create-ing capacity to take developmental crime prevention ... · create-ing capacity to take...

CREATE-ingcapacitytotakedevelopmentalcrimepreventiontoscale

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CREATE-ingcapacitytotakedevelopmentalcrimepreventiontoscale:

Acommunity-basedapproachwithinanationalframework

RossHomel,PhDKateFreiberg,PhDSaraBranch,PhD

GriffithCriminologyInstitute

Publishedas:

Homel,R.,Freiberg,K.&Branch,S.(2015).CREATE-ingcapacitytotakedevelopmentalcrimepreventiontoscale:Acommunity-basedapproachwithinanationalframework.AustralianandNewZealandJournalofCriminology48(3):367-385


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CREATE-ingcapacitytotakedevelopmentalcrimepreventiontoscale:Acommunity-basedapproachwithinanationalframework

Abstract

Developmentalcrimepreventionisfoundedonthelong-termoutcomesandeconomic

efficiencyofabout50promisingormodelprogramsforfosteringhealthychildand

youthdevelopmentandforpreventingcrime.However,fewifanyoftheseprograms

havebeensuccessfullyimplementedonalargescale,aproblemthatisthefocusofType

2(T2)TranslationResearchwithinpreventionscience.Thispaperdescribesone

approachtobuildingcapacityforpopulation-levelcommunity-baseddevelopmental

preventionusingtheCREATEmodelthatwedevelopedasanoutcomeofthePathways

toPreventionProjectthatoperatedinadisadvantagedregionofBrisbanebetween

2002and2011.CREATEisanacronym:Collaborative;Relationships-driven;Earlyin

thepathway;Accountable;Training-focused;Evidence-driven.CREATEisbeingusedto

develop,inT2Translationterms,apreventionsupportsystem(PSS)fortheCommunities

forChildren(CfC)program,apreventiondeliverysystemthatisoperatedbythe

DepartmentofSocialServicesin52communitiesacrossAustralia.Theaimistobuild

thecapacityforschoolsandcommunityagenciestotranscendsystemsilos;foster

ethicalpracticesandrespectfulrelationships;anddelivergoal-directed,quantitatively

evaluated,evidence-basedresourcesthataddresstheneedsoffamilieswithcomplex

needs,promotechildwellbeing,andpreventantisocialandcriminalbehaviours.The

PSScombinesweb-basedinteractiveelectronicresourcesforschoolsandcommunity

agenciesservingchildreninCfCcommunitieswithsystemsandprocessesestablished

byprojectpersonnelcalledCollectiveImpactFacilitatorswhobuildtheskillsand

knowledgeofcommunitycoalitionstousetheelectronicresourcesandimplement

CREATEeffectively.Thiscapacitybuildingexerciseisbeingevaluatedthrougha

comprehensivearrayofpre-andpost-measuresofcoalitionfunctioning.ThePSS

integrateswithnationalpreventioninfrastructuredevelopedbyDSS,includingaData

ExchangeSystem,anExpertPanel,andanInformationExchange.


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Thefirstcorechallenge[ofType2TranslationResearch]istobuild

infrastructuresandthecapacityforbroadtranslationofevidence-based

preventiveinterventionsintocommunitypracticesthroughprevention

deliverysystems.…Thesecondcorechallengeistoclarifyandconductthe

rangeofnecessaryscientificadvancesrequiredforinvestigationofsustained,

high-qualityimplementationof[evidence-basedinterventions]atscale.

(Spothetal.,2013;p.322)

Thispaperisaboutoneapproachtorealisingthepromiseofdevelopmentalcrime

preventiononalargescale.Thatis,itisaboutinvestingincapacitytobuildonthe

successofagrowingnumberofrelativelysmall-scaleinnovationsthathave

demonstratedconvincinglythatitispossible,inaneconomicallyefficientway,tocreate

conditionsearlyinlifeorinchildhoodthatfosterhealthydevelopmentalpathwaysand

reduceadolescentandadultratesofinvolvementinantisocialbehaviourandcrime

(Manning,Homel&Smith,2010;Piqueroetal.,2009).

Onlyinthepastdecadeorsohavesomeoftheconceptualtoolsessentialforthejourney

from‘success-in-miniature’topopulation-levelimpactbeendeveloped(Schorr,1998).

Thisprocessof‘scalingup’isreferredtointhepreventionscienceliteratureasType2

Translation,incontrasttoType1Translationthatappliestheresultsofbasicresearchto

thedevelopmentandtestingofnewpreventioninitiatives(Spothetal.,2013).Notonly

arethebasicconceptsrelativelynew,buttheempiricalevidenceforsuccessfulType2

(T2)Translationstrategiesiscurrentlyverylimited,notonlyforcrimebutforhealth

andothersocialobjectives(Fagan&Eisenberg,2012;Farrington&Welsh,2007;Homel

&McGee,2012).

Thispaperdescribesourapproachtobuildingcapacityforpopulation-levelcommunity-

basedpreventionusingtheCREATEmodelthatwedevelopedasanoutcomeofthe

PathwaystoPreventionProjectthatoperatedinadisadvantagedregionofBrisbane

between2002and2011(Branch,Homel&Freiberg,2012;Homeletal.,1999;Homel,

Elias&Hay,2001;Homel,2005).CREATEisanacronym:Collaborative;Relationships-

driven;Earlyinthepathway;Accountable;Training-focused;Evidence-driven.These


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keyterms,whicharesummarisedinFigure1andexplainedfurtherthroughoutthis

paper,areanattempttoencapsulatethemainprinciplesunderpinningamodelof

preventativeactionthat–inthecontextinwhichweareapplyingit-empowersschools

andcommunityagenciestotranscendsystemsilos;fosterethicalpracticesand

respectfulrelationships;anddelivergoal-directed,quantitativelyevaluated,evidence-

basedresourcesthatpromotechildwellbeingindisadvantagedcommunitiesand,in

particular,helpdeflectchildrenfromantisocialandcriminalbehaviours.

Ourspecificconcernsinthispaperarethereforecrimeanddisadvantagedcommunities,

theinstitutionsthatoperateintheselocalities,andthechildrenandfamilieslivingin

them.HoweveritisimportanttokeepinmindthattheCREATEprinciplesarein

themselvescompletelygeneral,andcouldunderpinpreventionactivitiesinnon-

disadvantagedcommunities.Indeedthemodelcouldbethefoundationforprevention

initiativesthatarenotplace-basedatall,oraredirectedatproblemsotherthanyouth

crime(suchashealthyaging),orarefocusedonwholepopulations.Theapproachis,in

otherwords,universalandflexiblewithnospecificproblemfocus.

AspartofourexplanationoftheCREATEmodel,weoutlinehowwearecontributingto

thenascentAustralianresearchonT2Translationinpartnershipwitharangeof

governmentandnon-governmentagencies,usingtheAustraliangovernment’s

CommunitiesforChildrenProgramasaframework(Edwardsetal.,2014)1.Weplacethis

researchinthecontextofthegrowingemphasisbytheDepartmentofSocialServices

(whichdevelopedandadministersCommunitiesforChildren)onevidence-based

practice,andthewidespreadenthusiasmamongstpolicypeople,practitioners,and

socialentrepreneursforcollaborativeapproachesthatachievecollectiveimpact.Kania

andKramer(2011),theoriginatorsoftheterm,definecollectiveimpactas:

…long-termcommitmentsbyagroupofimportantactorsfromdifferentsectorstoa

commonagendaforsolvingaspecificsocialproblem.Theiractionsaresupportedby

asharedmeasurementsystem,mutuallyreinforcingactivities,andongoing

communications,andarestaffedbyanindependentbackboneorganization.(p.39)

Aswillbecomeapparent,theconceptofcollectiveimpactandtheprinciplesofthe

CREATEmodel(andofCommunitiesThatCareandrelatedpreventioninitiatives)have


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agreatdealincommon,andforthisreasonwehavebeenhappytoadoptthecollective

impactframeworkasawayofcommunicatingourideas.Howeverourjudgmentisthat

thecollectiveimpactmovement,atleastinitscurrentstageofdevelopment,is

weakenedbywidespreadignoranceofpreventionscienceandbyacorrespondinglack

ofattentiontocarefullyresearchedevidenceonwhatworks.

INSERTFIGURE1ABOUTHERE

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

WhyCREATE?

CREATEhasbeenstronglyshapedbythePathwaysProject.Keyconsiderationshave

been:

1. Ourintuitionthatmuchofwhatcommunityagenciesdoinsocially

disadvantagedcommunitiesisquiteeffectivedespitebeingmostlyunevaluated

(Homeletal.,2006);

2. Ourobservationthatstronginterpersonalrelationshipsandcreativeformsof

outreachthatbuildtrustwiththecommunity,andparticularlywithso-called

‘hardtoreachfamilies,’arefundamentalforeffectivepractice;

3. Ourobservationthatevidence-basedprogramsfigureverylittleintheplansand

practicesofbusypractitioners;and

4. Ourfrustrationwiththegovernancearrangementsthatunderpinnedthe

PathwaysProject,especiallythedividebetweenschools,communityagencies

andfamilies(Branch,Homel&Freiberg,2013).

BeyondwhatwehavelearnedfromthePathwaysProject,experienceinternationally

overthelasttwodecadeswiththeimplementationofevidence-basedinnovations

(Fixsenetal.,2009)andwithcrimepreventionpartnershipshavehelpedshapeour

thinking.Particularlyimportanthavebeenthelessonsabouteffectivegovernance

arrangementsforpreventionpartnerships(Crawford,1998;Homel&Homel,2012),

oneofthemostcentralbeingtheneedforstrategicvisionwithrolesandresponsibilities

clearlydefined.InthePathwaysworktherewasnoadequatemechanismfor

hammeringoutspecificgoalsthatweresharedbyschools,communityworkersand


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researchers,resultinginconfusionaroundrolesandrelationships.Theinter-

relatednessofgoals,roles,proceduresandrelationships,withgoalsattheapexand

relationshipsatthebaseofaconceptualtriangleofgoodorganisation,wasidentified

manyyearsagointhemanagementliteratureandapplieswithconsiderableforceto

communitypartnerships(Plovnick,Fry&Rubin1975).

Aswehaveforeshadowed,thearrayofnewT2Translationconceptsandframeworksin

thepreventionscienceliteraturehasalsobeenaformativeinfluenceonourthinking,

especiallytheInteractiveSystemsFrameworkforDisseminationandImplementation

developedbyAbrahamWandersmanandhiscolleagues(2008).Animportantfeatureof

theISFisthecleardistinctionbetween:

1. ThePreventionDeliverySystemthatimplementsinnovationsintheworldof

practice;

2. ThePreventionSupportSystemwhichprovidestraining,technicalassistanceor

othersupporttousersinthefield;and

3. ThePreventionSynthesisandTranslationSystemwhichdistilsinformationabout

innovationsandtranslatesitintouser-friendlyformats.

Thesesystemsarecharacterisedbytheiractivities,notbyspecificindividualsor

organizations,andeachsystemdependsontheothersincomplexways.Forexample,

theactiveinvolvementofpractitionersfromthedeliverysysteminthesupportsystem

willhelpensurethedevelopmentofusefulproducts,andathoroughunderstandingby

researchersofthesocial,culturalandpoliticalcontextswithinwhichpreventive

innovationswillbedeliveredmightdomuchtobridgethemuchlamentedgulfbetween

scienceandservice–orinthelanguageoftheISF,thegapbetweenthesynthesisand

translationsystemandthedeliverysystem.Asimportantexamplesofprevention

deliverysystems,CommunitiesThatCare(CTC)andCommunitiesforChildren(CfC)are

describedbelow.

CommunitiesThatCare

CTCisacommunity-basedpreventionsystemthatwasdevelopedinthe1980sbythe

SocialDevelopmentResearchGroupattheUniversityofWashingtonintheUnited


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States.IthasbeenimplementedwidelyintheUnitedStates,includingthroughthe

CenterforSubstanceAbusePreventionintheUSGovernment,andalsooperatesin

manycountriesinEurope,Australia,andelsewhere(Toumberouetal.inpress).CTC

involvestheformationofcollaborativepartnershipsamongcommunitystakeholdersto

spearheadadoptionandsupportofevidence-basedinterventionsthathavebeenshown

toreduceriskandenhanceprotectivefactorsforadolescentbehaviorproblems.CTCis

nowaccumulatingimpressiveevidenceforpopulation-levelimpactsinPennsylvania

andelsewhereintheUnitedStates(Feinbergetal.,2010;Hawkinsetal.,2009),andhas

beenaveryimportantinfluenceonourthinking.AtleastsomeofthesuccessofCTC

maybeattributedtotheavailabilityof‘intermediateorganisations’liketheEvidence-

BasedPreventionandInterventionSupportCenterwithinthePreventionResearch

CentreatPennsylvaniaStateUniversity.TheEPISCenter,initsownwords,“supports

thedissemination,qualityimplementation,sustainability,andimpactassessmentofa

menuofproven-effectivepreventionandinterventionprograms,”therebyconstituting

acriticalpartofapreventionsupportsystemforPennsylvaniaandbeyond2.We

characterizetheEPISCenterasanintermediateorganizationbecauseitactsasan

intermediarybetweenresearchersandpractitionersinalargenumberofcreativeways

(Bumbarger&Campbell,2012;Rhoades,Bumbarger&Moore,2012).Awiderangeof

similarsupportsystemshavecontributedtothesuccessofCTCelsewhereintheUnited

States(Faganetal.,2012).

Despiteitsachievements,theimpactofCTConcrimeandsubstanceabusehasnot

specificallybeendemonstratedinhighlydisadvantagedorurbancommunities,most

successesbeingrecordedforruralandsuburbanareas(Brownetal.,2010).Since

sociallydisadvantagedareasproducemoreyoungoffendersandarelesssocially

cohesivethanmoreprivilegedareas,thisisanimportantissueforyouthcrime

prevention(Wickes,Homel&Zahnow,inpress).InadditiontheCTCmodelperhapshas

somestructuralweaknessesasanationalpreventiondeliverysystem,atleastfor

EuropeandcountrieslikeAustralia,CanadaandNewZealandwherethewelfarestate

hassurvivedinmorevigorousformsthanintheUnitedStates.Thepersistenceofa

strongersafetynetinthesecountriessuggeststhatgovernmentneedstooccupyamore

centralplaceinpreventionplanning.Boththeseconsiderationsledustodevelopthe


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CREATEmodelappliedtochildwellbeingasacomplementaryapproachtoCTCthat

explicitlyaddressestheseapparentweaknesses.

CommunitiesforChildren

Theuseofcommunitycoalitionsisacentralelementofhowwearecurrentlyapplying

theCREATEmodel.ThisapproachissharedwithCTC(Oesterleetal.2010)andother

community-basedpreventioninnovationsintheUnitedStates,includingthedrug

preventionprogramPROSPER(Spothetal.,2011)andtheemergingEvidence2Success

model(Fagan&Eisenberg,2012;Ripper&Ortiz,2012).Thestartingpointinour

currentworkistheserviceproviderpartnershipsin10ofthe52Communitiesfor

Childrencommunities,allofwhichare(ascoreselectioncriteria)locatedin

disadvantagedurbanandregionalareasofAustraliawithahighincidenceofchildren

notmeetingthemilestonesofhealthanddevelopmentexpectedfortheirage,as

measuredbytheAustralianEarlyDevelopmentCensus(CentreforCommunityChild

Health,2007).ThefundamentalgoalofCfCistoimprovethewellbeingofchildrenaged

0to12yearsintheselectedcommunities.Governmentfundingisprovidedtoanon-

governmentorganisationineacharea(thefacilitatingpartner)whichestablishesand

maintainsapartnershipofcommunityagenciesthatdesignanddeliverservicesin

responsetocommunityneeds.However,untilrecentlytherehasbeennoregulatory

mechanismforensuringthattrulyevidence-basedactivitiesareimplemented,no

systemsformonitoringandimprovingimplementationprocesses,norequirementto

quantifypatternsofparticipationbyfamiliesandchildrenintheservicesofferedbya

partnership,andnomeasurementofoutcomes.Arecentquasi-experimentalevaluation

ofCfCimpactatthecommunitylevel(Edwardsetal.,2014)foundthat“althoughthere

wereanumberofpositive(andafewnegative)effectsoftheCfCinitiative,mostwere

notdurableandfadedoutbythetimechildrenstartedschool”(p.xiii).

CREATEaimstoovercomesomeofthelimitationsinCommunitiesforChildrenbuthas

muchwiderapplication.Critically,akeysustainabilitystrategyistobuildcapacityfor

evidence-baseddevelopmentalpreventionwithintheframeworkofanationalprogram

(CfC)thathasnotonlysurvivedseveralchangesofgovernmentsinceitbeganin2004

buthasgrowninsizeandsophistication.


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UnpackingCREATE

Behindmuchdevelopmentalpreventionthinkingaretheconceptsofequifinalityand

multifinality(Cicchetti&Rogosch,1996).Equifinalityreferstothefactthatthesame

endstate(suchasparticipationinyouthcrime)maybereachedbymultiplepathways,

suchasalackofcapacityforself-regulationcombinedwithinadequateparental

supervisionintheearlyyears,oranantisocialpeergroupanddisruptedschool

attachmentinearlyhighschool.Multifinalityreferstothefactthatindividualsmay

beginonthesamemajorpathwaybutbecauseofpersonalattributes,subsequent

choices,orlifeeventsexhibitverydifferentpatternsofadaptationormaladaptation.

Thuschildrenraisedinsimilar‘toxicenvironments’characterisedbyharshanderratic

discipline,familyviolence,andpoverty,maybecomewellfunctioningadults,chronic

offenders,homeless,ormentallyill.Multifinalitymeansthatsuccessfulearlyprevention

initiativestendtohavemultiplebenefitsoverthelifecourse(Manningetal.,2010),

whileequifinalitymeansthatsuccessfulinitiativesarefrequentlymulti-systemic,

targetinganumberofaspectsofthesocialecologysuchasfamily,school,andpeer

group.Therealityofmultifinality,combinedwithagrowingemphasisbyacademicsand

practitionersonpositiveyouthdevelopmentandstrength-basedapproachesin

preferencesimplytothepreventionofnegativeoutcomes(Lerner&Overton,2008),

meansthatitisoftentheoreticallydesirableandstrategicallysensibletoframe

preventioninitiativesaspromoting‘positivedevelopment’or‘childandyouth

wellbeing,’ratherthanascrimepreventionordrugpreventionorsomeotherkindof

prevention.ForthesereasonstheCREATEprinciplesinFigure1areframedbythe

overarchinggoalofBetterlivesforchildrenindisadvantagedcommunities.

UnderpinningallaspectsofCREATE(andhenceinboldatthebottomofFigure1)is

relationaldevelopmentalsystemstheory(DST),closelyalignedintheworkofRichard

Lernerandhiscolleagueswiththestudyofpositiveyouthdevelopment(Lerner,2002;

Lerner&Castellino,2002;Lerner&Overton,2008).Thecentralemphasiswithinthis

perspectiveisonthedynamicrelationsamongstructuresfrommultiplelevelsof

organisation;thatis,onthetime-varyingprocesseslinkingindividualswithallaspects

oftheircontexts.“Levelsoforganization”areconceptualizedextremelybroadly,ranging


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fromthebiologicalandinner-psychologicalthroughtheproximalsocialrelational

(especiallywithinthecontextofthefamily)throughlocalcommunitylevelstothe

socio-culturalandsocialstructural.Withinthispost-positivist,inter-disciplinary

perspective,humanagencyandrelativeplasticityacrossthelifecoursearecentral

concepts,andfamilyprocesses,socialinstitutionsandsocietalaccessroutesthatopen

upopportunitiestotakenewdirectionsarefundamentaltothepreventiveenterprise

(FranceandHomel,2006).

DSThasmanyimplicationsforpracticalpreventionworkincommunities.One

implicationistheneedtothinkbroadlyaboutthemajorinfluencesongrowingchildren,

bothinsideandoutsidethecommunity,andtoidentifythoseinfluences–particularly

thespecificcontexts,localgroupsandorganisations-thatarepotentiallyamenableto

inclusioninpreventiveinitiatives.Sincerelationsbetweenindividuals,contextsand

levelsoforganizationarefundamentalbuildingblocksofthedevelopmentalsystem,

communityactionmustbefocusedasmuchonconnectionsortransactionsbetween

individualsandbetweenorganisationsasonthecapabilitiesofindividualsorthe

qualityofdevelopmentalcontexts.Strengtheningrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandthe

connectionsbetweenorganisationsisclearlyoneimportantgoal,butfromasystems

perspectivecommunitybuildingcannotstopthere:evenmoreimportantishowthe

variouselementsofthesystemoperateasawholeforthebenefitofchildren.AsBranch

andcolleagues(2012,p.294)putit:“…agenciesandinstitutionsideallyneedtooperate

withinaframeworkofcollaborativepractice,characterisedbyablurringofthe

boundariesbetweenorganisationsandbyharmonious,mutuallysupportivepracticesin

families,schools,communityagencies,andotherkeysettings.”Thestrengtheningand

harmonisationoflearningenvironmentswithinfamiliesandlocalschoolswasacentral

goalofthePathwaystoPreventionProject,chieflythroughtheprovisionof

comprehensiveandintegratedformsoffamilysupportandchildactivities,in

partnershipwithprimaryschools.

CollaborationandRelationshipsprovidethefirsttwolettersoftheCREATEacronym,for

reasonsthatshouldnowbeapparentinthelightofthesystemsperspective.Allsix

CREATEprinciplescouldbediscussedinmuchmoredetailthanispossibleinthispaper,


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soinwhatfollowsweconcentrateonCollaborativepracticesinceitallowsustodraw

intothediscussionaspectsofRelationships,AccountabilityandTrainingaswellasthe

undergirdingpracticesofgoodgovernanceandempowerment(ofparents,children,and

the‘child-serving’workforce).Buildingonthefoundationalthinkinginthe1999

PathwaystoPreventionreport(DevelopmentalCrimePreventionConsortium,1999)

wetaketheprincipleofEarlyinthePathwaylargelyasread,althoughwerecognisethat

issuessuchasthetimingofinterventions(e.g.,shouldearlyalwaysmeanearlyinlife?:

Hayes,2007)andthebalanceofuniversalandtargetedprogramsarecritically

importantinshapingdeliveryandsupportsystems.Evidence-drivenisabedrock

principleinCREATEthatisreservedforextendeddiscussionafterweexamine

collaborativepractice.

Collaborativepractice

Althoughitisageneralmodel,CREATEwasconceivedprimarilywithaplace-based

approachinmindbecauseitiswithinalocalitythatasharedunderstandingofcomplex

problemscanbemoreeasilyarrivedatandusedtoguidecollaborativepractice(Fryet

al.,2014).Wealsoenvisagedthatcommunitypartnershipsinsomeformwouldbeboth

thevehiclethroughwhichlocalprioritiesandstrategiesaredecidedaswellasa

primarydeliverysystematthelocallevel.Howeverakeyproblem,iftheoverallgoalis

tostrengthenthedevelopmentalsystem,isthatmanypartnershipsaredominatedby

communityagenciesandgovernmentorganisationsratherbytheenduring

developmentalinstitutionsthatmostinfluencechildren,especiallyschools,preschools,

churches,and–mostcritically–families3.Indeedparentsorcarers,asoneofthe

primarytargetgroupsfortheactivitiesdevisedbycommunitypartnerships,are

frequentlyabsentfromthetablealtogether,eveniftheyaresometimesincludedin

communityconsultationsofvariousforms.Childrenandyoungpeopletypicallyhave

evenlessofavoice,althoughunderstandingwhatitmeansinpracticetotreatchildren

associalactorsandthentoactonwhatwelearnfromthemisachallengingenterprise

(France&Homel,2006;James,2007).

Gettingschoolsintocommunitypartnershipsisequallychallenging,eventhoughmany

ofthemostdifficultproblemsschoolsface,suchasseriousantisocialbehaviouror


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learningdifficulties,havetheiroriginslargelyoutsidetheschoolgatesandrequire

externalresourcesandthecooperationoffamiliestoaddresseffectively.Sincemanyof

thestandardriskfactorsforyouthcrime,suchasimpulsivity(Farrington&Welsh,

2007),alsopredictpooracademicperformanceandconflictwithschool(oftenbecause

ofdisruptiveandantisocialbehaviours),bridgingtheyawningchasmbetweenfamilies

andschoolsindisadvantagedcommunitiescanprovideaveryeffectiveplatformfor

bothcommunity-basedcrimepreventionandforpromotinglearningoutcomes

(Freiberg,Homel&Branch,2010;Feinbergetal.,2010).Howeveritisadaunting

prospectforprincipalsandteacherstoinitiateengagementsothatparentsand

communitymembersbothcreateandcontributetoinitiativesthatsupport(say)

readingdevelopmentathomeandinpartnershipwiththeschool(Dempsteretal.,

2012;Johnson&Jervis-Tracey,2011).

OurexperienceinthePathwaystoPreventionProjectisthatwhenofferedexternal

resourcesprincipalswerekeentocooperateandtoreferchildrentothefamilysupport

team,butweregenerallyunwillingorfeltunabletotakeresponsibilityforsharedgoal

settingandforthedevelopmentofjointinitiativestailoredtotheirneeds.Inshort,

schoolswerereluctanttotakethenextstepalongthecontinuumfromcooperationwith

communityworkersandcoordinationofschoolandPathwaysactivitiesthrough

timetabling,tofullcollaboration,anexperienceduplicatedinmanysectorswhere

horizontalserviceintegrationhasbeenattempted(Keastetal.,2007).AsBruder(2005,

p.31)hasputit,inthehistoryofserviceintegration“oneisstruckbyitsnobilityof

intent,itstenacityofpurpose,anditsineffectivenessinimplementation.”Our

experienceisthatcollaborativepracticeacrosstheschool-communitysectordivideis

especiallyproblematicbecauseteachershaveaverystrongoccupationalcultureand

schoolsaretraditionallyindependentorganisationswiththeirownclearlyfocused

goalsandwell-establishedorganisationalstructures.

Collaboration,asdistinctfromcooperationandcoordination,requiresahighdegreeof

trustamongmemberswhichallowsacommitmenttoacommonmissionandtosystem

change(Keastetal.,2007).Thehistoricfailureofattemptsatcollaborationorservice

integration,despitetherhetoricanddespitemorethanonehundredyearsofeffort,


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underpinsthegrowingconsensusamongstresearchers,socialentrepreneursand

practitionersthatcollaborationisnotpossiblewithoutanexternalimpetusandinthe

absenceofspecialisedresourcesthatareindependentoftheorganisationsdelivering

services.InthecollectiveimpactapproachpopularisedbyKaniaandKramer(2011),the

solutiontothisproblemistointroduceaseparateorganisation–thebackbone

organisation-withstaffthathavetheskillsthatmakesitpossibleforparticipating

organisationstoadoptacommonagenda;sharedataandadoptcommonmeasures;

engageinmutuallyreinforcingactivities;andcommunicateconsistentlyandopenly.

Backboneorganisationscantakemanyforms,rangingfromexistingornewnon-profits

toaseniorlevelsteeringcommittee(Hanleybrown,KaniaandKramer,2012).

ThefunctionalequivalentofabackboneorganisationwithintheCREATEframework,

andwithintheCfCproject,isapreventionsupportsystemthatprovideshumanand

electronicresourcesthatmakeitpossibleforCfCpartnershipstomovefrom

coordinationtocollaboration;toagreeonasmallnumberofmeasurablegoalsfor

childreninthelightofneedsrevealedthroughdataonthewellbeingofchildreninthe

community;todevelopcommunityactionplansunderpinnedbyatheoryofchange;to

shareagencydataonfamilyparticipationinactivitiesandrelevantoutcomemeasures;

andtoselect,implementwithfidelity,andevaluateevidence-basedprograms.Every

oneofthesestepsischallengingforcommunitycoalitions,althoughmanyhave

independentlymadesignificantprogressonsomeaspects,suchastheassessmentofthe

needsofchildreninthelightofavailabledata4.

Inspecificterms,theCfCprojectisdeveloping:

1) Aninteractiveweb-basedsetofresources,consistingofsuchelementsas:

a) TrainingtoolsforCfCteachersandcommunityworkers;motivationalvideosand

infographics;andgamesforchild-parentlearningandformeasurementof

outcomes;

b) Evaluationtoolsformeasuringcommunitycoalitionfunction;child&family

outcomes;resourcesfordoingeconomicanalyses;

c) Adatasharingmanagementsystem.


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2) Systemsandprocessesestablishedbycommunityworkersthatwecall‘Collective

ImpactFacilitators’whoworkwithcommunitycoalitionstobuildtheskillsand

knowledge:

a) ToimplementtheCREATEcommunitypreventionmodelusingtheelectronic

resources;

b) Toachievethecoreconditionsofcollectiveimpact.

Theseprojectresourcesarebeingintegratedwithotherresourcesdevelopedbythe

federalgovernment,including:(a)asophisticatedanduser-friendlynationalData

ExchangeSystemthatwillfacilitatethedevelopmentofcommunitystate-of-the-child

reports;inter-agencydatasharingandreportingatlocallevelsandbeyond;

measurementofoutcomes;andprogramevaluations5;(b)anExpertPanelofindividuals

andorganisationsthatwillprovidetechnicalsupporttoindividualagenciesand

communitycoalitions6;and(c)theChildFamilyCommunityAustralia(CFCA)

InformationExchange,aweb-basedsourceofquality,evidence-informedpublications,

researchandresourcesrelatedtochildren,familiesandcommunities(Robinson&

Knight,2012).

Nomatterhowsophisticatedthetechnicalsupports,thesuccessofcommunity

coalitionsdependsontheestablishmentofgoodgovernancesystemsthatregulatethe

waypowerisexercisedandaccountrendered,andensurethatenergyisdirectedat

betteroutcomesforchildren.Theprinciplesofeffectivegovernanceforhealthy

coalitionshavebeeninventedandreinventedinmanycontexts,includingpublichealth

(Butterfloss,2007)andthecollectiveimpactmovement7.Thereisaremarkabledegree

ofsimilarityintheadducedprinciples,withHomel&Homel’s(2012)analysisofwhat

constitutesgoodgovernanceforcrimepreventionpartnershipsasusefulasany:

1. Legitimacyandvoice:powerisacquiredandexercisedinawaythatisperceived

aslegitimate,andallaffectedbydecisionsareheardandcanhaveaninfluence.

Thismeans,amongstotherthings,thateveryonewhoneedstobeisatthetable.

2. Strategicvision:theexerciseofpowerresultsinaclearsenseofdirectionthat

servesasaguidetoaction.Thismeansthatrolesandresponsibilitiesareclearly

defined.


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3. Performance:Organisationsandprocessesareresponsivetotheinterestsof

participantsandstakeholders.Critically,performanceismonitoredand

reportedwithinanagreedframework,whilebeingsensitivetothecontextsin

whichpartieswork.

4. Accountability:Thereistransparencyandopennessintheworkofthecoalition,

includingmeasurementandreportingofoutcomes.

5. Fairness:Thereisconformitywiththeruleoflaw(e.g.,privacylaws)andthe

principleofequity.

Animportantareaofcontemporaryactivitywithinpreventionscienceisthe

developmentofarigorousevidence-basefortheseandsimilargovernanceprinciples,

focusingonthemeasurementofthedimensionsofahealthycoalitionandthecritical

characteristicsforachievingimpact.Forexample,intheiranalysisofcommunity-level

mediatorsintheCTCcommunitytrialintheUnitedStates,Brownandcolleagues

(2014)haveshownthattheeffectsoftheCTCinterventiononyouthproblem

behavioursbytheendofeighthgradeweremediatedfullybycommunityadoptionofa

science-basedapproachtoprevention.Ofcoursemanyotherfeaturesofcoalitions,such

asstrengthofleadershipandstronginternalandexternalrelationships,feedinto

supportforhighqualityevidence-basedprograms(Brownetal.,2010).TheCREATE

capacitybuildingexerciseisbeingevaluatedthroughasimilarlycomprehensivearray

ofpre-andpost-measuresofcoalitionfunctioning(especiallyorientationtoevidence),

butregrettably,despitetheiremphasisondataandmeasurement,thereappearstobe

limitedappreciationbycollectiveimpactproponentsoftheimportanceofevidence-

basedprograms.

Rethinkingevidence-baseddevelopmentalcrimeprevention

Thefoundationsfordevelopmentalcrimepreventionrestontheimpressivelong-term

outcomesandeconomicefficiencyofarepositoryofmorethan50promisingormodel

programsforfosteringhealthyyouthdevelopmentandforpreventingorreducing

crime,violenceandsubstanceabuse.Oneofthemostwidelyusedsourcesfor

informationonevidence-basedpreventionistheaptlynamedBlueprintsforHealthy

YouthDevelopment,developedbyDelElliottandcolleaguesattheUniversityof


16

Colorado(Mihalic&Elliott,2014).Theseprogramsspantherangefromuniversal

interventionsthatareprovidedforthegeneralpopulationorforallmembersofa

specifiedcollectivitylikealocalcommunity;selectiveinterventionsdirectedatgroups

judgedtobeatincreasedrisk;andindicatedinterventionsdirectedatindividuals

alreadymanifestingaproblemsuchasdisruptivebehaviour(Mrazek&Haggerty,1994).

Theyalsovarygreatlyaccordingtoproblemfocus(e.g.,antisocialbehaviour,alcohol

abuse),targetagerange(frompreschoolorbeforebirthtouniversitystudents),andthe

contextforintervention(home,community,school,workplace).Whatunitesthe

programspresentedintheBlueprintswebsiteandotherregistriesofevidence-based

interventionsistheircarefuldesignandfocusonkeyriskandprotectivefactors

(Farrington,2002);evaluationsusinghigh-qualityrandomisedorquasi-experimental

designs;andeffectsthataresustainedforatleast12monthsaftertheprogram

interventionends.

Establishinghighstandardsformodelorpromisingevidence-basedprogramsis

important,sinceasMihalicandEliott(2014,p.2)observe,“lowerstandardcomeswith

agreaterriskoffailurewhenprogramsaresubsequentlyimplementedonawiderscale.”

Thedownsideofthis,however,isthathighstandardsmightmakeithardertoactually

movetoscale,becausesuitablytrainedstaffarenotavailable,orhighqualitycoststoo

much,orisinconflictwithprevailingprofessionalnorms,orforanynumberofother

reasonsdocumentedintheimplementationscienceliterature(Homel&Homel,2012).

Experiencewithpreschooleducationprovidesaninstructiveexampleofthegap

betweenflagshipprogramsandgeneralpractice.

TheHighScopePerryPreschoolprogramisperhapsthemostinfluentialevidence-based

developmentalcrimepreventioninitiativeeverconducted,eventhoughitbeganlife

morethan50yearsagoasashort-termevaluationoftheeffectsofaninnovative

preschoolcurriculumontheintellectualandlanguageperformanceof58three-and

four-yearoldAfrican-Americanchildren,comparedwith65controls,growingupin

povertyinYpsilanti,Michigan.Theprojectwaswelldesigned,wellimplemented,and

rigorouslyevaluated,butthemainreasonithasbeensoinfluentialisbecausethe

authorscontinuedtofollow-uptheprogramsampleandtherandomisedcontrols,


17

expandingtherangeofoutcomemeasuresovera40-yearperiodtoincludeschool

achievement,commitmenttoschooling,childhoodantisocialbehaviour,highschool

graduation,adultemploymentandearnings,andyouthandadultcrimeand

incarceration.Theoutcomesatallfollow-uppointsacrossallthesedomainsfavoured

theprogramgroup,withthestudypresenting“strongevidenceofalifetimeeffectofthe

HighScopePerryPreschoolprograminpreventingtotalarrestsandarrestsforviolent,

property,anddrugcrimesandsubsequentprisonorjailsentences”(Schweinhart,2013,

p.397).

TheHighScopeearlychildhoodeducationalmodel,whichis“anopenframeworkof

educationalideasandpracticesbasedonthenaturaldevelopmentofyoungchildren”

(Schweinhart,2013,p.394),wasthefoundationforboththedailyclassroomactivities

andweeklyhomevisitsfor90minutestoeachmotherandchild.Boththeseprogram

strands,byencouragingchildrentomakechoices,solveproblems,andengagein

activitiesthatpromotedbothcognitivedevelopmentand(especially)socialadjustment

andcapacityforself-regulation(Heckmanetal.,2013),contributedtothelong-term

reductionsincrimeandimprovementsinsocialandeconomicwellbeing.Thepointis

thattheinterventionmadeitpossibleforasmallgroupofinfantstoflourishina

mannerthatresembled,atleastinsomedegree,the‘natural’developmentofchildren

raisedinmoreprivilegedcircumstances.Unfortunatelythecriticalingredientsinthis

innovativeprogram–highlyqualifiedteachers,avalidchilddevelopmentcurriculum,

extensiveengagementofparents,andregularassessmentofprogramimplementation

andchilddevelopment-havenotgenerallybeenreproducedinthelarge-scalefederal

HeadStartprogramintheUnitedStates,whichtypicallyhasweakshort-termeffects

withsmalllikelihoodoflong-termbenefits(Pumaetal.,2012).Thegoodnews,however,

isthatmanylocalpreschoolprogramsintheUSarehighlyeffective,atleastintheshort

term(Schweinhart,2013).Thesefindings,concerningthelarge-scaleandthelocal,are

importantbeyondtherealmofearlychildhoodeducation,andhaveinformedthe

developmentoftheCREATEmodel.

Expandingthedefinitionofevidence


18

ShonkoffandFisher(2013)havedistilledmanyofthechallengesfacingdevelopmental

criminologistsengagedinT2Translation,eventhoughtheirfocusisearlychildhood

policyandpracticewithcrimepreventiononlyoneofmanybenefitsenvisaged.One

elementoftheirargumentisthatflagshipprogramslikethePerryPreschoolProgram

shouldbeviewedprimarilythroughahistoricallensandtheirseminalcontribution

appreciatedasproofofconceptratherthanasevidenceforthevalueofcurrent

investments.Theypointoutthatforalltheirbenefits,theseflagshipprogramsgenerally

producemodesteffectsizesandfallfarshortofconstitutingoptimumearlyprevention

models.InthePerryPreschoolStudy,forexample,athirdoftheinterventiongrouphad

atleastonearrestforaviolentoffence,reinforcingtheneedfor“moreeffective

strategiestoproducelargereffects”(p.1637).Theyacknowledgethegreatvalueof

qualityimprovementandsystembuilding(includingenhanceddatamanagement

practicesandbettercoordinatedservices),butarescepticalthatthesewillbesufficient

toproducethebreakthroughimpactsforchildrengrowingupundertheburdensof

poverty,parentswithlimitededucation,andsocialexclusion.

Oneoftheirkeyproposalsrelatestotheneedforanexpandeddefinitionofevidence

andforinnovationinT1research:translatingthewealthofnewfindingsfromchild

developmentresearchandpreventionscienceintonewtypesofpreventiveinnovations.

Theyobservethatinapolicyenvironmentthatincreasinglyemphasisesevidence-based

programs,thereislittlefundingorencouragementforthedevelopmentandtestingof

newideas.Theyareparticularlyconcernedthatnewfindingsfromneurosciencebe

translatedinto“ecologicallyvalidinterventionstrategiesthatpromotethepracticeof

specificbehaviouralskillsthatareknown(orhypothesized)tobemanifestationsofthe

underlyingneuralsystemsofinterestinreal-worldsettings”(p.1639).Thiscouldlead,

forexample,toinnovativenewwaysofeffectingimprovementsintheneural

mechanismsofself-regulation,adimensionofgreatinteresttocriminologists.

Whilestronglyendorsingthisproposalfortheexpansionoftheevidencebase,weareof

theviewthatthedevelopmentofnewpreventiveinitiativesshouldnotberestrictedto

thosebasedonneuroscience–veryimportantastheseare–butshouldencompassall

formsofsoundresearch.Totakea‘frontierissue’incommunitycrimepreventionasan


19

example,inseminalresearchSampsonandhiscolleagueshavedemonstratedthatrates

ofcommunityviolenceandviolentvictimisationresultfromthedifferentialabilityof

neighbourhoodstorealisethecommonvaluesofresidentsandmaintaineffectivesocial

controls,capacitiesthattheyrefertoascollectiveefficacy.Evenincommunities

characterisedbyweakties,whenresidentstrusteachotherandarewillingtowork

togethertosolvelocalproblems,violenceislower(Sampsonetal.,1997).Thisbegsthe

obviousquestion:dopreventiondeliverysystemslikeCTC,whichexplicitlybuildor

strengthenlocalcoalitionsandempowerthemtoaddresslocalproblemsusing

evidence-basedpractices,improvelevelsofcommunitycollectiveefficacy,particularly

levelsofsocialcohesionandtrust?Thereisintriguingevidencethattheymight.Brown

andcolleagues(2014),forexample,foundthatCTCstrengthenedcommunitynorms

againstadolescentdruguse,whichsuggeststhatrelatedcommunityconstructssuchas

socialcohesionandtrustmightwellbeamenabletobeinginfluencedbythecoalition

approach.Thebasicproblemisthatevidence-basedstrategiestostrengtheninformal

socialcontrolsareintheirinfancy(Wickes,Homel&Zahnow,inpress),partlybecause

preventionsciencehasconcentratedtoomuchonindividualandfamilyriskfactorsfor

violenceandnotenoughoncommunity-levelsocialprocesses(Haegerich,Oman,Vesely,

Aspy&Tolma,2014).Researchtobridgethisgapcouldyieldimportantnew

innovationsthatcouldstrengthenbothcommunityanddevelopmentalcrime

preventionandaidthedevelopmentofintegratedapproaches.

AfurtherwaythattheevidencebasecanbeexpandedispromptedbySchweinhart’s

(2013)findingthatmanylocalpreschoolprogramswereveryeffective,evenifthe

nationalHeadstartprogramwasn’t.Acomprehensiverepositoryofsuccessfullocal

preschoolinitiatives,includingacarefulanalysisoftheircriticaloperating

characteristics,wouldmakeanimportantcontributiontothePreventionSynthesisand

TranslationSystemenvisagedbyWandersmanandcolleagues,andwouldcomplement

Blueprintsandsimilarregistriesofevidence-basedprogramsdevelopedandtestedby

researchers.ThisproposalexactlyparallelswhatMarkLipseyhasdevelopedthrough

extensivemeta-analysesoftheevaluationsofhundredsof‘noname’treatment

programsforyoungoffendersthatareusuallyrestrictedtoonejurisdictionorlocality.

HisStandardizedProgramEvaluationProtocolis“adata-drivenratingschemebuilt


20

aroundtheinterventioncharacteristicsfoundtobemoststronglyrelatedtorecidivism

reductionsinthemeta-analysis…”(Lipsey,2014,p.9),greatlyexpandstheevidence-

baseofwhatworksforyoungoffenders,andtheprocessesunderlyingsuccess(typeof

program,amountofservice,qualityofdelivery,andrisklevelofparticipants).

Insummary,weproposethat‘evidence-driven’fordevelopmentalcrimeprevention

consistofthreekindsofpreventiveinitiatives:

1. Themodelorpromisingprogramsinregistriesofevidence-basedprograms,

suchasBlueprints;

2. PromisinginnovationsdevelopedandrigorouslyevaluatedthroughaT1process,

preferablyinpartnershipwithpractitionersandwithdatacollected‘inthefield’

ratherthaninaclinicorlaboratory;

3. ActivitiesroutinelyofferedincommunitiesacrossAustraliaandelsewhere,such

asfacilitatedplaygroups,familysupport,orafter-schoolprograms,provided

thereareasufficientnumberofexperimentalorwell-designedquasi-

experimentalevaluationsthatdemonstrateimpactontheriskfactorsfor

antisocialbehaviourandotherchildoutcomes,andthatalsoprovideguidanceon

theprocesseshighlightedbyLipsey(2014),suchasamountofservicethatis

optimal.

Modelprogramsshouldofcoursebegivenpriorityiftheyfitthecommunityneed,with

establishedpracticesthatarewellevaluatedthesecondpreference.However,

opportunitiestoaddnewknowledgeabouteffectivepreventionthroughstrong

researcher-practitionerpartnershipsshouldalsobeencouragedwhereverpossible.The

formsofevidencethatactuallyunderpinactivitiesinCfCcommunitieswillbesubjected

todetailedanalysisandevaluationastheydevelopwithinthenewDSSframework1.

Ridingthewave:whythetimeisrightto‘thinkbig’

ThispaperhasdescribedtheCREATEmodelofcommunitypreventionasoneapproach

toT2translation:takingevidence-basedpracticetoscale.CREATEemergedfromthe

struggleinthePathwaystoPreventionProjecttoinstantiatetheprinciplesof

developmentalcrimepreventioninpartnershipwithschoolsandanationalcommunity


21

agencyinonesociallydisadvantagedregionofoneAustraliancity,butwearguethatits

principlesareapplicabletoallformsofdevelopmentalpreventiononamuchlarger

scale,includinginitiativesthatarenotplace-based.Inthespiritofpreventionscience,

andwiththegoalofsustainability,wearesubjectingCREATEtocomprehensive

evaluation,beginningwithacapacitybuildingphasethroughCommunitiesforChildren,

anationalplace-basedprogramforchildrenandfamiliesin52disadvantagedareas.

WhileCfCarguablyfallsshortofconstitutingatrulynationalpreventiondelivery

system(sinceitisrestrictedtoselecteddisadvantagedcommunitieswhichdonot,for

example,includeremoteAboriginalcommunities),itisanidealvehiclefortestingsome

T2translationstrategiesonamuchlargerscalethanwouldbepossibleinauniversity-

basedinitiative.

Allthisistakingplaceinaclimateofrenewedinterestintheuseofdataandevidence-

basedprogramstoimprovethelivesofchildrenandyoungpeoplethroughprevention

andearlyintervention(Andrews,2014),supportedbymajordevelopmentsinthe

enablinginfrastructureatanationallevel(includingtheDataExchangeSystem,the

ExpertPanel,andtheCFCAInformationExchange).Thismovementhasgained

considerableextraimpetusbecauseoftheunsustainablegrowthinthenumbersof

children‘known’tothechildprotectionsystemandthewidespreadacknowledgmentof

theineffectualnatureoftertiaryresponses.

Thehistoryofsocialreformmovementsbasedonrigorousscience,includingtheareas

ofclimatechangeandharmcausedbyalcohol,demonstratesthatwhenevidence

conflictswithpowerfulentrenchedinterests,theentrenchedinterestsnearlyalways

win.Howeverdevelopmentalpreventionhasnonaturalenemies(exceptperhapswhen

adolescentalcoholabuseorfoetalalcoholspectrumdisorderarethetargets),sinceit

involvesdoingwhataverylargemajorityofcitizens,businesspeopleandpoliticians

wanttodoinanycase:strengthenfamiliesandcommunitiesandfosterbetterlivesfor

disadvantagedchildren.Nowisthetimeforprevention-orientedcriminologiststograsp

theopportunitiesprovidedbytheconvergenceoftherecentbreakthroughsin

preventionsciencewiththeurgentpolicyprioritiesthathavestimulatedthe

developmentofpromisingnewnationalinfrastructurefordevelopmentalprevention.


22

Acknowledgments

Wearegratefultothetworeviewersofthispaperforextremelyhelpfulcomments,and

alsotoJonBright,AlanHayes,PeterHomel,DorothyScott,andRobynSeth-Purdiefor

theirgenerouscommitmentoftime,carefulreadings,andveryhelpfulcritiques.

Fundingacknowledgments

TheCfCprojectisfundedthroughanAustralianResearchCouncilLinkagegrant

LP130100142(2014-2016).PathwaystoPreventionhasbeenfundedthroughARC

grantssince1999,mostrecentlythroughDP0984675(2009-13).

Notes

1. Thenature,operationsandimpactoftheCfCprojectaredescribedindetailin

separatepapersinpreparation.

2. http://www.episcenter.psu.edu/

3. Webasethisassertiononapreliminarysurveyofcoalitionmembershipsin10CfC

communities,butalsomorebroadlyonobservationsofcommunitiesthroughout

Australia.

4. Forexample,StateoftheChildrenandYoungPersons’Report2014:IpswichandWest

Moreton(Child,YouthandFamilyAlliance,IpswichandWestMoreton);TheStateof

Launceston’sChildren2014(AnglicareTasmania).

5. TheDSSDataExchangeFramework:Anewapproachforstreamlinedprogramme

performancereporting.Canberra:DepartmentofSocialServices,July2014.

6. https://www3.aifs.gov.au/cfca/families-and-children-activity-expert-panel

7. TheTamarackInstitute,ResourcesataGlance:CollaborativeGovernance:

http://tamarackcommunity.ca/


23

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Figure1.TheCREATEmodelforcommunitypreventionandthepromotionofchildandyouthwellbeing

create-ing capacity to take developmental crime prevention ... · create-ing capacity to take...

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