. Scientists found that the difference of DNA between the human and chimpanzee is about

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1.2%.

A new study found that when parents pass their genes down to their children, an average of 60 errors are introduced to the genetic code in the process. Sixty mutations may sound like a lot, but it is only one new mutation in every 100 million letters of human DNA. If we assume a single generation of australopithecus is 25 years, then it will be 100 thousands of generations of evolution from australopithecus to human during 2.5 million years. During this period, the total number of mutation in DNA during is only 0.1% (100 thousands of generations x 100 millionth).

This number is just the same as average difference in DNA between individual humans today and less than 10% of DNA mutations required to evolve from australopithecus to human. In the calculation, we have assumed that the DNA mutations occur beneficially to the subsequent generation, but if they occur harmfully, it will never be possible to evolve from australopithecus to human in 2.5 million years.

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Are we created or evolved? – Answer from the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence

Where did we come from? Did we evolve from bacteria or created by God? So far, evolution seems to be favored by people than the creation. However, more and more people become skeptical about the evolution since the appearance of Intelligent Design.

We know that all evidences evolutionists suggest for evolution are microevolution (evolution within the species) and no confirming single evidence exists for macroevolution (evolution between different species; note that Tiktaalik can not be used as an evidence of macroevolution (fish to amphibians) since the first tetrapods appeared long before the Tiktaalik as published in Nature Journal).

In this sense, microevolution should be called as an adaptation God has embedded in DNA of every creatures. Furthermore, as discussed in the previous section, evolution cannot explain how the first life appeared on earth. In this section, we will extend our discussion from earth to the universe.

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Fig. 1 Macroevolution and Microevolution

If we assume that evolution and creation debate as a marathon race, we will be in a situation of watching the race in the beginning or middle of the race. In such a case, we can't tell who's going to win. The only way to tell who's the winner is to watch the race at the finish line. Just like this, is there any way to watch the race of the creation and evolution at the finish line?

Fig. 2 Marathon race. We don’t know who’s going to win at the start or middle of the race.

This doesn’t seem to be an easy task, but if we think about this problem under the night sky, the twinkling stars might tell us a way to solve it. Earth is one of the eight planets orbiting around the sun, and the sun itself is just one of the 200 billion stars in our Galaxy. Suppose each star has one earth-like planet, then there will be 200 billion planets in our Galaxy alone.

So, if the evolution is correct, we are not special but just one of the numerous intelligent species living on earth-like planets in the universe. This reasoning gives us a powerful tool to tell who's going to win in the race of creation and evolution, namely if there exist numerous aliens in the universe, the evolution will be the winner.

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Fig. 3 Do Aliens exist?

Then, how many aliens exist in the universe? The search for extraterrestrial intelligence SETI) was first started in the early 1960 by Cornell University astronomer Dr. Drake using radio telescopes in Green Bank, West Virginia. This SETI project was known as 'Project Ozma'. Subsequently, many SETI projects such as Project Cyclops, Project Ozma II, Project Phoenix, SERENDIP, Seti@Home, and Optical SETI have been undertaken by various universities and institutions.

Fig. 4 - Green Bank 26m radio telescope used for Project Ozma (left) and world's largest Arecibo radio telescope used for Project SERENDIP (right)

Throughout these SETI projects, about 5,000 nearby solar-type stars have been searched to detect signals from aliens, but none has been detected. Does this mean there exist no aliens out there? Then, what about UFO? Isn’t it the evidence of aliens?

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According to the UFO researches conducted by various agencies and institutions, about 80% - 90% of the UFOs have been identified as astronomical phenomena, airplanes, balloons, optical illusions, birds, and clouds. The rest of 10%-20% of the UFOs are unidentified. Do aliens visit earth on board these unidentified UFOs and can this be the evidence of their existence? It could be, but let's come back to this question later.

Fig. 5 UFO - Alien's Vehicle?

When Dr. Drake started Project Ozma, he devised an equation called Drake equation to estimate the number of technologically advanced alien civilizations in our Galaxy. The equation is a product of the average star formation rate per year in our Galaxy, the fraction of those stars that have planets, the number of planets per star that can potentially support life, fraction of those habitable planets on which life actually arises, fraction of those life forms that evolve into intelligent species, fraction of those species that develop adequate technology and releases detectable signs of their existence into space, and lifetime of that technologically advanced civilization.

If we enter appropriate values for each term, the number of technologically advanced alien civilizations in our Galaxy becomes about 2. Two alien civilizations in a galaxy sounds a small number, but it will become 200 billions if we the count the total number of technologically advanced alien civilizations in the entire universe (2 times 100 billion galaxies).

The Drake equation is based on the evolution since it assumes that life can be originated on habitable planets and those life can be evolved into intelligent species. Let's assume the evolution is correct, then some of the alien civilizations could have evolved long times ahead of us and some others just started their evolution in a form of primitive bacteria. If we know history of the universe, then we can roughly estimate how many technologically advanced civilizations out there since their civilization will depends on when the first galaxy and planets are formed.

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The Lambda-CDM model of the big bang cosmology suggests the age of the universe is about 13.7 billion years old. When the universe was about 300,000 years old, it went through a recombination epoch during which the hydrogen and helium atoms were formed and become the building blocks of stars and galaxies we currently observe. Recent observations tell us that the first galaxy was formed about 13.2 billion years ago.

If the evolution is correct, the alien civilizations could have evolved as early as 13.2 billion years ago in such galaxy. If we assume the alien civilizations appeared continuously 13.2 billion years ago to the present, the first civilization evolved 9.2 billion years earlier than us since we evolved 4.0 billion years. The fraction of alien civilizations that evolved earlier than us is about 70% (9.2/13.2) of which 90% and 99% of them have been evolved from 920 million years and 92 million years earlier than us respectively. Let’s take a very conservative estimate by assuming not just 99% but only 1% of them was evolved 92 million years earlier than us. Then the total number of such a civilization in the universe will be 2 billions (1% of 200 billions).

If they started to evolve 92 million years earlier than us, how far technologically advanced their civilization is? Our civilization has been advanced steadily from prehistoric time but during the last two centuries we have achieved a significant advancement in civilization. If we keep the same pace to the next 132 million years, our civilization will be advanced beyond our imagination. If we are living in such an advanced civilization, how do we do space travel?

Fig. 6 Picture of Nam-San in Seoul taken in 1904 (top left) and in 2004 (top right). Artist's rendition of the Earth in near future (bottom).

If we think about the fastest way for space travel, most of us will imagine fast spaceships. The natural outcome of this concept is an UFO and leads us to think that if aliens would visit to Earth, they might come abroad on UFO. However, we have to realize that the size of the universe is unimaginably large and can’t be traveled with spaceship. For example, it will take about 4.3 years to the nearest star even if you travel at the speed of light, and it will take about 2.5 million years with the speed of light to the nearest galaxy Andromeda. So, it’s virtually impossible to do space travel by riding a spaceship simply because it takes unrealistically long time. Then, what kind of methods could be used for the future space travel?

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Fig. 7 Andromeda, the nearest galaxy from us. It will take 2.5 million years if we travel at the speed of light.

In 1935, Einstein and Rosen discovered an existence of wormhole through which any two points in the universe can be connected instantly. However, the wormhole itself is unstable and it will pinch off instantly as soon as it forms and preventing even light from passing it through. Another problem is that anything passing through the wormhole will be squashed completely into sub-atomic level.

The possible solution to circumvent this problem is to produce a database of someone’s body in every detail such as height, weight, DNA structure, and even memories and send these information through the wormhole to the place where he wants to go and duplicate the same person using body duplicating machine. To apply this method, we need to have exotic material that have 'negative energy' to make the wormhole to stay open. In addition, we have to have a preexisting body duplicating machine at the destination planet, which is another challenging task to resolve.

Fig. 8 Wormhole.

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Then, is there any other practical way for the space travel? The 'teleportation' through hyperspace as seen on TV series Star Trek could be the answer. This is not just sending information of our body and duplicating it, but sending the whole body to other place in the universe through hyperspace. In the late 1990, scientists have shown that information of the quantum or atom can be copied to a place a few millimeters away.

Recent experiment showed that the information of the atoms can be copied to a place about 5 meters away by 'quantum entanglement' method. If this method of transporting information is developed for the next thousands or ten thousands years, we will eventually find a way to transport our whole body to any place in the universe. So, for the civilization evolved 92 million years earlier than us should have perfected this technology and it will be a piece of cake for them to travel any place in the universe just as we visit to our next door.

Fig 9. Teleportation shown in Star Trek

If such a space travel is common to advanced civilizations, then how many aliens can actually visiting us? The answer of this question depends on the total population in such civilization. To simplify the problem, let’s assume that they are similar to us and the average population of each civilization is about 1 billions (which is about 1/6 of Earthian(=6 billions)). Then, the total number of aliens who have been evolved 92 million years earlier than us and who have teleportation technology to visit Earth is 2 quintillions.

Of course, we don’t expect all of them will visit us. If we assume that only 1% of them can visit, then the total number of aliens who can visit to Earth is 20 quadrillions. If they visit us daily, monthly, or yearly, then we will have 20 quadrillions, 670 trillions, or 55 trillions alien visitors, respectively in each day. In such a case, we ought to see an enormous number of

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aliens on Earth. But, so far, we haven’t seen any of the aliens visiting Earth. Then, how can we interpret this result?

There will be two possible answers for this: i) there exist numerous number of aliens out there, but simply they don’t have any interest to visit us, or, ii) the assumption of evolution in Drake’s equation is simply wrong and there’s no alien civilization in the universe. The first answer doesn’t seem to be reasonable because the space exploration and SETI will be the most focused science for the advanced civilizations and if they found us, they will contact us in every ways. Suppose we found aliens in the nearby planet, then it will be the most sensational news on earth and we will make every effort to contact or visit them. Likewise, most of the 200 quadrillions aliens will have very much interested to visit us, but we don't see any of them.

So, the answer is the second one; evolution is simply wrong and we are not evolved from bacteria but created by God. This is the result of the evolution and creation race seen from the finish line!

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Creation of Universe: Biblical and astronomical point of views

How the universe was created? It sounds very hard question, but modern science answered how the universe was created. Then, we may ask does this agree with the record in the Bible?

a) Creation of the Universe from astronomical observations To answer this question, first we need to know the structure of the universe. Our universe is enormously large. Earth is one of the eight planets orbiting around the sun. Alpha Centauri is the nearest star from the sun and will take about 4.5 million years if we travel by airplane and 4.3 years if we travel at the velocity of light.

Fig. 10. Our Galaxy. It will take about 110 billion years to cross with airplane

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The Andromeda galaxy is the nearest galaxy from us and will take about 2.5 million years if we travel at the speed of light. Our galaxy (Fig. 10) and Andromeda galaxy belong to Local Group and the Local Group itself belongs to Local Supercluster which in turn belongs to Supercluster. The overall structure of the universe can be visible if we reach to this scale length. The structure of the universe appears as a collection of giant bubble-like voids separated by sheets and filaments of galaxies, with the superclusters appearing as occasional relatively dense nodes (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11. Collection of about 60 thousands galaxies

Our universe was created about 13.7 billion years ago from Big Bang of an enormously dense singular point. Right after the Big Bang, our universe was filled with relativistic particles and entered radiation-dominated era. Subsequently, it entered inflation era and undergone dramatic change: the size of the universe has grown about 1050 times in a brief moment of time. The space created during this period formed a basis of the sky we currently observe. After inflation era, the universe went through quark epoch, hadron epoch, lepton epoch, and photon epoch. After photon epoch, matter-dominated universe started and formed nucleus and elements from which stars and galaxies were formed. After the formation of galaxies, our universe does not undergo a dramatic changes but gradually expand as a result of inflation. This is the current picture of the universe.

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Fig. 12. Bigbang. At the beginning, our universe was filled with the light b) Creation of the Universe recorded in various religions. Before discussing the creation of universe written in the Bible, let’s first look at what other religions tell us about it. Most of the religions were originated long before the Big Bang theory was known. So, it will be interesting to see if any of the religions can describe the origin of the universe correctly or not. The result can be served as a criterion for which religion is a true or not. Buddhism explains the origin of the universe with karma. In the beginning of the universe, there was a karma inside people from which wind flowed and formed a windwheel. Subsequently, a waterwheel and an earthwheel were formed. On the earthwheel, Mt. Sumeru, 4 continents, 9 mountains, and 8 oceans were formed. Humans were living in one of the 4 continents. The height of the Mt. Sumeru which is located in the center of the universe is 1.1 million km (about 3 times the distance between the Earth and Moon) and a half of the mountain is submerged under the water and another half is stood above the water. The sun, moon, and stars are moving around the Mt. Sumeru.

If we carefully examine the Buddhism cosmology we can notice that it is based on human’s idea since it uses wind, water, earth, mountain, and ocean to explain the origin and structure of the universe. Furthermore, it explains the location of 4 continents with directions that can only be applied on Earth; i.e., east, west, north, and south (EWNS). The EWNS directions can be defined with respect to the magnetic field of the Earth. If we see a certain place on Earth from space there will be no meaning of the EWNS directions due to Earth's rotation. New York lies on the east of the Los Angeles on Earth, but it will lie west of Los Angeles if you see it in the space 12 hours later. Even on the surface of the Earth, the north and south directions can be flipped due to the geomagnetic reversal occuring in every 250,000 years on average.

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The creation of the universe described in Hindu is similar to that of the Buddhism. The universe is created by Brahma who is born from lotus leaf sprung from the belly button of the Vishnu while she was sleeping on the surface of the water. The universe created by Brahma has a mountain called Sumeru in the center around which a land encompasses and an India lies in a part of the land.

In Taoism, creation of the universe starts with Wuji from which Taiji emerged. Taiji is qi in its complementary aspects of Yin and Yang. It is the “dance” – i.e. the continual transformations – of Yin and Yang that fuels the flow of qi. This stage represents the emergence of duality/polarity out of the unity of Tao. From this dance of Yin and Yang the five elements: wood, fire, metal, water, and earth emerged. From the five elements come the “ten-thousand things,” i.e. all of manifest existence, all of the inhabitants of the world that we experience.

Chinese mythology describes the origin of the universe with Pangu legend. According to the legend, there a formless chaos in the universe and this chaos coalesced into a cosmic egg from which Pangu emerged. Pangu set about the task of creating the world: he separated Yin from Yang with a swing of his giant axe, creating the earth and sky. To keep them separated, Pangu stood between them and pushed up the Sky. After 18,000 years had elapsed, Pangu was laid to rest and his breath became the wind; his voice the thunder; left eye the sun and right eye the moon; his body became the mountain and extremes of the world; his blood formed rivers; his muscles the fertile lands; his facial hair the stars and milky way; his fur the bushes and forests; his bones the valuable minerals; his bone marrows sacred diamonds; his sweat fell as rain; and the fleas on his fur carried by the wind became the fish and animals throughout the land.

There’s no specific explanation of the creation of universe in Islam except that the universe was created with truth as written in Quran 16:3.

So far, we’ve reviewed how the various regions describe the creation of the universe, but all of them are more like a mythological story rather than what modern astronomy have found.

c) Creation of the Universe in the Bible Now, let’s turn our attention to the creation of universe written in the Bible. The creation of the universe is specifically written in Chapter 1 of the Genesis (the first book of the Bible):

“In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1)

The detailed description follows in Chapter 1:3 where we can find an amazing work of God:

“And God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light” (Genesis 1:3).

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What this means is that the creation of the universe started with the creation of light. This is exactly the same as how the Big Bang was started. According to the Big Bang, our universe was started with a full of light (radiation-dominated era). It is quite amazing to see both descriptions correspond to each other.

Another amazing work God has done follows in the second day of Creation:

“And God said, ‘Let there be an expanse…’” (Genesis 1:7).

God created the expanse (space) in the second day of the creation. Right after the Big Bang, universe has undergone inflation era during which the size of the universe has expanded to 1050 times and formed the basis of the sky we currently observe. The creation of the expanse refers to this event. It is also quite amazing to see the correspondence of both descriptions.

Now, let’s go back to the Bible. God created earth, ocean, and plants on the 3rd day, sun, moon, and stars on the 4th day, birds and fish on the 5th day, animals and human on the 6th day, and rested on the 7th day. The estimated ages of the plants and animals from fossil record correspond to the sequence of God’s creation; the oldest to the newest are plants, fish, birds, animals, and human being.

This result along with the correct description of the creation of the universe were already written in the Bible by Moses about 3,500 years ago. This suggests that the Bible was written by inspiration of God and not just philosophical or mythological records like other religions, but true records of God's Words.

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Age of the Universe Recorded in the Bible

In the previous chapter, we discussed the creation of the universe written in the Bible. However, the age of the universe identified by astronomical observations is about 13.7 billion years whereas it is only 7 days in the Bible. How can we understand this? This is so called ‘age problem’ and has been puzzled many including theologists.

The reason for having difficulties in explaining the age problem is related with the concept of time we are perceiving. We think that the time flows from present to future direction and can’t be reversed. This fixed concept of the time have prevented us for explaining the age problem. To discuss further, let’s first estimate the age of the universe recorded in the Bible.

According to the Bible, God created everything from universe to human in 7 days. The genealogy of the first human Adam to his descendants is recorded in Genesis chapter 5:

“This is the written account of Adam's line…” (Genesis 5:1).

If we add up all elapsed time from Adam to his 9th generation Noah, it becomes 1,656 years. The Noah's flood occurred in the day of Noah and if we know when the flood was happened, we can calculate the total age of the universe recorded in the Bible. There are some debates about when the Noah’s flood occurred, but most data suggest that it happened about 7,500 years ago. So, the age of the universe recorded in the Bible is about 9,156 years (7 days+ 1,656 years +7500 years). How can we explain this huge difference age of the universe recorded in the Bible and estimated from astronomy?

To resolve the age problem, let take a close look at the Genesis again. The Biblical record of age from Adam to Noah seems quite accurate, but the dating of the Noah’s flood might have some uncertainty. However, even if the Noah’s flood occurred 75,000 years ago or even 750,000 years ago, it doesn’t affect much to the age of the universe 13.7 billion years. Then, you might be wondering whether the record in the Genesis is wrong or is there some clue about the age of the universe in the Bible? If you read the Genesis carefully and have some basic knowledge of astronomy, you will notice that there is a key to solve the age problem in the first 7 days of creation in the Bible.

Here is a reason. As shown in the figure below, a day in human world is defined by 24 hours, which is the time taken for an earth to make a full rotation along it’s rotation axis. If the earth faces toward the sun, we call it day and if it faces away from the sun, we call it night.

So, to define a day on earth, we need to have earth as well as sun a priori. However, as recorded in the Bible, the earth was created on the 3rd day and the sun was created on the

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4th day. God used a day from the 1st day of creation, which is even before the earth and the sun are created. This suggests that a day used in the Genesis is not the same as the day our human defined, but is the day defined by God’s point of view. The length of the human’s day depends on which planet we are living in. If God created us in Jupiter, our day will be about 10 hours whereas it is 243 days if we were created in Venus.

Fig. 13. Earth and Sun have to exist before define a day

Fig. 14. A day in Venus (left) is 243 days and in Jupiter (right) is 10 hours

Now, we understand that the age problem was originated from misinterpreting the 7 days in the Bible in human point of view. Then, how long it will be for the first 7 days in the Genesis in terms of human time scale? This seems a tough question, but if we compare creation process written in the Genesis with the astronomical observations, we can estimate the time scale.

The 1st day of the creation in Genesis is represented by creation of light. This corresponds to the period from start of the Big Bang to the Inflation era, which is about 10-35 seconds (time scale called Plank time). The 2nd day of creation is represented by creation of space which corresponds to the inflation era of 10-32 seconds. The 3rd day of the creation is represented by creation of the earth. The age of the earth estimated from radio-active

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dating is 4.6 billion years. Thus, the 3rd day of the creation corresponds to 9.1 billion years (13.7 minus 4.6 billion years).

Here, we notice some unexpected result. A day use by God is not fixed, but is changing: either it is very short or very long interval of time. Unlike human’s day on earth (which is fixed to 24 hours), why God’s day is changing? This is probably because of God created the time and governs it. Are there any Biblical evidences that validate this hypothesis? The answer is yes!

In 2 Peter in the Bible, we find the following verse:

“With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day” (2 Peter 3:8).

This verse suggests God governs time (by expanding or contracting). Time expansion is well-known by Einstein's theory. According to the theory of special relativity, time can be dilated (expanded) in a moving system. If we are traveling at the speed of light, we won’t be aged due to the time dilation. However, unlike the time expansion, our science is not advanced enough to explain the time contraction.

Fig. 15. Einstein's time dilation equation

In addition to expand or contract time, God can freeze time. The following verse is written in the Joshua:

“The sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day” (Joshua 10:13).

The time freezing was happened when Joshua fought with the kings of Amorites. This verse is another evidence that God governs time. Stopping time is quite amazing, but more surprising fact is time reversal as recorded in the 2 Kings. Hezekiah is one of the Judea kings and reigned between 716 – 697 BC. In 712 BC, he became ill and almost dying. So,

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Hezekiah prayed to God for healing and God accepted his prayer and performed time reversal as a sign of acceptance.

“The LORD made the shadow go back the ten steps it had gone down on the stairway of Ahaz” (2 Kings 20:11).

The ‘stairway of Ahaz’ is a sundial used in King Ahaz era and God reversed time 10 steps back.

The time reversal is even harder to understand and can only be heard in science fictions or movies such as ‘Back to the Future’.

Fig. 16. The stairway (sundial) of Ahaz

In additions to these amazing events, there are many miracles recorded in the Bible. One of the representative miracles is the virgin birth of Jesus. Many people don’t believe this but, the virgin birth (Parthenogenesis) is commonly practiced in the lab in these days. Most of us believe that we are living in a technologically well advanced world. So, if can explain any miracles in the Bible with the current technology, we accept them but if we can’t, we simply reject. However, our current level of technology will look like an infant stage if viewed from God’s point of view.

As we discussed in the previous section, creation of the universe written in the Bible looks not convincing in the first place, but if we look closely, then we can find hidden truth behind it. Thus, we have to believe that the Bible is a written record of God’s word of truth.

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God’s Creation embedded in instinct of animals

Computer is composed not only of hardware and software but also of firmware. The firmware (middle-ware) serves as an intermediary between systems software and applications. The firmware program is stored in the BIOS and instructs how the software and hardware interact with each other. Without firmware, computer is just a piece of machine that can’t do anything. A person who designed the computer have to provide instructions how the computer behavior. This instruction program is embedded in the BIOS and called firmware. This concept is similar to an instinct of the animals. Behaviors of all animals are subject to instinct. If they are hungry they look for something to eat and if they feel thirty they look for water to drink. If they defy instinct, they can’t survive in nature. Most of the debates about the creation and evolution deal with the hardware aspect (i.e. body shape, bone structure, etc...) or biochemical aspect, but we will deal with animal's instinct (firmware) to discuss creation vs. evolution. For this, we will illustrate two examples: how the instincts of mason bees and weaver birds function when they build their nests. a) Nest building of Mason Bee Nest building process of a mason bee is well described in the Fabre’s Book of Insect. Mason bees build nest near the river bank. They pick small flat river rock and build their nest on it by stacking multiple layers of doughnut-shaped mortar that was made from earth mixed with saliva. If they finish to building the nest, they fill the nest with honey and pollen and seal the nest after laying an egg. Fabre did some interesting experiments. He switched the nest that was just being built with a finished one, and watched how the mason bee behaves when she returned from collecting earth to build the nest. If we are in mason bee’s boot, we can take the finished nest and will start to fill honey in it. However, the mason bee keeps building on top of the finished one and produce awkward-shaped nest (see Fig. 17) .

Fig. 17. Mason bee keeps building nest on finished one

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Fabre did opposite experiment. When mason bee finished building nest and went to collect the honey, he replaced finished nest with unfinished one and watched how the mason bee behaves. In this case, the mason bee keeps filling honey to the unfinished nest even if the honey is overflowing. These two experiments tell us that the mason bee behaves according to the program stored in her instinct: finish nest building first then collect honey second, and this sequence can not be switched.

Fig. 18. Mason bee keeps filling honey in unfinished nest

Another instinct-related experiment Fabre did was the sequence of filling honey and the behavior of hatched mason bee. When bee returns from collecting honey, she puts her head into the nest to regurgitate honey (Fig. 19). After emptying her honey-bag, she turns around and robs off pollens carried on her legs to the nest. If someone interrupts bee when she starts to rob off the pollens, she flies away momentarily. After return to the nest again, she starts to regurgitate honey even if there’s nothing left in her honey-bag and turns around and robs off the pollen. Here, we can also notice that mason bee tries to follow predetermined sequence: regurgitates honey, turns around, and robs off pollens (Fig. 20).

Fig. 19. Bee regurgitates honey first, then robs off pollens second

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Fig 20. If interrupted, she repeats regurgitating honey first then robbing off pollens second

We can observe a similar behavior for a hatched bee. Mason bee's nest is very hard like a cement wall. If a bee hatches from egg, she cuts top of the nest with her strong jaws. If we place one more layer of paper on top of the nest, she has no problems to cut it out. However, if a paper cone was placed on top of the nest (see Fig. 21), she doesn’t know what to do next (even if she has a very strong jaws capable of cutting the cement wall) and trapped between the nest and the paper cone and starved to death. From this experiment, we can also notice the sequence of behavior inscribed in her instinct what to do when she hatched. After cutting through the nest, she expects to have open air and flies away to seek honey. If some unexpected circumstance happens like a paper cone on top of the nest, she doesn’t know what to do next. This experiment also tells us that instinct governs bee’s behave in the nature and she just follows the sequences inscribed in her instinct.

Fig. 21 Mason bee can cut two layers of nest, but can't do if there is a space between them

b) Nest Building of Weaver Bird

We can find a similar instinct-driven behavior for weaver birds. The weaver bird builds nest with long grass by intertwining them as shown in Fig. 22. Marais performed experiment for the weaver bird. He caged weaver bird and didn’t provide grass to build nest during egg laying period. If she can't find grass to build nest, she just lays egg on the ground. He caged the hatched bird and did the same experiment to the 4th generations. After that, he provided grass when the 5th generation offspring lays egg. When the weaver bird saw

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grass, she immediately starts to build exactly the same nest as shown in Fig. 22. She hasn’t seen the nest before nor learned how to build it, but she instinctively started to build the nest. How can that be possible?

Fig 22. Nest of weaver bird

Here, we notice that the firmware in computer and the instinct in animal are built on the same concept: namely, the builder of the computer and the creator of the animal programmed them to function properly in cyber world (computer) and in nature (animal). This strongly suggests that mason bees and weaver birds are not a product of evolution but creation.

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Shell Building of Nautilus

If we explore shell building process of nautilus, we can realize that they are a product of creation, not evolution. The nautilus is a palm-sized mollusk living in the pacific ocean. It builds the following characteristic shell and lives in it.

Nautilus shell The nautilus follows two simple rules to build its shell. The first rule is expand: as the nautilus secretes successive layers of shell-building material at the shell opening, it uniformly deposits more material each time to create an ever larger opening. However, if it keeps continuing this process, it will create a straight cone-like structure. To create spiral structure, the nautilus follows the second rule rotate: by depositing slightly more material on one side of the opening, the nautilus builds torus having wider outer part than the inner part, from an initial circle.

Nautilus follows two simple rules: expand and rotate to build its spiral shell

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By doing these two processes, the nautilus builds a shell in a form of a perfect spiral called logarithmic spiral.

Nautilus shell forms a perfect logarithmic spiral

The shell building process of the nautilus induces many interesting questions. How come the nautilus knows that it needs shell house even if it can live without shell? How does it know it needs a calcium-rich material to build the shell? How does it know proper density of the building material and how does it control the secreting rate. How does it know how to solidify the liquid form of building material into solid form in underwater? Is it because it is smart enough to do it by itself, or it just follow an instinct the Creator embedded in its gene? How the cells in nautilus cooperate to produce building materials including solidifying agent composed of protein? Nobody thinks that the nautilus is smart enough to know college level math and build its shell in the form of logarithmic spiral. To find an answer for these questions, let's suppose we want to build a similar shell with a 3-D printer (=nautilus). If we buy 3-D printer, it does not do anything even if we powered it up. To operate 3-D printer (nautilus), we need to produce computer program with G program language. In the program, we have to specify all detailed steps and processes to produce the nautilus shell. In addition, we need to fill out shell building material into the ink cartridge.

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After that we have to enter the program to a computer and execute the program, then the 3-D printer starts to build a shell in a predetermined rate. From this analogy, we know that the 3-D print can not produce the shell by itself, but does it by following the input program we have entered. Likewise, the nautilus can not build its shell by its own will, but by following the instinct the Creator entered in its gene. This fact tells us that the nautilus is not a product of random process (evolution), but a product of creation. The One Who entered the shell building program into nautilus gene and instinct is the God the Creator.

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Evidence of Creation Inscribed in Nature

"Mathematics is the alphabet with which God has written the universe." -- Galileo Galilei

Nature holds many evidences of God’s creation. One of the evidences of God’s creation inscribed in nature is mathematical principles. The well-known mathematical principles found in nature are golden ratio, golden angle, golden rectangle, Fibonacci sequence, logarithmic spiral, and fractal. Let’s first briefly describe what these mathematical principles are.

Fig 23. Golden Ratio (left), Golden Angle (middle), Golden Rectangle (right)

Fig 24. Logarithmic Spiral (left) and Fractal (right)

The golden ratio is a special number found by dividing a line into two parts so that the longer part divided by the smaller part is also equal to the whole length divided by the longer part. If it is expressed algebraically (see Fig. 23 below), it becomes a/b = (a + b)/a and it's value is approximately 1.618 (exact value is (1+√5)/2). The golden angle is the angle subtended by the smaller (red) arc when two arcs that make up a circle are in the golden ratio (Fig. 23). The approximate value of the golden angle is 137.51 degrees. The golden rectangle is one whose side lengths are in the golden ratio.

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The Fibonacci sequence is the series of numbers where the next number is found by adding the preceding two numbers (ex: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …). The logarithmic spiral is the one within which any line emanating from the origin cuts the curve under a constant angle (see Fig. 24). The fractal is an object or quantity that displays self-similarity where a fragmented geometric shape is a reduced-size copy of the whole. With these mathematical knowledge in hand, let’s start to explore where we can find these principles in nature.

Leaves, petals and other organs in plants are arranged orderly and follow some mathematical rules. This geometric arrangement of organs is the main topic in phyllotaxis study. In about 80% of plants, leaves are arranged along the stem tracing a helix. Suppose we fix our attention to some leaf on the bottom of a stem on which there is a single leaf at any one point. If we number that leaf "0" and count the leaves upward along the stem until we come to the one which is directly above the starting one, the number we counted becomes one of the Fibonacci sequence. For example, number of leaves in top and bottom figure in Fig. 25 are 5 and 8, respectively.

If we count how many revolutions we made when we count the number of leaves along the stem, the number of revolutions also becomes one of the Fibonacci sequence. The arrangement of leaves can be expressed as a ratio of number of leaves to number of revolutions. For example, if the number of leaves in our sample plant is "5" and the number of revolutions is "2", then our plant is said to have phyllotaxis 2/5 (see Fig. 25).

Each plant can be characterized by its own phyllotaxis. Almost always the ratios encountered are ratios of consecutive or alternate terms of the Fibonacci sequence (for example, 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, 5/13, etc.; notice here that numerators and denominators are also Fibonacci numbers). The angle formed by two adjacent leaves remains approximately constant and approaches to the golden angle (which is 137.5 deg) as the number of leaves increase. If they have golden angle, all of the leaves in the plant receive the same amount of sunlight and can collect water effectively and direct it to the center of the plant to pass down to the root.

Fig. 25. ⅖ phyllotaxis (left) and ⅜ phyllotaxis (right)

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Not only for the leaves, but also for the buds, seed heads, and shoots follow mathematical rule. If seed head has golden angle, it can have the largest number of seeds in a given area (sunflower seed is a representative example). If we look closely to these shoots or seed heads that have golden angle, we can find spiral patterns (logarithmic spiral) as shown in Fig. 27. Here, we can find interesting properties in these spirals. The number of spirals is two or three adjacent Fibonacci numbers.

For example, the number of spirals is 21 in clockwise direction and 34 counterclockwise direction in daisy flower, 8 clockwise direction and 13 counterclockwise direction in pinecone, 5 counterclockwise direction, 8 clockwise direction, and 13 counterclockwise direction in pineapple, 5 clockwise direction and 8 counterclockwise direction in cauliflower, and 13 clockwise direction and 21 counterclockwise direction in romanesco broccoli.

If the number of spirals form Fibonacci numbers, they preserve the same shape while they are growing. For example, the shape of the daisy flowers is circular when they are small and keeps the same circular shape while they are growing. The mathematical principle behind having invariant shape is that the spirals having Fibonacci numbers form logarithmic spiral and anything growing in logarithmic spiral pattern doesn’t change shape.

Fig 26. Growth pattern of the Norway spruce shoot.

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Fig 27. Daisy flower, pine cone, pineapple, cauliflower, and romanesco broccoli. Numbers of spirals are two adjacent Fibonacci numbers.

The growth pattern following the logarithmic spiral can be found not only in plants but also in auricle, cochlea, fingers, seahorse’s tail, ram’s horn, and nautilus, etc. (Fig. 28). There is very important reason for these to grow in logarithmic spiral pattern. If they do, they can keep the same shape when they were young and after they were fully grown. The cochlea in your ear has nice geometric shape for best hearing. If it changing shape while you are growing-up, you will have hearing problem. Likewise, if bones in your fingers don’t grow in logarithmic spiral pattern, you will have hard time to grasp objects with your fingers when you become a grown-up.

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Fig 28. Pinna (left), nautilus (middle), and finger bones (right) are grow in logarithmic pattern

Fibonacci numbers can also be found in sneezewort (Fig. 29 left). If we draw horizontal lines through axils of the sneezewort, we can see a growing pattern of the stem and leaves. The main stem produces branch shoots at the beginning of each stage. Branch shoots rest during their first two stages, and then produce new branch shoots at the beginning of each subsequent stage. The same law applies to all branches (see middle figure in Fig. 29). Now, if we count the number of branches in each section, the counted numbers are all Fibonacci numbers. Furthermore, if we count the number of leaves in each stage, they also form Fibonacci numbers (right figure in Fig. 29).

Fig 29. Sneezewort (left). The numbers of branches (middle) and leaves (right) in sneezewort form Fibonacci numbers.

Another mathematical principle found in nature is a fractal. The fractal structure can be found in fern, trees, cauliflower, etc.. If we look fern closely, we can find that a frond from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole. The circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems in human body also have fractal structure. Human circulatory system needs to provide fresh oxygen and nutrients to every cell in the body. To archive such a task, the blood vessel system has to be designed in fractal structure. If it has a fractal structure, it can occupy

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minimum volume but has a maximum area to reach every cell in the body. It also reduces strong blood pressure by evenly distributing it to every end of the blood vessel.

Fig. 30. Fractal structure in fern (fern) and romanesco broccoli (right)

So far, we have seen many examples of mathematical principles in nature. How can that happen? Does the plant know high-level math and arrange their leaves in Fibonacci sequence? Does the sunflower know college level mathematics and produce its seeds in the pattern of golden angle? Does the fern know high-level mathematics and produce its leaves in the fractal form? Certainly not and all of these are strong evidence that they are designed and created by God.

Fig. 31. Stone age arrow. The arrow was created by stone age man long times ago

If we found a stone age arrow in the field (Fig. 31), we know that it was made by stone age man long times ago since it's shape is different than other irregular-shaped stones and can't be made by natural process either water or wind erosion. Likewise, if humans and animals that are incomparably more complex than the stone age arrow are living on earth, then their existence themselves tell us that they were created and not evolved by natural process.

“For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities--his eternal power and divine nature--have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse” (Rome 1:20).

God created all of these living creatures on earth!

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“For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.” (John 3:16)

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