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POTASSIUM NUTRITION OF GROUNDNUT UNDER RAINFED AND IRRIGATED
CONDITIONS
ABSTRACT
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
Bottor of ^dilogopfip IN
BOTANY
SHAHID UMAR DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH, INDIA
AND
National Research Centre for Groundnut (ICAR) Junagadh, India
1988
POTASSIUM NUTRITION OF GROUNDNUT UNDER RAINFED AND
IRRIGATED CONDITIONS
SHAHID UMAR
Abstract of the thesis, submitted to the Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Botany
1988
Three field experiments were conducted at National Research
Centre for Groundnut, (ICAR), Junagadh, Gujarat (INDIA) during
rainy ("Kharif"), winter ("Rabi") and summer ("Zaid") seasons
of 1985-86. The aim of . the e i jj ji iment was to determine the optimum
basal dose of potassium out of 0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha for the
cultivation of two cultivars of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L. )
under rainfed conditions and at varying water stress levels.
The crop was completely rainfed during Kharif season
(Experiment 1). It was given controlled irrigation for winter
and summer trials (Experiment 2 and 3). Irrigation schedule was
based on tentiometer readings (-bar) to maintain different water
stress levels (S). During winter season crop was irrigated at
-0.3 bar (S_) i.e. normal irrigation and -0.6 bar (S,) i.e.induced
water stress conditions. During summer season the crop was
irrigated at three levels of stress i.e. -0.3 bar (S Q ) , -0.6
bar (S,) and -0.9 bar (S-), 2.5 cm ha of irrigation water was
given each time.
In brief, Experiment 1 was a field trial conducted according
to factorial randomised block design during rainy ("Kharif")
season to study the effect of four doses of basal potassium 0, 20,
40 and 60 kg K/ha, under rainfed conditions on groundnut cvs.
GAUG-1 and GAUG-10.
Experiment 2 was also conducted in the field on the same
varieties of groundnut (GAUG-1 and GAUG-10) according to factorial
randomised block design during winter ("Rabi") season under
irrigated conditions to study the combined effect of four levels
of potassium 0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha) and two levels of water
stress (S„ and S^) in sixteen possible combinations.
Experiment 3 was conducted during summer ("Zaid") season
according to factorial randomised block design on only the bunch
(GAUG-1) cultivar of groundnut in the field as the other cultivar
(GAUG-10) mature late and spoil in the field due to onset of
rain. The aim of this field trial was to study the effect of
potassium (0, 20 and 40 kg K/ha) in ameliorating the ill effects
of induced water stress (S„, S and S_) under irrigated conditions.
The parameters studied in the three experiments included,
plant height, leaf number, leaf area, total plant dry weight,
relative water content, nitrate reductase activity, proline
content, chlorophyll content, N, P and K content at 30, 60 and
90 DAS, stomatal resistance and transpiration rate at 30 and
60 DAS and yield characteristics, protein content, oil content
and energy harvesting efficiency at maturity.
On statistical analysis the data mostly found significant
at P<0.05. The important findings are summarised below:
1. The two groundnut cultivars showed differential response
to potassium application under both rainfed condition and
at all levels of water stress while the bunch variety (GAUG-1)
responded best to 20 kg K/ha, spreading variety (GAUG-10)
showed optimum response to 40 kg K/ha in all the seasons
at all the levels of stress. Almost all the parameters studied
responding significantly.
2. Spreading genotype (GAUG-10) exhibited more profuse vegetative
growth than the bunch cultivar (GAUG-1) in rainy season and
winter. This could be due to difference in the genetic make
up of the two cultivars and could account for the differences
in the response to potassium and water stress, which was
expressed more clearly in GAUG-10 than in GAUG-1.
3. Potassium had significant impact on leaf area and dry weight
under normal and water stress conditions in both cultivars
tested for various seasons. Water stress decreased the leaf
area and dry weight, however, the application of potassium
compensated for the ill effect of water stress on both the
varieties to some extent in all the seasons.
4. Water stress in general depressed the transpiration rate
and increased the stomatal resistance in all the seasons.
Thus, it was noted that, at normal irrigation (S^ level of
stress), stomatal resistance decreased which subsequently
increased when plants were subjected to stress. Based on
present findings, it may be further emphasised that under
rainfed conditions when the gap between two rains was about
30 days, at early stage of growth, the transpiration rate
in both the cultivars declined corresponding with the increase
in stomatal resistance. Equally noteworthy is the observa
tion that potassium application decreased transpiration
by increasing stomatal resistance afc all levels of stress
in all the seasons.
5. Water stress decreased the relative water content in both
varieties which was alleviated by potassium application
under stress conditions through better water retention by
plants in all the seasons.
6. Water stress resulted in depression of nitrate reductase
activity in all the seasons. Potassium application helped
in mantaing higher NR levels under stress conditions during
all the season on both varieties.
7. Increased proline accumulation was recorded under water
stress conditions in both varieties tested in all the seasons.
Potassium application was found to increase the proline
content further at all level of stress. Proline accumulation
helped suppress water loss during water stress conditions,
playing its well established role under adverse environmental
conditions, including water stress.
8. Water stress caused a decrease in chlorophyll content in
both genotypes of groundnut. However, potassium application
increased the chlorophyll content and checked deterioration
in chlorophyll under stress condition.
9. Leaf, N, P and K contents were affected and difference was
noted under stress conditions. Nitrogen and potassium showed
accumulation due to potassium application at all levels
of water stress. Water stress further increased K accumula
tion in leaves.
10. Potassium application enhanced the protein and oil content
in seed irrespective of water stress levels in all the
seasons in both genotypes of groundnut.
11. Reduction in yield characteristics, including pod yield,
was recorded due to water stress. Potassium application
was found to ameliorate this ill effect of water stress
and to improve final yield through its augmenting effect
on various yield characteristics in all the seasons.
12. Water stress decreased the energy harvesting efficiency
of the crop due to decreased moisture availability at the
site of energy fixation. Plants supplied with adequate
potassium exhibited higher solar energy harvesting efficiency
than control plants even under water stress conditions.
13. Potassium helped plants in achieving water economy and in
maintaining proper osmotic potential. It, thus improved
the resistance of the plants to water stress and thereby
led to better plant survival. This in turn resulted in
differential dry matter output under different experimental
conditions.
Of the information contained in the thesis, the following
are some of the important new additions to the literature on the
growth, development and water and potassium requirements of ground
nut. These have been studied and recorded for the first time:
(1) Significant differences in various morpho-physiological
attributes of varieties GAUG-1 (bunch type) and GAUG-IO
(spreading type) in relation to potassium nutrition and water
stress have been noted.
(2) The standing official recommendation and earlier farm practice
of ignoring potash as a fertiliser for groundnut cultivation
in Gujarat has been proved wrong. The optimum potassium
requirement of GAUG-1 and GAUG-10 for various seasons has
been established to be 20 kg and 40 kg K/ha respectively.
(3) Detailed information about the water relation of the crop
under field conditions, particularly with respect to growth;
stomatal resistance; transpiration rate, RWC; NRA; proline,
chlorophyll and NPK contents, yield, quality and energy
harvesting efficiency, has been collected.
(4) The crop has been successfully cultivated in the "Rabi" season
as a result of potassium application. It requires reduced
irrigation compared to the normal practice of growing the
crop.in summer. Moreover, the risk of viviparous germination
of seeds in the standing crop (due to unexpected early monsoon
rains) leading to substantial losses, could be offset. "Rabi"
cultivation would, therefore, change the entire oilseeds
scenario of the country by utilising profitably the thousands
of hectares left traditionally fallow in winter.
(5) For farmers who may not be persuaded to change their cropping
pattern, GAUG-1 has been found to be the suitable variety
to be cultivated with the proper dose of applied potassium
to reduce the frequency of irrigations required for maximum
productivity.
(6) Potassium has been invariably noted to ameliorate the ill
effect of water stress and to increase drought tolerance.
It has also been found to enhance the energy harvesting
efficiency of groundnut both under normal as well as water
stress conditions.
Thus, notwithstanding the potassium status of the soil,
potassium application may be exploited commercially for enhanced
production of groundnut grown in semi-arid regions.
POTASSIUM NUTRITION OF GROUNDNUT UNDER RAINFED AND IRRIGATED
CONDITIONS
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
Bottor of $litlo2(opfip IN
BOTANY
SHAHID UMAR DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ALIGARH MUSLIIVi UNIVERSITY ALIGARH, INDIA
AND
National Research Centre for Groundnut (ICAR) Junagadh, India
1988
T3832
2 3 sr'V.;.9?q
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled
"Potassium Nutrition of Groundnut under Rainfed and
Irrigated Conditions", submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Botany, is a faithful record of the bonafide research
work carried out at the National Research Centre
for Groundnut, Junagadh and the Aligarh Muslim University,
\ Aligarh by Mr. Shahidt^Umar ^ under , our guidance and
supervision and that no part of it has been submitted for
any other degree or diploma.
.^^
(R.S. DW^VEDI) (M.M.R.K. AFRIDI)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to record my sincere gratitude to Professor
M.M.R.K. Afridi, Ph„D.{Bristol) , my mentor and guide, who
supervised this work. Equally, I wish to pay special thanks
to Dr. R.S. Dwivedi, Ph.D.(B.H.U.) for suggesting the problem
and for helping me at all stages of research with advice and
interest in the subject. This work would not have been possible
without his guidance and constant encouragement. I am deeply
grateful to the Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh and to the Chairman, Department of Botany,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, who provided the required
facilities for conducting this work.
I would also like to thank Drs. Y.M. Pasaliya, P.C.Nautiyal,
V. Ravindra, A.L. Singh, S.K. Suneja and Messrs Y.C. Joshi,
V.S. Negi, G.S. Dhapwal, A.N. Thakkar and V.G.Koradia of Junagadh
as well as Drs Samiullah, Aqil Ahmed, Arif Inam, Firoz Mohammad,
M. Aslam Parvaiz, Ali Qadar, Masood Akhtar, M.M.A. Khan,
Shamim A. Ansari, Shadab A. Khan, Nafees A. Khan and Messrs
Faizan A. Khan, Iqbal Ahmad, Mujahid A. Khan, Saood Husain,
S.R.M. Ata, Aquil Ahmad, Ikramul Haque and Tauheed Khan of
Aligarh for their help and co-operation.
My parents have been a constant source of inspiration
through their inexhaustible love, blessings, encouragement and
support. I do not find words to acknowledge my gratitude to
them and to my uncles, Er. Badruddin Ahmed and Dr. S.Zafar,
who also played a vital role in the development of my academic
career. A special word of appreciation goes to my wife, Shahin,
who has been a constant source of encouragement. She helped me
in more ways than one throughout the period I was engaged in
research through her loving support and sacrifice.
Last but not the least, the award of Research Fellowship
and supporting grant by Dr. G.S. Sekhon, Director, Potash Research
Institute of India, Gurgaon, during the tenure of this investiga
tion, is gratefully acknowledged.
SHAHID UMAR
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 28
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 50
5. DISCUSSION 96
6. SUMMARY 117
7. REFERENCES i
8. APPENDIX I
Chapter 1
Introduction
Oilseeds occupy an important place in India's economy
as they account for about 10% of the 143 million hectares of
cultivated land. India is, thus, the third largest producer
of oilseeds in the world, accounting for a tenth of the its
output of vegetable oil and fat. However, viewed in the global
context, India has the dubious distinction of showing the lowest
average yield inspite of having the highest acreage under oil
seed cultivation. Our oilseeds yield is 7.36 q/ha which is
much lower than the national average of many other countries,
including, Nigeria-16.16, United States of America-14.75,
Argentina-11.55 and China-14.86 q/ha (Anonymous, 1983a). In
addition, oilseeds production in India fluctuates, widely from
year to year due to the vagaries of weather (drought during
the "Kharif" i.e. rainy season or unexpected early onset of
monsoon promoting viviparous germination of the pods before
harvest). It is a stark fact that only 8% of the total area
under oilseeds is assured of the required irrigation schedule
recommended by the respective Agriculture Departments of various
oilseed producing states.
India ranks first in the production of groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea L. ) , throughout the world and crediated with
35% of its area as well as production. Naturally, among the
major edible oil yielding crops cultivated in India, groundnut
claims the largest share in area of cultivation (46%), pod
production (67%) and edible oil production (59%). For the people
of the semi-arid tropics, groundnut is the most popular food
legume as it provides a major source of vegetable oil and protein.
The groundnut produced in India is mostly consumed indigenously
as edible oil, with only about 1.5% of the produce being consumed
directly (Misra, 1986).
It is noteworthy, however, that, inspite of the constantly
increasing area under groundnut cultivation (from 0.35 million
hectares in 1910T11 to 7.34 hectares in 1985-86), productivity
of this crop has slumped from 13.4 q/ha in 1910-11 to 9.4 q/ha
in 1985-86 which is far less than the 29.4 q/ha averaged in U.S.A.
(Misra, 1986; Anonymous, 1986). This is mainly because of the
fact that, in India, groundnut is cultivated mostly under rainfed
conditions. Failure or improper distribution of rainfall imposes
short to prolonged drought conditions, creating a situation that
is even more disastrous than floods, as unlike the latter, it
persists for long durations and therefore, reduces groundnut
yield by as much as 25 to 100%. India, being a large country,
this unfortunate situation arises in one or the other major
groundnut producing states, such as Gujarat, year after year,
resulting in a perennial shortage of the supply of edible oil.
On top of this, the "population explosion" further disturbs the
balance. To bridge the gap between demand and production, we
have no alternative but to import edible oil worth about Rs 1,000
crores annually which drains away considerable foreign exchange.
Keeping these facts in view, it is imperative to improve
soil and water management as well as other agricultural practices
on scientific lines. However, it may be reiterated that groundnut
is grown mostly under rainfed conditions where frequent droughts
cast their long shadows on the expectations of the cultivator
and should remedial measures therefore be warrented to ensure
normal production. Under the circumstances a clear understanding
of the stress-agronomy of the crop would expectedly help improve
the situation. Alternatively^ breeding for drought resistance
may also give the desired results; but it is cumbersome, time
consuming and costly. Judicious management of inputs particularly
water and fertilisers is relatively quicker and less expensive.
Among various nutrients, potassium has been found to be
the most efficient in ameliorating crop losses under drought
conditions. It promotes drought tolerance in crop through its
well known role in the physiology and biochemistry of plants.
Potassium activates a number of key enzyme systems (Evans and
Sorger, 1966; Nitsos and Evans, 1969; Suelter, 1970; Lauchli
and Pfluger 1978). It also lowers the osmotic potential of root
cells and increases water uptake. It plays a specific role in
opening and closing of stomata and checks transpiration (Fischer
and Hsiao, 1968; Brag, 1972; Mengel and Kirkby, 1980; 1982; Saxena,
1985). Besides, potassium has many biochemical and biophysical
functions in photosynthesis, such as partitioning and storage
4
of assimilates affecting the "source" more than the "sink"(Beringer
and Trolldenier, 1978; Beringer, 1982). Accordingly, during
vegetative growth, when the productive system (leaf area) and
the foundation for yield components and yield are build up, high
potassium requirements of plants become indispensable (Beringer
and Haeder, 1981).
The present author, therefore, put forward some working
hypotheses to help increase groundnut production in India.
(i) If decreasing productivity in Gujarat, the foremost
groundnut producing state is due to the exclusion of
potassium amongst the recommended fertilisers, its
application should result in enhanced productivity of the
crop.
(ii) If the genetic potential of various cultivars could be
fully exploited through judicious application of inputs,
water and fertiliser, including potassium - application
of proper doses of latter should ensure optimisation of'
production both under normal (rainfed) and irrigated
conditions.
(iii) If potassium improves the water balance in crop plants,
its application to groundnut should result in enhanced
productivity through an overall improvement in the morpho-
physiological and biochemical behaviour of the crop.
(iv) If groundnut could be cultivated under irrigation in the
winter ("Rabi") season in Gujarat where it is traditionally
grown in summer ("zaid") and rainy("Kharif") seasons, many
of the ill effects of vagaries of weather mentioned above
(p. 2-3 ) could be avoided. This would naturally lead to
considerable additional production at reduced irrigation
costs.
(v) If potassium application could reduce irrigation costs
further through its established role in water economy,
it could be exploited to bring additional area under
groundnut cultivation in Gujarat. Winter grown groundnut
would thus augument the annual production of this important
oilseed.
To - .test these hypotheses, the following field experiments
are proposed to be undertaken at National Research Centre
for Groundnut (ICAR), Junagadh,Gujarat:
(1) To determine, taking 4 levels, the potassium requirement
of two high yielding genotypes of groundnut, namely, GAUG-1
(bunch type) and GAUG-10 (spreading type) on the basis
of their optimum performance guaged by selected morpho-
physiological and biochemical parameters, under rainfed
conditions in rainy ("Kharif") season.
(2) To study the role of potassium in promoting tolerance in
groundnut against increased drought stress under induced
drought conditions. The cultivars, parameters and potassium
levels will be kept the same as in Experiment 1. The trial
shall, however, be undertaken during winter ("Rabi") season.
(3) To study the ameliorating effect, if any, of potassium
application (taking 3 levels) under induced drought
conditions on GAUG-1 groundnut cultivated during summer
("zaid") season keeping the criteria of performance the
same as in Experiment 1.
CONTENTS
PAGE
2.1 Growth habit of groundnut
2.2 Physiological aspects of drought
2.2.1 Growth and development of .... .... 11 groundnut under normal and water stress conditions
2.3 Potassium as a plant nutrient .... .... 17
2.3.1 Potassium nutrition of groundnut .... .... 19
2.4 Critical appraisal of work .... .... 26 already published
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Growth habit of groundnut
The cultivated groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a
native of South America. At present it is believed to have
originated in the upper plato basin of Bolivia, at the base
of the foot hills of the Andes. Groundnut is predominantly a
crop of the tropics but it is now grown throughout the tropical
and subtropical countries and continental parts of temperate
countries of the world.
It is generally agreed that yielding ability of a crop
depends on its vegetative and reproductive growth. Curtailment
of the growth period of a crop to a manageable . extent is of
paramount importance. This is particularly true for groundnut
as plant breeders have changed its habit from perennial to annual
by rigorous genetic manipulation, so that groundnut can now
be harvested within 3-6 months.
The species "hypogaea" includes two sub-species, decribed
briefly below (Gregory et_ al^. , 1951; Krapovikas, 1968).
(i) Sub-species hypogaea; This includes Virginia runner
(spreading type) and Virgina upright, erect (bunch type). The
major features of this group are absence of infloresence on
main stem and presence of fruiting body in alternate pairs on
the n + 1 branches. There is no marked difference between the
growth patterns of the two types during the seedling stage.
The bunch varieties produce less leaves than the spreading
varieties. The pods in all cultivars of the sub-species hypogaea
are two-seeded.
(ii) Sub-species fastigiate (Waldron): The branching pattern
within this sub-species is sequential, and the plants have an
erect habit. The leaflets are bigger than in sub-species hypogaea.
They bear flowers both on main stem and branches. As the present
study does not deal with this sub-species, the other details
are considered irrelevant.
Groundnut is a completely self-fretilised crop. After
fertilisation, an intercalary meristem at the base of the ovary
becomes activated and the carpophore begins to grow with the
ovary at its tip. This is popularly known as the peg. The peg
is visible about five to seven days after fertilisation. The
peg is positively geotropic, i.e., it grows towards the soil
and penetrates into the soil. The ovary starts developing into
a fruit (pod) after taking a horizontal position in the soil.
The pods are formed within 5 cm depth of surface-soil and this
is known as fruiting zone.
The yield of groundnut crop is much influenced by the
environment. The crop can neither withstand prolonged dry spells
nor waterlogging. It needs abundant sunshine and high temperature
to give good yield of pods. In India, the season for cultivation
of groundnut, therefore, varies from one state to another. -Si5e
The four major environmental stresses limiting the yield of
groundnut are: (i) rainfall, (ii) temperature, (iii) nutrients
and (iv) pests and diseases.
About 92% of the groundnut area in India is sown in
"Kharif" (June-October) season under rainfed conditions. For
this crop sowing is done with the commencement of the monsoon
(May-June). However, during the monsoon season, the crop
experiences an intermittent moisture stress and consequently
suffer from atleast one or two drought periods. Winter ("Rabi")
groundnut crop is raised in India on-a limited scale from October
onward in areas where winter is not severe and water is available
for irrigation. A third cropping season is summer ("zaid")
(February-May) during which the crop is raised under irrigation
but it has the disadvantage that monsoon rains before harvest
could devastate the standing crop.
2-2 Physiological aspects of drought
Water is the most important component of all living beings
contributing more than half the body weight. It acts as a medium
for all life processes. Therefore, scarcity of water creates
several disorders in the body of the organism, plants being
no exception. However, plants experience more fluctuations in
the availability of water than animals as they can not move
about to fulfill their water requirements. Further, they lose
the bulk of the absorbed water through transpiration. This could
lead to an alarming situation if transpiration exceeded water
10
uptake. Drought would curtail the productivity of plants
considerably by impairing their physiological activities, such
water stress could be caused in crop plants by factors like
low lannual rainfall, late onset or early withdrawal of monsoon
or a long interval between two successive rains.
Drought decreases hydrostatic pressure and reduces water
potential of the cell (Simmelsgaard, 1976). This affects cell
expansion and cell division adversely (Hsiao, 1973). On the
other hand, Cleland (1967) noted a decrease in cell wall
synthesis, as measured by incorporation of labelled glucose
by plants experiencing water deficit conditions. Similarly, Ben-
Zioni et_ a}.. (1967) found that stress resulted in decreased
incorporation of amino acids into proteins.
Enzyme levels are also affected by low water availability.
Of these, membrane bound enzymes like ATPase, are likely to
be influenced adversely by a change in water potential (Zimmerman,
1978). Besides, nitrate reductase level in plants experiencing
drought decreases (Afridi, 1960; Beevers and Hageman, 1969;
Sinha and Rajgopal, 1975; Mengel and Kirkby, 1982), for which
Afridi (1960) and Bardzick _et al. (1971) argued that suppression
of RNA or protein synthesis respectively could be the reason.
Accumulation of proline is observed in the cell when drought
prevails for a long period (Pleg and Aspinall, 1981). This may
serve as an attribute for drought resistance screening. Lastly,
translocation of photosynthates is restricted, which decreases
the productivity of the crop.
11
2.2.1 Growth and development of groundnut under normal and water
stress conditions
The relevant literature on growth and development of
groundnut under normal and water deficit condition is briefly
considered below:
Ali et^ ^ . (1932) reported that there was no marked
difference between growth pattern of two types of cultivars
during seedling stage, (i) Bunch variety prduced less leaves
than spreading variety during the entire span of life, the number
ranging from 93-112 and 206-346 respectively. (ii) Vegetative
growth period also varied from one variety to the other (iii) The
total period of growth and development was between 56-97 days
in case of the bunch and 70-125 days in case of the spreading
genotype.
Rao (1936) recorded periodical increase in the shoot
weight of one bunch variety and two spreading types. The
periodical gain in weight was higher for variety 'Saloum' and
low for varieties 'Local Mauritious' and 'Gudiyatham Bunch'
upto 49-54 days after sowing (DAS). The increase in plant weight
was rapid. Thereafter, particularly towards maturity, the
increase gradually tappered off. The rate of increase in weight
was more rapid during the first 30-35 DAS and thereafter a gradual
decrease in the rate of increase as plants grew older.
Smith (1951) reported that the percentage of fertilised
flowers was very low. It ranged from 4.9 to 58.9 in the spreading
12
and 21.9 to 67.5 in bunch types. Even after fertilisation,
only about 69.5% of potential flowers elongated as pegs. There
was a general agreement that a greater percentage of early
formed flowers developed into pods.
Slatyer (1955) noted a decrease in dry matter production
of vegetative components with moisture stress. He also reported
that the rate of dry matter accumulation by groundnut was first
reduced when the relative turgidity of cells dropped below
90%.
Bilaz and Ochs (1961) showed that the degree of
partitioning of assimilates to leaves during seed formation
(80-120 DAS) of Spanish groundnut was inversely proportional
to the number of fruits formed earlier. If pod formation was
nearly completed prior to imposing water deficit, assimilate
partitioning to fruit was increased by water deficit. However,
water deficit during pod formation (50-80 DAS) reduced flowering,
pod formation and final yield more than at any other stage.
This treatment resulted in less partitioning to fruits (but
more to leaves) during the subsequent period of seed filling
(80-120 DAS), indicating that influence of water defecit on
partitioning of dry matter to leaves or fruit depended on the
timing of mositure stress.
According to' Forestier (1969), various runner type
varieties differed with regard to the rate of coverage of canopy.
A very high correlation was also found between the length of
13
the cotylendonary laterals and coverage, showing the importance
of these cotylendonary laterals in the skeleton of plant and
canopy structure. In bunch types also, varietal differences
were noted in leaf area index (LAI) in relation to the rate
and time taken to reach the peak. The LAI values ranged from
3.2 to 5.0. A regular increase in leaf area and dry matter
per plant from the 3rd leaf stage to peg formation was observed
and this increase was not affected by onset of flowering.
Maeda (1970) reported that in the varieties of groundnut
studied, the total number of leaves per plant showed an
exponential increase from about 20 DAS which lasted till 90-
100 DAS. Similarly, the total leaf area per plant also varied.
The leaves of the erect types were larger than those of
spreading types.
McCloud (1974) studied LAI and dry matter of Florunner
variety under two levels of population, i.e., 7.5 and 10.6
2 plants per m . LAI calculated at 64th day was 3.0, whereas,
at 87th day when flowering was almost over, it was 7.1. LAI
decreased rapidly to 1.7 at harvest (137 DAS), It was also
substantiated that at high population, there were 30 pods and
15 unfilled pegs per plant at harvest, giving a potential yield
of 6.9 t seeds/ha. He concluded that yield was not limited
by the size of the photosynthetic sink, but probably by the
low leaf area and less efficient leaves during the final filling
period.
14
According to Enyi (1975), early cessation of dry matter
accumulation in stem might be considered a desirable feature
for the crop. The accumulation of dry matter in leaf blade
during the early stage also contributed towards the yield of
the crop. Dry matter accumulation in the vegetative part and
in the fruit occurred simultaneously. Since, the vegetative
and reproductive phase overlapped each other, quick cessation
of vegetative growth (increase in stem dry weight) might result
in the availability of photosynthates for accumulation in
economically useful parts. He defined seed yield per given
area of land in groundnut crops as the product of pod number,
number of seeds per pod and size of individual seed. He
considered that the seed yield in groundnut also depended on
the number of pegs formed and on the proportion of pegs that
produced mature pods at harvest (peg to pod ratio).
William et _al. (1975 a,b ) studied the early growth
of cultivar Makalu Red, the alternate branching type, was slower
than in the other three sequential types, which were similar
to the former until about 84 DAS. After 96 DAS, Valencia RI
(sequential type) accumulated the highest dry matter and Natal
common, the lowest. The other sequential cultivar (59/66)
accumulated similer amounts of dry matter as Makalu Red. The
accumulation of stem mass in the three sequential cultivars
was equal until about 110 DAS. Thereafter, cultivar 59/66
continued to grow rapidly while the rate of stem growth in
the other two cultivars was reduced. The differences with regard
to the rate of accumulation of dry matter in these varieties
continued till the end whereas growth of stem in Natal common
15
ceased rapidly. They further observed that the shellednut yield
was not related to leaf area or crop growth rate, but was more
dependent on the number of seeds developed. Generally, the
time taken for flower initiation was about 30 DAS. However,
variation was also observed within bunch types. The effeciency
of flowers to produce peg was inversely related to the number
of flowers produced.
Ducan et. a2.. (1978) established that varietal
differences in five cultivars showed partitioning of assimilates
to be related with three physiological processes, namely,
(i) between vegetative and reproductive parts, (ii) the length
of filling period and (iii) the rate of fruit establishment.
Of these, the partitioning of assimilates had the greatest
effect on fruit yield. As such, this characteristic seemed
to be highly desirable as it ensured a high efficiency in
converting available growth into the economically important
part, i. e. pod.
Studies conducted by Sastry (1979) showed that the
rate of growth was very rapid in the first two fortnights of
flowering. Peak growth was noted during the second fortnight
in bunch types. In the spreading types, the maximum growth
period continued till 2-3 fortnights after flowering. An
alternate decrease and increase in growth rate was also reported
upto 6-7th week after commencement of flowering.
16
Bennett et £l. (1984) studied the effect of 28 days drying
period, achieved by withholding irrigation on various physio
logical parameters and soil-water content. It was noted that
as soil drying progressed, the reduction in soil-water content
caused larger reduction in leaf water potential and consequent
decrease in leaf moisture content. This resulted in stomatal
closure and higher leaf temperature than air temperature. They
concluded that water seemed to maintain plant body temperature
besides, participating invarious metabolic pathways.
Ong (1984) investigated the partitioning of dry matter
to stem, leaves and pods under water stress condition. He reported
that mild water stress promoted peg and pod production, because
reproductive growth was less affected than the growth of leaves
and stems.
Pandey ejt ail. (1984) studied groundnut growth in semi-
arid tropical regions by subjecting it to different moisture
gradients in the field. Plant growth analyses were computed from
samples taken at frequent intervals. Increasing water stress
resulted in progressively less leaf area duration, crop growth
rate and shoot dry matter production. They concluded that the
growth of the crop was often limited by the variation in amount
and duration of rainfall.
Ong e_t jal. (1985) reported that the soil moisture content
reduced the LAI. Leaf number per plant and leaf size were
decreased as soil water deficit increased.
17
Dwivedi (1986 a,b) studied the yield performance of
different genotypes of groundnut at Junagadh (Saurashtra). He
observed the development of different attributes of the crop
in various seasons giving emphasis to the reproductive phase.
He reported that the crop sown during the months of March and
November, produced higher number of flowers, pegs and pods as
compared to other months. He observed that Verginia runner had
low flower-pod ratio, indicating higher percentage of flowers
turning into pods than the bunch type and suggested that
emergence of peg close to the soil in Virginia runner might be
the main reason for this observation. He concluded that yielding
variety produced more pegs (flower to peg ratio), higher per cent
conversion of pegs into mature pods (pods to peg ratio) and higher
100 seed weight,
2.3 Potassium as a plant nutrient
Potassium was first recognised as an essential element
for plant growth following the work of Home in 1762. Recently^
Mengel and Kirkby (1980) have cited the work of Home who performed
an interesting experiment on the growth of barley as early as
the later half of Eighteenth century. In one treatment, he added
potassium sulphate to the soil which resulted in better growth
of barley than the control, indicating that either potassium or
sulphate had a beneficial effect on plant growth. Later resear
chers, particularly de Saussure (1804) and Sprangel (1839)
established that potassium was present in plant ash obtained from
18
different plant species. After reviewing the analytical data of
his time, Liebig (1841) was also of the view that potassium was
in some ways involved in plant metabolism. The experience of
farmers around Giessen, the German university town where he worked
consistently indicated a beneficial influence of manuring various
crops with plant ash and Liebig rightly proposed that potash was
one of the essential growth factors in plant ash.
Potassium was later established as an essential
macronutrient for all plants (Knop,' 1860, Sachs, 1860) is the
most abundantly distributed cation and is highly mobile but does
not appear to be a constituent of the plant body. The function
of this element in plant metabolism is biophysical and biochemical,
involving ion fluxes as it maintains turgor pressure of the cell
via osmo-regulation and as it activated more than 50 enzymes
categorised either as transferases, e.g., the enzymes transfering
phosphoryl group or those catalyzing eliminating processes in
addition to some unclassified enzymes, e.g., starch synthetase.
Some of the common enzymes activated by potassium are pyruvate
kinase, 6 phospho-fructo-kinase, NAD synthetase, fructose
biphosphate aldolase etc., covering a wide spectrum of plant
metabolism (Evans and Sorger, 1966; Nitsos and Evans, 1969;
Suelter, 1970). It is also involved in the translocation of
photosynthates and helps in the synthesis of proteins (Webster,
1956; Mckee, 1962) and ATP (Mengel and Forster, 1971; Beringer,
1982). These physiological roles, coupled with removal of large
19
quantities of potassium by crops necessitating its replenishment
after every harvest account for its increasing demand in ensuring
desired crop productivity (Beringer, 1982), at least in the Western
countries. Besides, potassium helps nodulation in legumes and
thus enhances dinitrogen fixation (Marschner, 1983).
Potassium also takes active part in opening and closing
of stomata, thereby influencing water loss through transpiration.
Potassium is, therefore, indispensable in water stress conditions
as it not only facilitates water uptake but also prevents excessive
water loss. Therefore, water use efficiency of the plants
increases in its presence. The performance of crops under drought
conditions is, therefore, improved through tolerance and/or
avoidance of drought brought about by potassium nutrition.
(Rogaler, 1958; Linser and Herwig, 1968; Brag, 1972; Mengel, 1977;
Beringer and Trolldenier, 1978; Lauchli and Pfluger, 1978; Mengel
and Kirkby, 1980). As water stress effects are severe in semi-
arid environment where droughts are unpredictable and cause
production instability. Studies on the physiological role of
potassium in water uptake and its regulation under limiting soil
water environments are expected to throw light on how potassium
may improve the water relation of plants and thereby maintain
crop yield under water stress conditions.
2.3.1 Potassium nutrition of groundnut
Generally, groundnut is grown in soils that are high in
potassium. The level of exchangeable potassium (K) in groundnut
20
growing soils of the world, in general, ranges between 40 kg/ha
and 1,200 kg/ha. However, in practice, soils having less than
150 kg/ha, 150-250 kg/ha and more than 250 kg/ha potassium are
considered -as low, medium and high potassium soils respectively
for groundnut. Except the soils of Kerala, Bihar and Orissa, most
soils in other states of India, where groundnut is grown (including
Gujarat) are rich in potassium. Certain reports published by-
Gujarat State Fertiliser Corporation (Gujarat) revealed that more
than 20% soils of Gujarat responded to potassium application
(Anonymous, 1983b). The preliminary experiments conducted at
National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh have also revealed
that the application of potassium increases not only the pod yield
of groundnut but also the protein and oil contents of seed
(Umar, 1984).
The stunted growth of the entire plant of groundnut and
the drying up and necrosis of its leaf margins are the main
manifestations under potash deficiency. Redish colour of stem at
the tips of branches is also observed. Deficiency of potassium
has been reported to reduce the number of flower forming pegs.
Sufficient quantity of potassium is required for sound growth
of pegs. Root growth is drastically reduced due to potassium
deficiency. The deficiency of this nutrient is also evident when
high proportion of pods is observed but with only one seed each
(Dwivedi, 1988).
Badnaur (1976) conducted a field experiment at Bangalore
(Karnataka) to study the response of various crops to the
21
application of potassium fertiliser. Groundnut and cowpea gave
maximum yield to 25 kg K/ha but maize and ragi responded maximally
to 50 kg K/ha. Application of 100 kg K/ha and 200 kg K/ha did
not increase the yield significantly. Gopalaswamy et a_l. (1976)
worked out the economical optimum dose for irrigated bunch
groundnut. It was extrapolated to be 75 kg K/ha which was
22 kg K/ha more than earlier recommendation, i.e./ 53 kg K/ha,
for the same groundnut variety. Gopalaswamy (1977) also conducted
an experiment for three years. His ' results revealed that the
rainfed bunch groundnut did not respond to the application of
nitrogen and phosphorus. However, there was a significant
interaction between N and K at N„ level, application of 40 kg K/ha
significantly increasing the yield. The economical optimum dose
was computed to be 45.2 kg K/ha for the sandy loam soil with low
potassium content.
Reddy et al. (1977) conducted an experiment under the
agroclimatic conditions of Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh
for rainfed bunch groundnut in red sandy-loam. The yield maximi
sation level of potassium was found to be 83.2 kg K/ha whereas,
profit maximum level was 58.7 kg K/ha with a net return of Rs.1'20
per rupee spent on potassium.
The result of a two years study revealed that maximum
production of pod occurred with applied potassium at the rate
of 80.5 kg K/ha but the economical optimum dose was computed to
be 77.2 kg K/ha, which was expected to yield 2,676 kg/ha groundnut
pod with input cost and output price ratio as 0.5:1. When the
22
cost of potassium remained constant, the economical optimum dose
of potassium increased with an increase in the price of pods.
On the other hand, an increase in the cost of potassium reduced
the economical optimum dose irrespective of price of pods. The
study emphasised the need to limit potassium application according
to input cost and anticipated output price in irrigated groundnut
(Gopalaswamy et aj.. , 1978).
Lakshminarasinhan and Surendran (1978) conducted a field
experiment on groundnut to study the effect of split application
of potassium given at 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 (soil: foliar) ratios on
the quality of the seed. Among the various ratios tried, 50 kg K/ha
at the 2:1 ratio recorded higher nitrogen and potassium uptake.
Reducing sugars increased to 4.2% with this level of potassium
application. Increase in total and reducing sugars with the
application of potassium at 75 kg K/ha in 1:1 and 2:1 ratio was
observed. The oil content was not influenced by the treatments.
Gutstein (1979) studied the effect of 0, 150, 300 or 450
kg K/ha on the yield response of Valencia type groundnut cultivated
on alluvial grum soil. Potassium application prolonged the
vegetative period and delayed reproductive development. Treated
plants yielded more than control, plants of 300 kg K/ha receiving
the optimum potassium rate and improved their reproductive
efficiency.
Rao _et _al. (1980) conducted field experiments in two
seasons (summer and rainy season of 1978) at Tirupati (Andhra
23
Pradesh) to study the individual and combined effect of potassium,
calcium and magnesium on irrigated groundnut- There were 16
treatments in summer and 18 treatments in rainy season with various
ratios of K:Ca:Mg with two controls in which the source of
phosphorus was either single superphosphate or diammonium
phosphate respectively. It was found that 80 kg K/ha in summer
and 40 kg K/ha in rainy season gave maximum number of filled pods
per plant. The addition of 20 kg Ca/ha and 80 kg K/ha significantly
increased pod number. 80 kg K/ha proved optimum for pod weight
in both seasons, maximum pod weight was found with the combination
of 80 kg K + 40 kg Ca/ha in summer and 120 kg K + 40 kg Ca/ha
in the rainy seasons. Test weight was significantly increased
with 40 and 80 kg K/ha in both the seasons. Higher test weight
was obtained in 80 kg K + 40 kg Ca/ha in summer and 120 kg K +
40 kg Ca/ha in the rainy season. With every increase in the level
of potassium, the shelling per cent was increased in both the
seasons. For pod yield 40 kg K/ha proved optimum, yield increase
being 90.3% over the control.
Nair et a_l. (1981) conducted a field trial in red loam
soils , at Vallargani (Kerala) to test the effect of increasing
levels of potassium on cultivar of groundnut. They noted that
potassium at levels upto 42 kg K/ha significantly increased the
height of plants and number of leaves per plant. Potassium, at
higher levels upto 63 kg K/ha, decreased the time taken for
flowering and increased the number of pegs formed per plant. Test
24
weight of pods and 100-pod weight were increased significantly
by potassium application upto 48 kg K/ha. Higher level of
K increased the yield of pods and haulm.
Reddy and Reddi (1981) performed a field experiment to
study the response of two groundnut varieties to potassium in
sandy loam soil of Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh). Both varieties gave
maximum average yield of pod of 822 kg/ha at the level of 99 kg
K/ha during the the rainy season. In the second year, 40 kg K/ha
gave 1,663 kg pods/ha which was at par with the yield (1,774 kg/ha)
obtained with 80 kg K/ha.
Bark and Chein (1983) reported that groundnut cultivar
grown in pots given 270 mg K/kg soil overcome iron deficiency
symptoms. Potassium as KCl proved better than as KNO-, or K_PHO.
and it increased the chlorophyll content by 73% to reach 90%.
Potassium fertilisation at the rate of 135 to 405 mg K/kg soil,
ameliorated iron chlorosis in groundnut grown in an extremely
calcarious soil (63% CaCO^). Such treatment doubled and even
tripled the chlorophyll content. Potassium availability in soil
is important in achieving this effect. K_SO. was found to be more
effective than KCl. These results are attributed to the cation-
anion balance and consequent rhizosphere activity.
Krishna Sastry (1985) studied the role of potassium
nutrition in proline accumulation- in groundnut (and finger millet)
under moisture stress conditions. Both potassium and proline
accumulated significantly, and K treatment enhanced the accumula
tion when seedlings had been hardned with CaCl-,. Moisture stress
25
treatment showed a 78% decline in proline accumulation in potassium
deficient plnats compared with potassium supplied ones. The KCl
treatment of potassium deficient plants before subjecting them
to moisture stress showed an increase in proline accumulation.
Further, moisture stress treatment alongwith a precursor (arginine)
did not show much conversion to proline in potassium deficient
plants whereas, potassium in the media enhanced the conversion
of arginine to proline appreciably. A significant increase in
arginase activity by exogenous application of KCl in the crude
extract prepared from potassium deficient leaves was also evident.
These findings indicated that potassium had a major role in proline
biosynthesis under moisture stress conditions. The effect of
potassium on proline biosynthesis was more pronounced in finger
millet than in groundnut, indicating the significance of species
specificity.
Dwivedi (1985) and Dwivedi et. al. (1985) reported that
energy conservation in the phytobiomass of groundnut is
significantly higher than that of wheat and Cynodon dactylon,
mainly because of the fact that groundnut accumulates energy rich
organic substances such as oil and protein. Application of
potassium increased oil and protein content^ of seed. It was
suggested that potassium application augumented solar energy
harvesting efficiency of groundnut during both rainy ("Kharif")
(low light intensity) and summer ("zaid") (high light intensity).
Increase in stomatal resistance and decline in transpiration rate
was also noted due to potassium application in bunch and spreading
genotypes of groundnut.
26
Kanzaria (1986) studied potash depletion rate and uptake
of potash by crops, including groundnut, in medium black
calcareous soils of Junagadh (Gujarat) and concluded that potash
application enhanced yield significantly. He recommended that
potash fertilisation should be considered for intensive cropping
of groundnut.
2.4 Critical appraisal of work already published
The literature reviewed above includes studies on
physiological analysis of growth and yield of groundnut, covering
various agroclimatic conditions with respect to application of
potassium. It appears from the review that there are few reports
concerning the effect of potassium fertilisation on various
physiological processes, including productivity of groundnut.
In fact, the work on groundnut is invariably aimed at increasing
the final pod yield without much ~ understanding of the
physiological processes leading to it. It is considered logical
to study the effect of those factors that limit the growth and
yield of the crop. This may help understand these processes so
as to ensure enhanced productivity of better quality grundnut.
It is generally recognised that groundnut is mostly
cultivated in those parts of the country where frequent drought
prevails and regulates the productivity of the crop. The role
of potassium in relation to drought conditions has been well
established in various crops other than groundnut. Keeping in
27
view the stimulating effect of potassium on various crops under
drought conditions, the present investigation was under taken
on groundnut in order to explore the possibility of augumenting
its productivity for catering to the need of the ever increasing
population of our country.
CHAPTER - 3
MATERIAL AND METHODS
CONTENTS
3.1 Agro-climatic conditions of Junagadh
3.2 Soil characteristics
3.3 Field preparations
3.4 Seeds
3.5 Sowing
3.6 Irrigation schedule
3.7 Experiment 1
3.8 Experiment 2
3.9 Experiment 3
3.10 Soil moisture tension
3.12 Parameters studied
3.12.1 Growth characteristics
3.12.2 Physiological characteristics
3.12.3 Biochemical characteristics
3.12.4 Leaf analysis for N, P and K
3.12.5 Yield and quality characteristics
3.12.6 Seed analysis for protein and oil content
3.13 Energy conservation/Energy harvesting efficiency
PAGE
29
30
30
30
30
31
31
32
33
34
35
37
37
38
41
44
45
46
3.14 Statistical analysis 47
CHAPTER - 3
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The most common groundnut growing areas of the world lie
in the tropical and subtropical zones(air temp. 21°C or higher).
These are confined to 23.5° North and South of equator and the
latitude of 30° North and South respectively. Mostly the arid,
semi-arid and sub-humid regions, where, alfisols, vertisols,
inceptisols, entisols, histosols and oxisols soils are prevalent,
suit groundnut cultivation.
The present study comprises three field experiments,
conducted during 1985-86 on two groundnut genotypes viz. "bunch"
and "spreading" in relation to potassium nutrition under rainfed
and irrigated conditions during rainy ("Kharif"), winter ("Rabi")
and summer ("zaid") seasons at the Farm of National Research
Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh (Gujarat), India.
Groundnut is a photoperiod insensitive plant. It is highly
thermo and hydro-sensitive. Changes in environmental conditions,
specially water, temperature and relative humidity affect the
crop growth yield adversely. Groundnut cultivation is done under
rainfed condition to an extent of 80-90% area throughout the
world. In India, 92% of groundnut cultivation is confined to
rainfed conditions particularly in Gujarat. By definition, rainfed
condition prevails only during the "Kharif" season (June to
September). Since the rain distribution is not scheduled either
in the season or during different years the yield is affected.
29
Hence, to offset losses there is need to take certain measures
that help in the conservation of water in the plant by various
morphological, physiological and biochemical processes. On the
other hand where irrigation facilities are available, the crop
is grown during winter ("Rabi") and summer ("zaid") season.
3.1 Agro-climatic conditions of Junagadh
Junagadh is one of nineteen districts of Gujarat State
2
lying in the western-most part. It has an area of 10,607 km
and is situated between 20°-44'N latitude, 60''-40'E latitude
(Fig. 3 ) ' As far as climate is concerned, it has varied climate.
The coastal area enjoys a salubrious climate, the plains are
hot. The cycle of seasons consists of a winter from November
to February followed by a short spring (March/April) being
succeeded by a summer from April to June. The monsoons generally
sets in some time during the second week of June and last till
about the second week of September. A short autumn follows.
It lasts from late September to early November and is followed
by winter. During summer, the average temperature is 32°C, whereas,
the extreme maximum recorded is 4 3.4°C. The mean :temperature:;
for winter is 24°C. The extreme minimum record is 10°C. During
period of the three field trials undertaken, there were about
59 rainy days. The total rainfall was about 341.4 mm during
experimental period. Rainfall occurs only during the rainy seasons.
The meteorological data during the crop growth period are
presented in Tables 1-3.
68' 76' 8A" 92' 1
—~
/-
i. ) s
\
xJunagadhy^
~" \
ARABIAN SEA
1
I 1 1 1 1
V ^
> J ^ CAPITAL O F l INDIA 1
•^ r — " " " ^ ^ " N / \ i » i ^
Al igarh Muslim 1 University A l i g a r h |
' ' DELHl\ f-"""^ ^'
•Aligarh • ' ^ - . . r y "
•" ' - '7-A^
r ") \
National Research Centre for Groundnut Junagadh
1
'v ( BAY OF BENGAL
0 200 400 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
—
r'" r' \
; .
f ' ^ V -f ^ V V ''
V^ —'
(Av7\y —
600 Km H
1 I
-36
- 32'
-28'
-24"
- 20
-12°
- 8
Fig. 1. The map of India showing the location of Junagadh and Aligarh
Table 1. Meteorological data for the "Kharif" 1985 crop, Junagadh
(Gujarat)
Month/ Date
JUNE 2-10
11-17
18-24
25.01
JULY
2-8
9-15
16-22
23-29
30-5
AUGUST
6-12
13-19
20-26
27-2
SEPTEMBER
3-9
10-16
17-23
24-3
OCTOBER
4-14
Rain mm
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
39.5
74.8
30.0
81.5
19.0
18.8
15.0
30.0
4.5
10.0
17.0
0.0
0.0
Rainy days
1
0
0
0
1
5
6
6
6
7
7
6
4
4
5
1
0
0
Sunshine hours
8.6
4.5
4.2
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.9
2.4
1.0
1.7
1.3
2.9
6.6
6.9
5.9
4.2
8.4
10.3
Atmospheric
Maximum
33.6
30.0
31.5
28.7
29.9
30.9
31.1
34.4
33.4
33.5
34.4
34.4
36.9
36.9
34.1
35.4
35.3
34.9
: temp.'C
Minimum
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Relative humidity
%
79.5
75.6
62.0
65.7
71.0
78.8
88.4
83.5
90.5
82.9
90.9
79.2
85.1
78.3
77.5
76.5
69.0
61.0
N.B. Minimum temperature was not recorded
Table 2. Meterological data for the "Rabi" 1985-86 crop, Junagadh
(Gujarat)
Month/ Date
OCTOBER
15-21
22-28
29-4
NOVEMBER
5-11
12-18
19-25
26-2
DECEMBER
3-9
10-16
17.23
24-31
JANUARY
1-7
8-14
15-21
22-29
Rain nun
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Rainy days
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sunshine hours
10.2
9.9
9.8
9.5
9.5
9.4
9.2
9.2
9.6
9.7
9.4
10.3
10.2
10.3
10.1
Atmospheric
Maximum
35.4
34.3
35.2
35.8
35.4
35.1
30.7
28.5
30.5
32.0
30.6
28.3
28.3
27.4
25.3
temp.°C
Minimum
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Relative humidity
Q, O
63.7
64.0
49.8
47.5
42.7
48.8
41.0
38.0
35.0
35.0
34.7
40.5
38.5
41.7
40.0
N.B. Minimum temperature was not recorded.
Table 3. Meteorological data for the "Zaid" 1986 crop, Junagadh
(Gujarat)
Month/ Date
FEBRUARY
1-4
5-11
12-18
19-25
26-4
MARCH
5-11
12-18
19-25
26-1
APRIL
2-8
9-15
16-22
23-29
30-6
MAY
7-13
14-20
21-27
28-3
Rain mm
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Rainy days
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sunshine hours
9.9
10.7
10.6
10.5
9.8
9.7
8.0
8.6
9.1
9.6
7.9
9.3
10.1
10.5
10.4
10.2
6.8
8.6
Atmospheric
Maximum
31.3
32.4
33.7
35.6
39.7
40.1
39.2
39.7
30.7
30.7
30.7
30.9
40.9
38.5
40.7
43.4
38.7
37.6
temp.°C
Minimum
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Relative humidity
%
50.2
34.6
34.7
44.2
32.2
35.2
46.6
60.6
50.2
60.5
64.4
67.0
74.0
65.6
68.5
87.0
80.0
79.5
N.B. Minimum temperature was not recorded
30
3.2 Soil characteristics
Before starting each experiment, soil samples from various
parts of the experimental field were collected at a depth of
about 0-30 cm. These samples were mixed and a composite sample
was prepared and analysed in the soil chemistry laboratory of
the Gujarat Agricultural University Junagadh, for physicochemical
properties. The soil analysis is given in Table 4.
3.3 Field preparation
The field was thoroughly ploughed to ensure maximum soil
aeration before under taking sowing for each experiment.
3-4 Seeds
Authentic seeds of groundnut were obtained from the Gujarat
Seed Corporation, Junagadh. In these studies two varieties were
included
(i) GAUG-1 (G-1) - Small seeded "bunch type" maturing
in 100-110 days
(ii) GAUG-10 (G-10)- Bold seeded"spreading type"maturing
in 125-135 days.
Before sowing, the seeds were treated with thiram @ 3g/kg
seed to control seed rot and seedling diseases.
3.5 Sowing
Standard agricultural practices, required for the
Table 4- Physico-chemical characteristics of surface soil of the
field used for field Experiment 1-3
Characteristics
Experiment
Texture particle size distribution
Sand %
Silt %
Clay %
pH (1:2)
Conductivity E.C. (1:2) (m mhos/cm)
7 0 . 1
12 .5
17.4
8 . 2
0 . 2 1
72 .9
11 .7
15.4
8 . 3
0 .20
79 .0
10 .5
10 .5
8 . 2
0 . 2 1
Available nitrogen (kg N/ha)
265.0 2 6 8 . 3 263.2
Available phosphorus (kg P/ha)
13.0 13.8 12.8
Available potassium (kg K/ha)
188.6 190 .0 185.0
Lime r e s e r v e (%) 40 .0 40 .0 40 .0
31
cultivation of groundnut, were employed. Finally, plots were
prepared to size of 16 sq m and irrigated to maintain proper
moisture content in the sub-surface of the soil. The fertilizer
was broadcast before sowing in each plot according to the scheme
of treatment.
3.6 Irrigation schedule
The crop was kept completly rainfed during "Kharif" season
(June to September). It was irrigated for the winter and summer
experiments based on tentiometer reading (-bar) to maintain
different water stress levels (S). During winter season, crop
was irrigated at -0.3 bar (S^) normal irrigation and -0.6 bar
(S,) stress condition. These irrigations concided with 10-12
days and 20-22 days respectively. During summer season, the crop
was irrigated at three levels of stress S„ (-0.3 bar), S, (-0.6
bar) and S-, (-0.9 bar), whicli corresponded to irrigation at
intervals of 8-10 days, 13-15 days and 10-20 days. 2.5 cm ha
of irrigation water was given each time.
3.7 Experiment 1
This first field experiment was conducted in alfisols
soil during the "Kharif"season of 1985.The.physico-chemical analysis
of the soil is given in Table 4. The crop was completely rainfed.
The experiment was laidout according to factorial randomised block
design. The aim of the experiment was to find out the optimum
Table 5. Summary of treatments applied in field Experiment 1
Treatments Varieties (V) (K) Remarks
kg K/ha GAUG-1 GAUG-10 (V^) (V2)
K„ + + No potassium (control)
K-Q + + 20 kg K/ha
K^Q + + 40 kg K/ha
K,„ + + 60 kg K/ha oU
A uniform basal dose of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha was applied at
the time of sowing.
32
potassium requirement of two groundnut varieties GAUG-1 (G-1)
and GAUG-10 (G-10) under rainfed conditions. The potassium was
applied at the rate of 0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha. In addition,
uniform basal doses of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha were applied to
all plots at the time of sowing. The sources of potassium,nitrogen
and phosphorus were muriate of potash, urea and single super
phosphate respectively. The size of each plot was 16 sq m. Each
treatment was replicated three times. Healthy seeds were sown
in furrows at the rate of 90 kg seed/ha on June 1, 1985. The
distance between plants and between rows was maintained at 10
cm and 30 cm in bunch type and 15 cm and 60 cm in spreading type-
The plants were kept free from weeds. The harvesting was done
at 105 and 125 days for bunch and spreading types respectively.
The performance of the crop was assessed by observing various
parameters mentioned later (p. 35 ). The treatment combinations
are given in Table 5.
3.8 Experiment 2
This second field experiment was also conducted in alfisols
soil during winter ("Rabi") season of 1985-86. The physico-chemical
analysis of the soil is given in Table 4. The experiment was perf
ormed under irrigated conditions at two water stress levels. Crop
was irrigated based on tentiometer readings (-bar) at -0.3 bar
(S„) normal and -0.6 bar (S,) stress conditions. These schedules
of irrigations were followed till harvest.
Table 6. Summary of treatments applied in Experiment 2
Treatments
Variety (V)
GAUG-1 GAUG-10 Remarks
K„S„ + + No potassium (control 1) irrigated at -0.3 bar(normal)
K„S. + + No potassium (control 2) . irrigated at -0.6 bar(stress)
K_„S„ + + 20 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.3 bar (normal)
K_„S, + + 20 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.6 bar (stress)
K.QSQ + + 40 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.3 bar (normal)
K.QS, + + 40 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.6 bar (stress)
K,„S„ + + 60 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.3 bar (normal)
K-„S, + + 60 kg K/ha irrigated at -0.6 bar (stress)
A uniform basal dose of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha was applied at the time of sowing.
S_ = Normal irrigation(irrigation at -0.3 bar)
S = Stress condition (irrigation at -0.6 bar)
33
The aim of the experiment was to establish the optimum
dose of fertiliser potassium for groundnut cv. GAUG-1 and GAUG-10
untier normal and induced drought conditions and also to develop
thfe resistance against drought stress with potassium application.
The performance of the crop was assessed by observing various
parameters as mentioned in Experiment 1. In a factorial randomised
blocJc design, commercial grade muriate of potash, urea and single
superphosphate were applied to the soil. Potassium was applied
at the rate of 0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha. In addition, a uniform
basal dose of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha was applied to all the plots.
Plot size was kept the same as in Experiment 1 (16 sq m). Each
treatment was replicated thrice.
Healthy seeds were sown in furrows at the rate of 90 kg/ha
on October 15, 1985. The distance between plants and between rows
maintained at 10 cm and 30 cm in bunch and 15 cm and 60 cm in
spreading type respectively. The plants were kept free from weeds.
Harvesting was done at 135 days after sowing. The treatment
combinations are given in Table 6.
3.9 Experiment 3
This experiment was carried out during summer ("zaid")
season of 1986. In this study, only one variety GAUG-1 (bunch
type) was taken as spreading variety GAUG-10 mature late and spoil
in the field due to early onset of monsoon. The physico-chemical
characteristics of the soil are given in the Table 4. The aim
of this trial was to investigate the effect of different potassium
Table 7. Summary of treatments applied in Experiment 3
Stress(S) levels Treatments Remarks
(K) SQ S^ S2 kg K/ha
K^ + + + 0 kg K/ha No potassium (control)
K-Q + + + 20 kg K/ha
K.Q + + + 40 kg K/ha
A uniform basal dose of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha was applied at the time of sowing.
S„ = Normal irrigation (Irrigation at -0.3 bar)
S, = Stress I (Irrigation at -0.6 bar)
S_ = Stress II(Irrigation at -0.9 bar)
34
levels in developing tolerance in groundnut against drought stress
during summer season. The design of the experiment was factorial
randomised. Potassium was applied at the rate of 0, 20 and 40
kg K/ha. A uniform basal dose of 12 kg N and 10 kg P/ha was also
applied to the soil. The sources of potassium, nitrogen and
phosphorus were muriate of potash, urea and single superphosphate
respectively. Water stress was created by irrigating the crop
at different intervals. Crop was irrigated at S„ level (-0.3 bar)
normal, S- (-.06 bar) stress-I, and S_ (-0.9 bar) stress-II, based
on tentiometer readings which corresponded to irrigation at
intervals of 7-11 days, 13-16 days and 17-21 days. 2.5 cm ha of
irrigation water was given each time.
Healthy seeds were sown in furrows at the rate of 90 kg
seed/ha on February 1, 1986. The distance between plants and rows
was maintained 10 and 30 cm respectively. The size of the
experimental plot was 16 sq m. The harvesting was done at 110
days. In all^ there were nine treatments with three replications.
The treatment combination was given in Table 7. The other
agricultural practices were same as in Experiments 1 and 2. The
parameters studied were same as in Experiment 1.
3.10 Soil moisture tension
The soil moisture percentage was determined by drying the
soil at 105°C. These values were fitted in the curve developed
by Padalia (1979). For the soils of the present experimental field
using a pressure plate membrane apparatus to work out soil moisture
Table 8. Soil'moisture tension (-bar) of the soils of Experiments
1-3 measured at six stages of crop growth
Table 8.1:" ( "Kharif" 1985)
Growth stage Soil moisture tension (-bar)
Vegetative 15.0
Flowering 16.5
Pegging 10.5
Pod development 10.0
Maturity 12.1
Harvest 12.0
Table 8.2: ("Rabi" 1985-86
Soil moisture tension (-bar) Growth stage
Normal (S„)irrigation Stress(S^)condition
Vegetative 10.0 10.0
Flowering 12.0 14.0
Pegging 14.0 15.0
Pod development 15.5 16.5
Maturity 17.0 18.0
Harvest 17.3 18.4
Table 8.3: ("Zaid" 1986)
Growth stage
Vegetative
Flowering
Pegging
Pod development
Maturity
Harvest
Normal irrigation (SQ)
11.1
13.0
14.1
16.5
16.6
16.9
Soil moisture
Low stress
(S^)
11.0
14.0
15.1
• 16.5
17.5
17.8
tension (-bar)
High stress
(S^)
11.5
,15.0
16.0
17.9
18.0
18.0
Table 9. Solar and photosynthetic active radiation during three
seasonsof crop growth
Season Genotype SI PAR
Kharif
Bunch
Spreading
577920x10
626080x10
240408x10
260442x10
Rabi
Zaid
Bunch
Spreading
Bunch
1104610x10
1189580x10'
529760x10^^
4 432501x10
465770x10
220374x10
35
tension. These values were expressed in -bars. The soil moisture
tensions were recorded at different stages of growth till the
maturity of the crop. The values were presented in Table 8
("Kharif", 8.1, "Rabi", 8.2, "Zaid", 8.3).
3.11 Samling technique
To study growth and development random samples of five
plants were collected from each plot at 30, 60 and 90 days of
growth (DAS). Yield characteristics were noted at harvest. Plant
samples were washed first for 1 min with tap water followed by
1 min in distilled water.
3.12 Parameters studied
To study the effect of potassium and water stress on
groundnut, the following parameters were selected:
I Growth characteristics
(i) Height/plant (cm)
(ii ) Leaf number/plant
2 (iix) Area/leaflet (cm )
(iv) Dry weight/plant (g)
II Physiological characteristics
(i) Stomatal resistance (S cm )
-2 -1 (ii) Transpiration rate (>jg cm S )
(iii) Relative water content of leaves (%)
(iv) Solar radiation interception (SI and PAR)
36
III Biochemical characteristics
(i) Nitrate reductase activity of leaves (;jMNO~/g/h)
(ii) Proline content of leaves (;ug/g)
(iii) Chlorophyll content of leaves (mg/g)
(iv) N content of leaves (%)
(v) P content of leaves (%)
(vi) K content of leaves {%)
(vii) Protein content of seeds (%)
(viii) Oil content of seeds ( % )"
IV Yield characteristics
(i) Mature pod number/plant
(ii) Immature pod number/plant
(iii) Mature/Immature pod ratio
(iv) 100 seed weight (g)
(v) Shelling per cent
(vi) Pod yieltl (q/ha)
(vii) Biological yield (q/ha)
(viii) Harvest index
V Energy conservation
(i) Energy content (cal/g)
(ii) Energy partitioning and energy harvesting efficiency
The details of each set of parameters are given
below:
37
3.12.1 Growth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
3.12.1.1 Height/plant (cm)
Plant height was measured from the base to the tip of
the uppermost leaf let at 30, 60 and 90 days after sowing (DAS).
3.12.1.2 Leaf number/plant
Total number of leaves was counted at 30, 60 and 90 DAS.
2 3.12.1.3 Area/leaf let (cm )
Leaf area was measured by using LI- 3100 AREA METER. The
area of single leaflet was obtained by adding the readings for
individual leaflet of five random plants from each replicate
at 30, 60 and 90 DAS.
3.12.1.4 Dry weight/plant (g)
The total dry weight of each cultivar was the cumulative
effect of biomass production by leaf, stem, petiole, root, peg
and pod and was computed accordingly at 30, 60 and 90 DAS and
biological yield at harvest.
3.12.2. Physiological characteristics
3.12.2.1 Stomatal resistance and transpiration rate
Stomatal resistance and transpiration rate were measured
by using LI-1600 Steady State Porometer at 30 and 60 DAS.
38
3.12-2.2 Relative water content
Relative water content was determined at 30, 60 and 90
DAS by the method of Barras and Weatherly (1962). Turgid weight
was measured by soaking leaf discs in petridishes containing
water for 3 h and calculated by using the following formula:
w^ - w, RWC = 1 ^ QQ
^t - ^d
where, w^ = fresh weight, w, = Oven dried weight
w. = Fully turgid weight
3.12.3 Biochemical characteristics
3.12.3.1 Nitrate reductase activity
Nitrate reductase (E.G. 1.9.6.1) was estimated by the
intact tissue assay method of Jaworski (1971), which is based
on the reduction of nitrate to nitrite. This nitrate was deter
mined colorimetrically by the Griess Illosvay method (Snell and
Snell, 1949). To maintain uniformity the second fully expanded
leaves were sampled. The following reagents were used.
Reagents
A. 0.1 M Phosphate buffer; This buffer was prepared by weighing
27.2 g KH2PO. and 45.63 g K2HPO^,7H20 and dissolving each
separately in 1 litre distilled water, and 16 ml of the
KH_PO. solution and 84 ml of the K2HP0^ solution were then
mixed and diluted to 200 ml with distilled water.
B. 0.2 M KNO-, solution; This was made by dissolving 20.2 g
potassium nitrate in one litre of water.
39
C. 5% Isopropanol solution; 5 ml isopropanol was added to
distilled water to make 100 ml of solution.
D- 0.5% Chloramphenicol: 50 mg chloramphenicol was dissolved
in a little quantity of distilled water and the final volume
made upto 100 ml with distilled water.
E. 1% sulphanilamide in 3N HCl: 1 g sulphanilamide was dissolved
in 3N HCl (1 ml HCl + 4 ml water).
F. 0.02% N-1 Napthyl ethylene diamine di-hydrochloride: 20 mg
N-1 Naphthyl ethylene diamine di-hydrochloride was dissolved
in water and the final volume made upto 100 ml.
Procedure
250 mg of leaf punches were suspended in screw capped
vials containing 2.5 ml of A, 0.5 ml of B, 2.5 ml of C, and 2
drops of D. After sealing the vials were incubated at 30°C in
the dark for about 2 hours. NRA in the medium was determined
by taking 0.4 ml incubated solution and 0.3 ml each of reagents
E and F. After 20 min, the solution was diluted with 4 ml of
water to make the volume upto 5 ml and its optical density measured
at 540 nm using spectronic-21. If nitrate concentration of the
solution was found to be too high, it was diluted further with
distilled water as required.
A standard curve was plotted by taking various concentra
tion of potassium nitrite, the optical density of the samples
were compared with this calibrated curve and NRA expressed as
;amol NO~/h/g/leaf fresh weight.
40
3.12.3.2 Proline content:
Proline content was determined in second fully expanded
leaves according to the method of Bates et ^ . (1973). The follo
wing reagents were used:
Reagents
Acid ninhydrin: This was prepared by warming 1.25 g ninhydrin
in 30 ml glacial acetic acid and 20 ml 6M orthophosphoric acid
(407ml/l) with agitation until dissolved. It was stored at 4°C,
being stable for 24 h.
Procedure :
(1) 200 mg plant material was homogenised in 10 ml of 3%
sulphosalicylic acid and the homogenate was filtered.
(2) 5 ml filtrate was reacted with 2 ml acid ninhydrin and
2 ml glacial acetic acid in a test tube for 1 hour at 100°C
in a water-bath and the reaction was terminated in ice-box.
(3) The reaction mixture was extracted in 5-10 ml or more of
toluene after mixing vigorously with a test tube stirrer
for 15-20 sec.
(4) The chromatophore containing toluene was aspirated from
the aqueous phase and its absorbance was noted at 520 nm
at room temperature, using comparable quantities of toluene
plus reagents without the sample for blank.
(5) The proline concentration was determined from a standard
41 curve prepared by taking graded concentrations of proline
and it was calculated on fresh weight basis in leaves.
3-12.3.3 Estimation of chlorophyll:
For estimation of chlorophyll in leaves of 30, 60 and
90 days old plants, the method of Arnon (1949) was followed:
Procedure
100 mg of freshly cut leaf material from the uppermost
3 leaf blades was ground in a mortar and pestle with 80% acetone.
The extract was filtered through whatman No 1 filter paper. The
Washing of the extract was done using 80% acetone. The
solution was made upto 50 ml optical density was read
at 645 and 663 nm in a spectrophotometer (spectronic-21) . The
amount of total chlorophyll was calculated using the following
formula. Total chlorophyll = 20.2 x (D645) + 8.02 (D663) mg Chl/1
where D represents the optical density reading. The chlorophyll
content was finally expressed as mg chlorophyll/g fresh weight.
3.12.4. Leaf analysis
Leaves were analysed at three stages of growth i.e. 30,
60 and 90 DAS for assessing the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
status of the plants (Lundegardh, 1951).
Five plants were collected from each plot and were wiped
free of any adhering dust. Samples were first washed in tap water
for 1 min followed by 1 min in distilled water. Each sample was
dried for 24h in an oven at 80°C. Fully mature and expgmded leaves
were detached from shoots, finally powdered and passed through
42
a 72 mesh screen. The powder was stored in polyethylene bags,
labelled and used for analysis later. The leaf powder was digested
for N, P and K contents by the method of Lindner (1944) that
is briefly described below:
100 mg of the dried leaf powder of each sample was weighed
and carefully transferred to a 50 ml Kjeldahl flask. It was wetashed
in 2 ml of chemically pure sulphuric acid. To allow for complete
reduction of nitrates present in the plant material by the organic
matter itself, digestion was continued for about 2h. Dense fumes
were given off at this stage and the contents turned black. The
flask was cooled for 15 min. After cooling, 0.5 ml of chemically
pure 30 per cent hydrogen peroxide was added dropwise and the
solution was heated again till its colour changed from black
to light yellow. After heating for about 30 min the flask was
kept for cooling for 10 min. To get the extract clear and colour
less, three or four drops of hydrogen peroxide were added followed
by gentle heating for about 10 min. Care was taken in the addition
of hydrogen peroxide because its excess might oxidise the ammonia
in the absence of organic matter. The digested peroxide material
was diluted with double distilled water. Suitable aliquots, for
determining nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, were taken from
these sulphuric acid-peroxide digested samples. The method employed
for the estimation of these elements are briefly described below:
3.12.4.1 Nitrogen content
The nitrogen content of the sample was estimated according
43
to Lindner (1944). A 10 ml aliquot of the peroxide digested
material was taken in a 50 ml volumetric flask and the excess
of acid partially neutralised with 2 ml of 2.5N sodium hydroxide.
To this, .1 ml of 10 per cent sodium silicate was added to prevent
turbidity. After making up the volume, 5 ml aliquot of this
solution was taken in a 10 ml graduated test tube and 0.5 ml
of Nessler's reagent was added drop by drop, shaking thoroughly
after the addition of each drop. Distilled water was added to
make the volume upto 10 ml and the contents were allowed to stand
for 5 min for maximum colour development. The solution was then
-transferred to a colorimetric tube and its optical density measured
at 525 nm using a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic Colorimeter. A blank
was run with each set of determinations. The amount of nitrogen
in the aliquot was read from a calibration curve, obtained by
using known dilutions of a standard ammonium sulphate solution,
which followed Beer's law.
3.12.4.2 Phosphorus content
Total phosphorus in the sulphuric acid-peroxide digest
was estimated by the method of Fiske and Subba Row (1925). A
5 ml aliquot was taken in a 10 ml graduated tube and 1 ml molybdic
acid (2.5 per cent ammonium molybdate in ION H_SO. ) was added
with care, followed by 0.4 ml of l-amino-2-naphthol-4-sulphoDic
acid. The colour turned to blue. Distilled water was then added
to the blue solution to make the voluine upto 10 ml. The solution
was shaken thoroughly, kept to stand for 5 min and then transferred
44
to a colorimetric tube. The optical density was read at 620 nm
on a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic Colorimeter. A blank was run
for each determination. The standard curve was prepared by using
known concentration of monobasic potassium sulphate solution.
3-12.4.3 Potassium
Potassium was estimated flame photometrically. A 10 ml
aliquot was taken and it was read by using potassium filter.
A blank was run side by side. The readings were compared with
a calibration curve plotted for different dilutions of a standard
potassium sulphate solution.
3.12.5 Yield and quality characteristics
In all experiments (1-3) plants were allowed to grow to
maturity. The following yield characteristics were studied for
yield assessment at the time of harvest when the majority of
pods had matured. The yield for each replicate was recorded and
mean taken to obtain yield per plot. The pods were shelled by
hand and the seeds were separated into fully filled (mature)
and shrivelled (immature) sedds, counted and weighed.
(1) Mature pods/plant
(2) Immature pods/plant
(3) Mature/Immature pod ratio
(4) Shelling per cent
(5) 100 seed weight
45
(6) Pod yield (q/ha)
(7) Biological yield (q/ha)
(8) Harvest index
(9) Protein (%)
(10) Oil (%)
3.12.6 Seed analysis for protein and oil content
3.12.6.1 Protein content
Seeds were analysed to assess their total nitrogen content.
The total protein content was obtained by multiplying the nitrogen
content with 5.46 which is the protein factor (Jones 1931).
3.12.6.2 Oil content
Seeds were analysed to assess their oil content. The seeds
were extracted with petroleum ether (40-60°C) and estimated
gravimetrically (Nicholas, 1968).
Procedure
Extraction; 10 grams of the seed were powdred and transferred
to a thimble tube. The lipids were extracted using a Soxhlet
apparatus at 50-60°C temperature for 8-lOh till all the oil was
extracted from the groundnut powder. After the complete evaporation
of petroleum ether, the lipid or oil extracted was immediately
used for further study.
46
Total oil content
The amount of oil present in the tissue were determined
gravimetrically. The oil extract was taken in pre-weighed porcelain
crucible and dried in a vaccum oven at 35-40°C to a constant
weight and oil content was expressed on per cent basis.
3.13 Energy conservation/Energy harvesting efficiency
In all Experiment (1-3) samples were taken at harvest
for energy estimation, washed first for 1 min with tap water
followed by 1 min in . distilled water and separated into leaf,
stem, root, shell and seed. These were dried in an oven. Each
plant part was finally powdered and subjected to energy estimation.
Dried powdered samples were pressed into pellets. The combustible
value of each part of the plant, in term of energy, was determined BOMB
in triplicate samples with the help of PAR OXYGEN /CALORIMETER.
The energy values were expressed as cal/g dry matter (Dwivedi,
1975a,b). To determine energy conservation, the energy values
of different parts were multiplied by total dry matter of respec
tive part. For simplicity all the recorded values of solar
-2 radiation interception(SI) in the form of WM and photosynthe-
-2 tically active radiation (PAR) in the form of EM for a period
of crop growth were converted into Kcal/ha. The energy conserving
efficiency was calculated on total PAR and SI basis. The energy
conserved by the plant was divided by PAR and or SI and the results
47
were m u l t i p l i e d by 100 to get energy h a r v e s t i n g e f f i c i e n c y . Thus,
Energy h a r v e s t i n g e f f i c i e n c y % = Energy conserved by plant(area/tiine)^ ^00 • ^ ^ Solar radxation (area/txme)
3.13.1 Solar radiation interception (SI and PAR)
Total solar irradiation (SI) and integrated photosynthe-
tically active solar radiation (PAR) for a day and thereby for
the whole growth period were measured with the help of LICOR
SOLAR MONITOR {Spectroradiometer). The observations were recorded
from early seedling stage till maturity of the crop (Table 9).
3.14 Statistical analysis
All the data were analysed statistically according to the
design of each experiment (Panse and Sukhatme, 1967; Sundararaj
et al. 1972). The most rigorous 'F' tests were followed in which
the error due to replicates was also determined. When 'F' value
was found to be significant at the 5 per cent level of probability
critical difference (CD.) which is more accurate than standard
deviation (S.D.) was also calculated. The models of the analysis
of variance (ANOVA) for each of the experimental design are given
below:
48
Models of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Experiment 1 (Factorial randomised block design)
Variations df S.S, M.S.S. F Value Sig.
Replications 2
Potassium(K) levels 3
Variety (V) 1
K X V 3
Error 14
Total 23
Experiment 2 (Factorial randomised block design)
Variations df S.S. M.S.S, F Value Sig.
Replication 2
Potassium (K) levels 3
Variety (V)
Stress (S)
K X S
K x V
S x V
K X S x V
Error
Total
levels
1
1
3
3
1
3
30
47
49
Experiment 3 (Factorial randomised block design)
Variations df S.S. M.S.S. F Value Sig,
Replications 2
Potassium (K) levels 2
Stress (S) levels 2
K X S 4
Error 16
Total 26
CHAPTER - 4
RESULTS
CONTENTS
PAGE
0.0 Experiment 1
4.1 Growth characteristics
4.1.5 Physiological characteristics
4.1.6 Yield and quality characteristics
4.1.7 Energy harvesting efficiency
0.0 Experiment 2
4.2 Growth characteristics
4.2.5 Physiological characteristics
4.2.6 Yield and quality characteristics
4.2.7 Energy harvesting efficiency
0.0 Experiment 3
4.3 Growth characteristics
4.3.5 Physiological characteristics
4.3.6 Yield characteristics
4.3.7 Energy harvesting efficiency
50
50
52
57
62
63
63
66
73
80
82
82
84
90
94
CHAPTER - 4
RESULTS
Experiment'1
In this experiment, the effect of four doses of basal
potassium (0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha) was studied, using two
cultivars of Arachis hypogaea L. , bunch and spreading type (G-1
and G-10) during rainy ("Kharif") season. The data are described
below and are summarised in Tables 10-27.
4.1 Growth characteristics
Four growth parameters namely plant height, leaf number,
leaf area and total dry weight were noted at 30, 60 and 90 days(d)
growth stages of the crop. Most of the growth attributes were
noted to be significantly affected by potassium application.
Varietal differences were also significant as were the potassium x
variety interaction effects on most attributes of growth at three
stages. The more noteworthy of these significant results are
briefly discussed below separately.
4.1.1 Height/plant
The effect of potassium treatment on height/plant was
non-significant at all the stages of growth. Varietal differences
were, however, significant (Table 10). A gradual increase in
plant height was noted from 30 to 90d of plant age. At early
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51
growth stage^ G-10 had 27.5% higher height than G-1. However,
at the later two stages 6.2 and 19.3% higher plant height was
recorded in bunch genotype (G-1) as compared to that of G-10
(Spreading type).
4.1.2 Leaf number/plant
Like plant height, varieties showed significant differences
with regard to leaf production, G-10 out producing G-1 by 18.7,
22.5 and 53.3% at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively (Table 11)
A progressive increase in the number of leaves per plant was
recorded from 30 to 60d of plant age. On comparing the mean values,
26% decrease in leaves was noticed at 90d of growth stage as
compared to 60d of plant age-
4.1.3 Area/leaflet
The effect of potassium as well as of its interaction
(potassium x variety) on leaf area was significant at all the
stages of growth (Table 12). A gradual increase in leaf area
was recorded from 30 to 90d of plant growth. As far as varietal
differences were concerned, G-1 had greater leaf area than G-10
at all the stages of growth. Comparing the means of potassium,
K,_ gave the maximum leaf area and was at par with K.„. Treatment
K„ produced minimum leaf area at all the growth stages. K_„ proved
optimum for bunch variety and .K,„ for spreading type, these values
were critically different from that of control (K Q ) .
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4.1-4 Dry weight/plant
The effect of potassium treatment and of the interaction
(KxV) was. found significant at all the stages of growth (Table 13)
All the treatments showed a significant increase in dry weight
over control (K^) . On an average,treatment K showed the highest
increase over control. However, the effect of K.^ and K-Q was
also noticeable at 30d of plant age. At 60 and 90d growth stage,
the values recorded for treatment K. „ were significantly higher
than those for the other treatment:.. With regard to the interaction
effect at 30d of growth, K,„ x G-10 gave the maximum value and
was at par with K.^ x G-1, K.Q x G-10, K^Q X G-1 and K,Q X G-1.
The interactions K_ x G-l and K„ x G-IO had the lowest values.
At 60 and 90d of plant age, the spreading genotype (G-10) responded
best to K.„ while K„ x G-10 showed the lowest value. The bunch
genotype (G-1) gave the highest value while interacting with
K^„ which was statistically at par with its response to K,Q and
K.„. Similar results were noted at 90d of plant growth.
4.1.5 Physiological characteristics
Like the effect noted on selected growth attributes, most
of the physiological characteristics studied were found to be
affected significantly by potassium application and KxV interac
tion. The more noteworthy of these data are briefly considered
in the following paragraphs separately.
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53
4.1.5.1 Stomatal resistance
Stomatal resistance was significantly affected by potassium
application at vegetative growth stage only (30d). Varietal
differences were significant at vegetative and maturity stages
(Table 14). Spreading genotype (G-10) and higher stomatal resis
tance than G-1. On an average, potassium level K.„ gave the higher
stomatal resistance over control (K-). However, varieties differed
significantly in their response to different potassium levels.
The stomatal resistance increases in order K^ ^4n "> ^60^ 20
in case of bunch type whereas the effect on spreading genotype
was different and it significantly performed better with K.„
(K^Q X G-10).
4.1.5.2 Transpiration rate
It is evident from Table 15 that the transpiration rate
decreased due to potassium application by more than 50% in both
the varieties. However, the decline was higher in G-10 as compared
to G-1. The interaction (potassium x variety) depicted minimal
transpiration rate at K-Q in G-1 genotype whereas in case of
G-10, the lowest value was recorded at K.„. These interaction
effects was significant only at early stage of crop growth, when
increasing interval between rainy days increased. However, the
plots receiving potassium showed less rise in transpiration
compared to the no-potassium control (K„). Variety G-10 responded
to K more than G-1. Under such situation K-, and K were found
superior than the other levels of K in G-1 and G-10 respectively.
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4.1.5.3 Relative water content
In general, potassium application favourably affected
the relative water content (RWC) at 30 and 90d of growth stage
(Table 16).
Potassium response was significant at all the levels,
on an average it increased RWC by 19% at 30d of growth and 9%
at later stage of growth (90d). Varietal differences at 30 and
90d of growth were found significant. G-10 had 3.5% higher RWC
than G-latthe later stage. The potassium x variety interaction
values indicated that spreading and bunch varieties had different
potassium optima. The highest relative water content in both
genotypes were recorded at 60d of growth. 30 days of plant age
showed the minimum relative water content.
4^1.5^4 Nitrate reductase activity
It is evident from Table 17 that application of potassium
increased the nitrate reductase activity (NRA) in leaves at all
the stages of growth and the values differing significantly from
that of the control (K„). Growth stage also affected the enzyme
activity. At 30 and 60 days of plant age 37.17 and 13.7% increase
was observed respectively. However, the activity declined at
90d of plant growth by 73.6%. Pertaining to varieties, G-10 showed
maximum nitrate reductase activity than G-1 at all the stages
of growth. On an average potassium (K.^) increased the NHA by
30, 18.8 and 37.4% at 30, 60 and 90 days of plant growth
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l-l QJ 4-1 4-1 (0
cn > i ra
Q
o
O
O
QJ • H
03 >
QJ • H
(0 >
QJ • H
VH (0 >
4_) -^ C (C3 QJ E -p (C3 Q)
x; • - ^
^
cn M - i - ;
c fO QJ 2
I ej
I C5 D < CJ
c (0 QJ 2
I
a D <
I
< CJ
c 0) 2
I
<
CJ
H —
CX)
i n
o •
00
vo o
n
CN in
i n
o in
n in
rsi in
i n 00 i n
o
CN
o o
00 on
o
o
o •
Q
U
00
X)
o
00
(N in
« * r -
CN 00
i n
X) X)
X5 i n
X)
X3 i n
t«i
o CN
i-i ^^
o (N
O • ^
Ui '*-'
o •<T
o XI
^ ^ • ^
o x>
c ITJ QJ 2
<A0 in
(N
o (N O o
o\o in
Q
cJ
X)
o o o
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(0
Q
U
in o o o
y ;
> X
55
respectively. Potassium x variety interaction was found signi
ficant. Spreading genotype (G-10) responded significantly at K.^.
The NRA at this level was found to be higher than K"„ x G-10.
The bunch genotype (G-1) showed maximum activity at Kp„ which
was at par with that at K.„ and K^- level.
40 50
4.1.5-5 Proline content
The effect of potassium application on proline content
was found significant at all the stages of growth (Table 18).
Significantly higher proline content was recorded at 30d of plant
age. Minimum proline accumulation was noted at 60d of growth.
In general, potassium application enhanced the proline content
by 45, 71.2 and 24% over control at 30, 60 and 90d of plant growth
respectively. Potassium x variety interaction was found significant.
K,_ x G-10 had the maximum proline content and was at par with
K._ X G-10. K„ X G-1 gave the lowest value. The variety G-1 gave
the maximum value at K_„ at 60 and 90d of growth and was at par with K.„ and K,„ levels. G-10 exhibited 20, 28 and 54% higher 40 60 • z)
accumulation of proline than G-1 at 30, 60 and 90 day of growth
respectively. When the gap between two rains increased, a rise
in proline content was noted (Table 1).
4.1.5.6 Chlorophyll content
The effect of potassium levels, varieties and their interac
tion on chlorophyll content was found significant at all the
the stages of growth. In general, maximum chlorophyll content
OJ T3 QJ 0) U ^ xi A->
4 J n3
— -p £1 en
•H (U S
c •H ro U
U 0'
T l n n
4-1
fO
CD O
• ^ - ' ^
c J (U
4-1 ID
C (U 0 IB CJ tjl
o 0) OJ C > i
• H x : H O tn M -H ftx:
o C (0 O M
< E a
•H m 03 0
(0
f^ (D
^ • H S -tJ tn ^
—-cn 0)
+ j
nj u
•H r H
a <a u
(U OJ u x: - M
4-1
0
C
OJ 2
O) c
• H
s 0 tn
U Q) +J m (0
cn > i
(0 Q
(0
u CW
cn
> ° tu _
H J^ • p
n s n p n H ^ Ui
m 4-1 0 U
•M cn u cu
c. 0
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cu crna <+-i CO t-l 4-1 pq cn
C 0 u
CO
(0
o >1 4-1 0)
•H M (0 >
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>
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4-1
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^ C71 ^
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cn t~-m
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CJ D < O
v£) ( •^S"
CN
[ ^
cn
f ^
• < *
CO CN
CN
"*
i n r-\
r • ^
(Tl
cn
CTl C^
t^ (N
O 0 0 rH
O in
(N rH CM
O
'^ CO in CN
<Ti O
cn 143 CN
iX)
in
CO CN CM
CN 1 ^
•<* <H
<-\
CO r H
r~~ o CM
0 0 cn
r H
o CN
cn ( N
oo o r\i
in ro
o (Tl i H
^ o
« • — •
o
o ( N
« '—' o CN
o T
u: — o •
o •X)
u^ ^—
o VD
C
CU 2
o\o in
4-J
(0
•
U
cn
• CN
CN
• r H
'* • ^
• cn
o\o
in
4-1
(D
• u u
cn in
• (N
CTl [ ^
• i H
0 0 in
•
cn
OP
in
4 J
(0
• Q •
U
f N
143
• r^
oo m
• i n
t^ i ^
• o i-H
«
>
56
was recorded at 60d of growth. A significant depression in
chlorophyll content was noted at 90d of plant age (Table 19).
On an average, potassium level K.„ exhibited 38.2 and
40% increase at 30 and 60d of growth respectively. At 90d, highest
increase was noted at K,„ level. It was 20% more than in K„ but 60 0
the effect was at par with that of K.„. On comparing the varietal
means,it was found that G-10 showed significantly higher chloro
phyll content than G-1 at all the stages of growth. When the
interaction effect (potassium x variety) was compared it was
noted that G-10 had maximum chlorophyll content at K.„ at 30
and 60d of growth and the values were at par with that of K,„ x
G-10, whereas at 90d plant age, K,„ x G-10 had the maximum
chlorophyll content, but it was at par with K.„ x G-10.
4.1.5.7 Nitrogen content
The effect of potassium treatment as well as the performance
of the varieties and the interaction effect of the two on the
concentration of nitrogen in leaf was significant at all stages
of growth. A gradual decrease in the nitrogen content was noted
from 30 to 90d of growth. Potassium application (K- ,) gave an
increase of 26.4, 17.5 and 27.2% at 30, 60 and 90d respectively
compared to K„, the control. The values for most of the
treatments differed markedly with that of the control. The intera
ction (potassium x variety) effect was noted to be significant
and the values recorded for most of the combinations differed
from K„ X G-1. In spreading genotype the effect of K-^ x G-10
and K_xG-10 was almost equal at each growth stage and differed
significantly from other combinations (Table 20).
—• u -P <U sz ts en c •H 3 dj
? -d
£ 0) M +J Q) (0 n >
U-l - H +J
U l H ^ 3 tJI O
E "—'
• ^ J C <U (0 t l (D C (0 O Cn " 0
, ft : j > T* -C >1
" ^ tfl a . H 0 2
"^ u u ^
-P '-' 0 4-J
CD
0 J >
tn ? CO U to
+ j o 0 ft S
4-J H (0 W tW (0 0 X!
x: m -M o s
0 tn M
rH a i OJ > IW <U 0 H
Cfl U QJ n cn O (0 m -p
Cfl 4-1 0 0)
(U 4J M
o x: (U -P
I p IP -p W (0
c o
•ri -p • H 13 C 0 CJ
-a cu
4-1
c •H (0 M
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Cfl (U •p (0 u •H H ft QJ
(U M x: - p
4^ o c (U cu 2
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m c OJ O D l - H nj 4-> -P -H m TJ
c <U 0 (U U M J5 XJ -P Q)
4-( 4J C (0 •'^
(0 ^ M dp ^ M
QJ
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c ^ cu 'H
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• H 03 to -H tn x: (0 U +-1 (D 0 U a< H m ft3 0 tn 13 „ ^ c n , 13 V. > O - H
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x: -
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o i n
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c 13 QJ 2
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<
C 13 (U 2
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D <
I o D
(N
CO
CN
as
fN
U3
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in 00
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in (N 00
00
CN
in
CN CN
in o>
cn in
vo
CN
vo vo
CN
o CO
CN
CN
VO
(N CN rsi CN CN
1
l-J < o
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CM
r vo
CN
r~ vo
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m vo
CN
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<J1
CN m
vo CN
f
vo
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n
t^ 00
o\o i n
+ j 13
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o\o
in
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13
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"a* rH
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o i H
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rH CN
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vo in
n
00
n n
CN >-H VO vo
m n
00
cn
CN n cn m n
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1^ » — -
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13 QJ
s
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>
57
4.1.5.8 Phosphorus content
The effect of applied potassium as well as of their intera
ction (KxV) on phosphorus content of leaves at all stages was
non-significant. However, varietal difference was significant.
G-10 had higher phosphorus content than G-1 at all the stages
of growth (Table 21).
4.1-5.9 Potassium content
The effect of potassium application as well as that of
treatment x variety interaction on leaf potassium content was
found significant at all growth stages (Table 22). Treatments
recorded significantly higher K values in leaves than the control
at the three stages. In general, at all the stages in both
genotypes, K,_ (at par with K.„) showed maximum significant effect.
With regard to varietal differences both varietis showed signi-
fincant differences at 30 days of growth. K content in the plant
was found to rise when the gap between two rainfall increased.
The KxV interactions were also found significant at all the stages
of growth.
4.1.6 Yield characteristics
The ameliorating effect of potassium application, varietal
differences and KxV effect on the morpho-physiological
characteristics of groundnut was conspicuously reflected in the
yield and quality attributes of the crop. Thus, were noted to
be affected significantly. These effects are considered separately
below:
(D D1 (D 4-1
cn
c
C
C '0
+J c o
c CO
•a 0)
C O
E
(a (U TO Ol o a ><
CO - C w „ la to
o ^ (0
1^ <
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^
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to >
CO H +J (U H > P (U U
H o
si 4^ r.
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W O
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0)
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(D U
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0) 0)
u
H-t
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s
o en
Di c
• H
o (0
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n3
en (0 Q
O
o n
• H M 03
>
+-> 0)
• H ^1 03 >
- P QJ
• H
u 03 >
-p
c 0)
e p 03 OJ U
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x: ~ ^
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r-in
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VO CD
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in in
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r in
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03 > i 10 Q
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> < «
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C (0 OJ
s
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1
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r H
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o
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(0 >
C rtJ Q> Si e • - -• p fcij
0) cn
EH —
c ro OJ
s
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• o
m t—
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r-r-
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1
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in yD
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<T> r
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(Ti
r
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r ^
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c ro 0) S
(M [ ^
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C\ •
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CO CJ O o 00
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00 00 00 CO
o
—~ o
Ui '~'
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« • " ^
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« ^^ O •^
O VO
i< *—
o VD
C
0)
s
in
-p (0
u
o
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cn 2
CN
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•p m
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u
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2
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in
4-1 10
Q
u
CN O O
o o
o
Ui
>
58
4.1-6.1 Mature pod number
Average number of mature pods produced per plant was signi
ficantly increased by the application of potassium treatment
(Table 23). On an average, treatment K.^ gave the highest number
of mature pods (36.4% higher than K„) . This treatment was at
par in its effect with K,^ but differed critically from K_„.
It may be mentioned that at K.„ the spreading genotype (G-10)
had the maximum mature pods and was at par with K,^. In bunch
genotype (G-1) K_„ gave the maximum mature pods.
4.1.6.2 Immature pod number
The potassium treated plots produced less immature pods
compared with control K„ (Table 23). The lowest number of immature
pods was noted in the treatment K.„ which showed 43.7% decrease
compared with control (Kf>). The spreading genotype (G-10) gave
significantly higher number of immature pods than G-1. Thus G-10
had 70.8% more immature pods compared with G-1. As far as the
interaction effect was concerned, the treatment K_„ x G-1 gave
the minimum number of immature pods and was at par with K.„ x
G-^ and K,„ x G-1. In the spreading genotype (G-10) the minimum
was noted at K.„ which was at par with K,„. 4 U oU
4.1.6.3 Mature/immature pod ratio
Potassium treatment resulted in higher ratio of mature/
immature pods as compared to control (Table 23). In general, the
<U T3 U (D
•P C (D -H E (0
0)
E ^3
T3 <1> c •*-' (D (0
> M -H OJ +J ^ ^, F H D U C
T3 J 0 O-fO
• H t M
dJ ' H M -C n u
4J (0 ID M F < C iw 0 O
^ 2 •H ^ fn '^
(0 n
*-** (/I 0) -p (0 u •H H a OJ <
(U 0) M
£1 -p
m 0
c 10 <u 2 — +J
a n3 en 10 X)
4-1
o (n
rH (1) > a) H
M D 0
H-<
<« 0
-P
u QJ
i p 4-1 W
• n (N
OJ H XI to H
O S -P
4-1 O
-P 03 <U > M (0
-p m
0 -H -P
-O 0
n 0
•H -p •H TJ C 0
a u
o •H 4J W
• H M 0) -P U (0
(0 x: u
o •H -P n3
n o
M
- P CD E E
i-i D -P (0
2
0) XI E
c
O
a
QJ XI E D C
TD O
a 0) M
-P to 2
0) • H H (0
>
OJ • H
ro >
•H ^ ro >
C (0 0) x ; E - -p t i i
OJ en U ^
En —
C (0 0) 2
I
I
o <
c (D OJ 2
n n
• o CN
00 CN
• ^ i-H
m T
• i H rH
•<a<
n •
( N i H
1
< CI
n i - (
in tN
o fN
n ON
n o ro i H
m CO
"* rH
in o <Ti rH
t
o < C3
C (0 (U 2
I
I
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'^
00
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CN
in m
o
in m
fO
in o ro fN
00 00
ON CTS
c^ i n
o m
m •^
00
ro 00
rsi
CN oo
(N
a
o T
• in fN
VD
o »
o ro
VO <Ti
• ' T
ro
yo rH
•
• ^
ro
fN
O in fN
CO -H
ro
ro
ro 00
. H fN
o VD
00 fN
C^
^ VD fN
VD VD
VD fN
ro o i n fN
O f N
Ui.
—
o f N
O T
Ui ^-'
o T
O • M3 i4 '—' O VO
c (0 a; 2
AO
in
x> 10
• Q
• U
in ro
• o
in fN
• o
o in
« o
i n
-p fO
u
in VO f^ O rH
f N
OP in
-p (0
•
• U
• r H
VO CTl
• o
fN
• rH
t«i
> X
59
maximum ratio was noted in K.„ which was at par with K-„. In 4U 60
terms of percentage, K.Q gave 37.7% higher mature/immature pod
ratio than K„{control). Bunch genotype (G-1) showed 15.3% higher
ratio than G-10. The treatment K.„ x G-10 gave maximum increase 40 ^
in mature/immature pod ratio and was statistically equal to that
for treatment K__ x G-1. 4.1.6.4 Shelling percent
Table 24 indicates that the application of potassium raised
the shelling percentage significantly. In general, K^_ proved
optimum for shelling percentage and was at par with K.„. At this
level (K,„) 6.6% higher shelling % was noted than control (K^-).
Spreading genotype (G-10) gave statistically higher shell
ing % than bunch genotype G-1. As far as interaction effect was
concerned, the combination K.„ x G-10 gave maximum shelling %
and was at par with K,„ x G-10. In the case of the bunch genotype,
K^- X G-1 gave highest value but the other combinations (K. . x
G-1 and K_- x G-1) also proved equally good.
4.1.6.5 100 Seed weight
Irrespective of genotypic effect, 100 seed weight was
maximum in treatment K.^. However, it was significantly higher
than other treatments. The control (K ,) gave the lowest value
(Table 24). Considering varietal differences G-10 gave maximum
(7.6% higher) 100 seed weight compared with G-1. The varieties
c
— 4J
•H
•'^ C
Q)
^ '^ (U (-;
(fl
o o
• o
c (D
+J C d) o 0) a en c • H
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to >
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+J
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-p cn <u > ^1 (D x; -p ID
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u •H
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r->X)
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cn
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-p ^ C (D CU x : E -^ p :^ (U OJ cn
CTN
cn
m
00 in
in
in
o
cn
c-~ a\ • in
vo
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• 00 VO
m ro
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vD n • o
C^
cn 00 cri in
00 CN CN o
1
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r~-VD
cn r-
r--VD
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r VD
CN 00
VD VD
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o fN
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o I N
O T
« '— o T
O VO
X —
o vo
c
CU
s
<A0 i n
• p
ID
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cn cn
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in
- p ID
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o
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«
> X
60
differed significantly with each other in this regard. Both the
varieties responded significantly to potassium application indivi
dually. G-10 gave the best response at K.„," whereas G-1 interacted
best with 20 kg K/ha.
4.1.6.6 Pod yield
Perusal of Table 25 indicates that application of potassium
resulted in significantly higher pod yield over control (K^).
On an average, maximum pod yield was recorded for the treatment
K,„ and was statistically at par with K.„. An increase of 31.4%
over control (K_) was noted. Varietal differences were also found
significant. The spreading genotype (G-10) gave higher pod yield
than the bunch genotype (G-l). Among interactions K.„ x G-10
recorded maximum pod yield and the value was at par with K-_
X G-10. K.„ X G-10 produced 35.36% higher pod yield than K„ x
G-10.
4.1.6-7 Biological yield
The effect of potassium treatment on biological yield
was significant (Table 25). On an average, K,„ gave the maximum
biological yield followed by K.„ and K^„. The lowest value for
biological yield was recorded in K„. Variety G-10 gave 16.6%
higher biological yield than G-l. It may be noted that varieties
differed in the potassium optima with regard to their biological
yield. The interaction effect of potassium with variety revealed
that K,„ proved equally good for both the varieties.
•P C tn o (U -H > -P U -H (D T3
^ C O
Xi "
<P
fO 5 i" to cr ^
•"* C
•H > iT3
Q) H +J (0 ra o >
•H -H D1-P O H H D
o u • H X) • -a c (0
o a
en o a
c - ^ O U3
•H E x: 3 U
•H (D tn M to <;
4-J i p o o a
CO
en -> to • H
O
H -P 0)
> m 0) O
-p w cu >
x :
^1
o «-(
4-1 O 4 j
-p U X OJ 0)
<P C W -H
If) fN
0) H
to H
tn •p ra u
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en •H M 0) -P u ro U to
x:
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i n 00
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rH n
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OI i-t
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n
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(Ti i n
CTi i H
fO VD
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- p to
• Q • U
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in
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w in
-p
to
• Q
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^ i n
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n
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> X
61
4.1.6.8 Harvest index
The effect of potassium application on harvest index (HI)
was found significant (Table 25). The highest value was recorded
for K.„, followed by K-„ and K_„. The bunch and spreading types
differed with each other significantly. G-1, the bunch genotype
gave higher harvest index than G-10. As a whole HI obtained under
KxV interaction be placed in order to K.„ x G-1 y K-^ x G-1
KgQ X G-l> K^Q X G-10> KgQ X G-10> K^^ x G-10> K^ x G-l> KQ X
G-10 which means that K.„ proved good for both the varieties
as far as partitioning of photosynthates was concerned.
4.1.6.9 Protein content
Seed protein content (Table 26) was significantly affected
by potassium application. The variety G-1 recorded significantly
higher protein content than G-10. Potassium x variety interaction
data revealed that K^„ x G-1 resulted in significant higher protein
content than the other combinations. A similar optimum was
recorded in K.„ x G-10. K.„ gave maximum and 27.74% higher protein
content than control i^r,) • However, the effect of K.„ and K,Q
was statistically equal.
4.1.6.10 Oil content
It is evident from Table 26 that application of potassium
had significantly favourable effect on oil content of seed which
was raised by 5.8% compared to control (K„). On comparing varietal
3 U
O
- P
CO
>
H •H O
c (0 • H
c c H O a) u o n u <u a'u
c (U (0 (U M W
C <U O 'C
c E a
•H T!
tn J-i (0 (0
-M > O -H a-t-'
(0 O m (0 •
XI J
4-1 <0 O (U
(0 w ai|
rH O
> > i | (U s: H
w M -H p x; o o
M-l ( 0
4-1 <
o 4 - 1
•>-> O U Q) to
4-1 i-l 4-1 (a w >
VO CM
0) H
(0
H
CO (U - p in CJ
• H H
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x:
4-1
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to
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O IT)
ca
i n in
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o
IT)
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O i n
CTi •'S'
i-H
i n
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i n
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in
m VO
(M i n
CO •<a" (T\ • ^
i n rH
fN i n
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fM i n
rH i H •
tN i n
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rH i n
<A0
in
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u
CO
i n
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a\ in i n
• > *
• « * •
i n r-H
t ^ CO
v^ rH
00 ON
o (N
0^ >X>
O CN
O i n
00 rH
CM r^
r~ .—1
i n
^ CM CN
O >5r
rH rsi
o >X)
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O r\i
'— Q
t^ ''-^ O
o fN
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O rr
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+J (TJ
• P •
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r -i n
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f—1
T
• o
1—1
00 fl
o
iii,
> X
62
means, the spreading genotype (G-10) had 2.2% higher oil content
than the bunch type (G-l). Among interactions the maximum signi
ficant value was recorded for the combination K.„ x G-lO which
was at par with K,^ x G-10. However, in bunch type K.„ x G-l
gave maximum oil content and the value was at par with K_„ x
G-l and K,» x G-l. 60
4.1.7 Energy harvesting efficiency (SI basis)
The energy harvesting efficiency on SI basis was found
significant due to application of potassium (Table 27). On compa
ring the mean of potassium levels, K.„ proved best. Both the
varieties differed markedly with regard to their energy harvesting
efficiency. Spreading genotype (G-10) gave the higher value at
K.~ and was at par with K,„. Bunch genotype gave its maximum
value with K.Q which was at par with that of K_„ and K,„.
4.1.7.1 Energy harvesting efficiency (PAR basis)
It is evident from Table 27 that potassium treatment had
a significant effect on this characteristic. The energy harvesting
efficiency was found to increase significantly with increasing
level of potassium. On an average. K.„ gave higher value than
K„. The spreading genotype G-10 showed 15.4 percent higher energy
harvesting efficiency than G-l. KxV interaction revealed that
bunch genotype (G-l) harvested the maximum energy at K_„. On the
other hand, spreading genotype (G-10) gave the maximum value
with K^Q.
-a C TJ
H C W -H
(C —> M O
o .- I 1-1
— c >, U Xi C (U (1) +J
• H (0 o >
•H -H
M-l H (1) p
U CD C •
•H J +J W (0 QJ 0) > 10 M cn (0 O
x; a
cn l-( 03 (D -H c x : <u u c 1 o < E 4-4
a o •H 03 03 03 U +-' > O -H
ra u 03 to o
O 4-1 o
03 H +J (U 03 > 0) (U >
• H M (0
tH x : p o -P
4-1 (0
4-1 03 C O -H O
03 -H -P (0 +J U XI -H
4-1 CC C 4M < O
w a. u
0) H
H
03 0) -P (0 u •H H
a
dJ 0)
x; -p
4H
o c (0 0) 2
03 U
03 • H
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(0
x;
OH
C/2
C (0 Qj s: E - -p u :
(U O l M ^
c 10 QJ 2
> 1 4-1 0)
•H
u (0 >
i-H
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I
o
N
> 1 •p QJ
• H U (0 >
1
o H) < o
I
o
o IT)
ON
o 00 CM
Ln i n
o kO
CO
m
ON fN o\
O .-H
c 10 Q)
2
n ' T
• O
.-H i n
• o
o vO
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ON i n
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n in in
in
•p 10
Q
U
o in o
i n
-p (0
• Q
cJ
o o
o o
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o
o
ON in
m in
ON
i<
o rsi
uc *~
o rsi
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t^ *^
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O UD
t<i
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c OJ
s t«;
>
63
Experiment 2
In this field experiment, the effect ofrfour doses of potassium
(0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha) and two levels of water stress, (S^
and S, ) was studied on growth, physiological biochemical, leaf
N, P and K content, yield and energy harvesting efficiency of
groundnut varieties (G-1 and G-10), grown during winter ("Rabi")
season. The data, summarised in Tables 32-49, are briefly described
below.
4.2 Growth characteristics
Four growth parameters namely plant height, leaf number,
leaf area and total dry weight were noted at 30, 60 and 90d growth
stages of the crop at four levels of potassium and two levels
of water stress and their interactions. Most of the growth charac
teristics were noted to be significantly affected by both potassium
and water stress levels. Varietal differences as well as potassium
X variety effect were also significantly affected as was the water
stress X variety at three stages of growth. The results are birefly
described below separately.
4.2.1 Height/plant
It is evident from Table 32 that the effect of potassium
application was non-significant at all the stages of growth .
Water stress in general, reduced plant .height by
15% in both the varieties at 60 and 90d of growth. Varietal diffe
rences were found significant at 60 and 90d of growth. However,
the effect of interaction of irrigation with variety was significant
^-s
> '"' > 1
- p (U
•H M 10
>
o
1 (5 3
< O
i-H
O D
< U
XI 1
lU
> 0) H
U )
— (A
m • <u u 4 J i n
U 0) - p 10
01 c
•H
o
0)
Q
C (0
E ^ •p u : 10 (1) D l
f- l •—
o
— > ^ > 1 4-1 Q)
• H
h ro >
O
1
o 3
< O
'
i H
(•) 3
< U
10 a
1
in
0)
> <u .H
in
—-W VI (U M • P U]
^1 (U
4 J 10 3
o I/)
—* > -' > 1 +J 0)
• r l M 10
>
o
1 15 3
< I')
r H
O 3
< O
10 X I t
r H
0)
> 01 r H
tn
^ in ti) lU
u •M
in
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o in
o
CTv CJ rO
n m n m
VO a \ rH VO
\ o vo vo *^ fN (N fN fN
n 00 (N p^ vij o^ i n (N
rsi fN n m
o
o
en
o ro
vO (N rsl
ro n n n
OD CO OD CO fN OJ (N fN
i n r o CO »^
in in in in 04 rsi fM r ^
r o i n o^ cr»
r* in in vo fN fN fN r^
«H CD fN OD
f*1 M ro r o
o in
O fH ro ro
i n
o CO
CO 0 0 00 CO
rsi rM 00 ( j \
. CO
^
m vO
C7\ .-H
r
cr» i-H
, -* c :>c^
* 00
^-^
vO CO
cr»
00
<T»
o r s
U^
* CO >H
vO 0 0
a\ i-H
CO
CT\ r H
o ••T
>:
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TT i n
cr* f H
' T CO
C^
o vO
^
XI (0
1
1
o 1
4-»
> X
0
to
X
u:
o o o o
>
>, 4 J OJ
M 10
>
o 3 < o
o
> •— > 1 •M
01 •H k m >
15
."> < (5
r H 1
o 3
< U
10 — — I-I
10 in J 3 in I 0) w M 4J in in f~i
(U l4 > 01 (U (J rH 10 3
C 10 OJ x : e -^ 4-> « 10 0) en
H —
o
CO VD rH
CO CO 0 0 00 fN) rsj (N rg
ro V£> rH CO ^ IN
ro fO ro
oo i n
CO CO rN)
vo
CO f N
0 0 i n
CO CM
f N
0 0
in o ro fN
ro ro -(r ro ro ro
f^ i n rH i n rH •=r i n CO CO a^
vo i n i n i n rvi rsi rsi CM
i n (T\ • vo r o CO
o o o ro ro ro
fN fM O
rM i n CO
oo CO OO CO fN fN rg fM
ro O 00
CO 00 CO CO
00 CO vo
0^ CT* 0^ 0^
o^ in o\ p- r* Cr> ro rH rH rH
CO
O
CT»
o
*-^ O
•-i
c^ rH
r H
_ o
*- o <N
cr\ iH
o ro o\
o
«. o
r H
rH n o\
o ^ l : : — •
o
r H
( N
CJ»
c 10 0)
H XI 10 4-» 1
>. 10 S
4 J
> X
in
u
0) H XI 10
•H
nj >
ro ro CT> o i
u HI
4 J 01 3
in in — in rH M OJ 01 10 M > XI 4-1 0) 1 in rH ^ -
m in 2 2
rt in
T ' 2*
in in o tn to in in •Z. -Z. A -Z. "Z. 2 2
in in in in in in in 2 2* 2' 2* 2 2 2
> X
in > > in
X X X X
uj in > « ><i in «
> > 1 4-1 01
U 10 >
0 i H
. 0 3 < U
0 3
< U o ro
^ > > 1
4-1 01
•H
>
u 3 <
• H
15 3
< 0
1 15 3
< 13
ro 0 0
t OV . H
o tn
64
at 90d of growth. The said interaction effect could be placed
in discending order as S„ x G-1, S^ x G-1, S„ x G-10 and S x G-10.
G-1 thus showed less depression in plant height as compared to
G-10 under water stress condition.
4.2-2 Leaf number/plant
The effect of potassium on leaf production was non-signi
ficant as in case of plant height at all the stages of growth
(Table 33). Water stress decreasd leaf production significantly
at 60 and 90d of growth in both the varieties. On comparing the
means of irrigation water stress reduced the production of leaves
by 14 and 29.7% at 60 and 90d of plant growth respectively.
Spreading genotype (G-10) produced more leaves than bunch
genotype (G-1) at all the stages of growth even under water stress
conditions. On an average, under both normal and stress conditions
G-10 had 33.7, 12.4 and 41% more leaves at 30, 60 and 90d of growth
respectively as compared to G-1.
4.2.3 Area/leaflet
Leaf area increased with the level of potassium at all
the stages of growth (Table 34). Potassium on an average increased
the leaf area by 19.7, 18.4 and 16.8% at 30, 60 and 90d of growth
respectively. Similarly water stress decreased the leaf area in
both the varieties at 60 and 90d of growth by 12 and 11.9%.
^~. > "-" > 1
4->
(1) • H
U 10
>
o f-4 1
(.5 O < U
r H
o 3
< U
X) 1
111
> 0
^ (/I
—• m in
• iJ M + j Ul
M (1) •M in 3
01
c •H
o
M
lU
C ID lu a e --•M « 10 Q) Dl VH ^
EH —
O 10
t - ^
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0) •ri
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to
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o 1/1
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m i n CM i n
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en vo
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O
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rsi 00
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00
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41
X) m 4-> 1
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65
The application of potassium under water stress condition
enhanced the leaf area by 25.4% in G-1 and 18.8% in G-10. However,
at 90d of growth it increased by 28 and 21.6% in G-1 and G-10
respectively. Varietal differences were found significant at
60 and 90d of growth. G-1 had higher leaf area than G-10. KxS
and KxSxV interactions were found significant at 90d of growth.
The interaction effect of potassium with variety showed
maximum leaf area in G-1 with K_„ at 60 and 90d of age. Similar
maxima in case of G-10 was noted at ^AQ- The effect of irrigation
on variety (SxV) was significant at later stage of crop growth
under stress condition. G-10 had the minimum leaf area while
G-1 showed maximum leaf area under normal and stress conditions.
4.2.4 Dry weight/plant
Potassium application augumented dry matter production
in both the varieties at all the stages of growth under the
two (S„ and S^) levels of water stress (Table 35).
The optimal level of potassium for bunch genotype (G-1)
and spreading genotype (G-10) were found to be K_^ and K.„ respe
ctively, under both normal and water stress conditions. The
interaction effect of irrigation with variety (SxV) indicated
significant differences in depression of dry matter at 60d of
plant age. However, G-10 was more adversely affected (16%) under
water stress as compared to G-1 (13.6%). Data of potassium x
variety interaction revealed maximum dry matter production in
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66
case of K X G-10 at 30d of growth and K x G-1 at 90d of age.
These values corresponded 19 and 12% in former and later variety.
The combined effect of potassium with irrigation on the production
of dry matter was found significant only at 90d of growth. K.„
appeared to be most beneficial at both the irrigation levels
in producing dry matter in this crop.
4.2.5 Physiological characteristics
Like the effect noted on selected attributes, most of the
physiological characteristics studied were found to be affected
significantly by potassium application, variety, stress levels
and of their interactions (KxS, KxV, SxV and KxSxV). The more
noteworthy of the these data are briefly considered in the follo
wing paragraphs separately.
4.2.5.1 Stomatal resistance
With increasing level of potassium application the stomatal
resistance was found to increase (Table 36). However, the optimal
level for the same in case of G-1 and G-10 was found to be 20
and 40 kg K/ha respectively under both normal and water stress
conditions. On an average comparing the means for potassium
48.6% increase in stomatal resistance was observed over K„
(control). Similarly, higher level of stress (S^) increased stoma
tal resistance by 34.4% over that of normal irrigation level
(S„). Spreading genotype (G-10) had 3% higher stomatal resistance
than the bunch type (G-1).
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67
Comparing the interaction effect of potassium with variety,
the maximum and minimum stomatal resitance was recorded at K.„
X G-10 and K„ x G-1 combinations respectively. However, these
effects were also significant at later stage of crop growth
(90d).
4.2.5.2 Transpiration rate
It is evident from Table 37 that potassium application
in general reduced the transpiration rate of groundnut by 58%
at pod development stage (60d). Variety G-10 showed 35.2% higher
transpiration rate than G-1.
The minimum transpiration rate in G-1 and G-10 was noted
at K^„ and K.„ respectively under both normal and water stress
conditions.
However, in general, under water stress condition (S^)
the rate of transpiration was low than under normal irrigation
(S„). The interaction effect of potassium with variety revealed
that potassium reduced transpiration by 54.4% under normal
irrigation and 68.8% under water stress condition, indicating
more pronounced effect of potassium under stress condition
compared with normal irrigation. It is interesting to note that,
the interacting effects of KxS, KxV and KxSxV on this important
parameter was significant. The interactions of potassium with
variety indicated that the combination, K.„ x G-10 allowed minimum
transpiration, being at par with other combinations, except
KQ X G-10, K^Q X G-10 and K^ x G-1.
C H
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68
4.2.5.3 Relative water content
The relative water content (RWC) of leaves declined
with the age of the crop. Water stress also reduced it signifi
cantly. However, potassium was noted to play a significant role
in sustaining the relative water content at 60 and 90d of crop
age (Table 38) under both the conditions (normal and water stress)
The rise in RWC due to potassium application was found
to be 2.2% at 60d and 14.5% at 90d of growth. The variety G-
10 had 4.7% higher RWC than G-1. Both the varieties had different
potassium optima for higher RWC. Thus, K_„ x G-1 and K.„ x G-10
proved the most effective combinations. The interaction effect
of potassium with variety was found to be significant at 90d
of growth. The combination K.„ x G-10 showed maximum relative
water content which was at par with K,„ x G-10. The minimum
value were noted in K.- x G-10 and K„ x G-1. The deliterious
effect of water stress was more pronounced in G-10 than in G-1.
The interaction effect of potassium and irrigation i.e. stress
(KxS) were also significant at 60 and 90d of plant age.
The interaction effect of irrigation with variety (SxV)
showed that G-10 had higher RWC than G-1 both under normal and
water stress conditions. The KxSxV interactin was significant
only at 90d of growth.
4.2.5.4 Nitrate reductase activity
In general nitrate reductase activity (NRA) increased
with the potassium application (Table 39). However, significant
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69
difference were not recorded among the potassium levels viz.
K_„, K.„ and K,„ in bunch genotype G-1. In spreading genotype,
K.„ was at par with K,„ in its effect. The varieties had 4 (J bU
dissimilar potassium optima for maximum NRA. Thus, K_„ x G-1
and K.„ x G-10 significantly increased NRA most. In general,
potassium application enhanced NRA by 21.5%, 45.2% and 57.7%
at 30,60 and 90d of growth stage respectively.
In both the varieties, NRA declined with the age of
the plant and also with increasing water stress. Decrease in
NRA was noted to be 8% at 60d and 19.4% at 90d of plant growth
due to water stress.
Spreading genotype (G-10) had 34, 4 and 97% higher NRA
at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively. Irrigation with variety
(SxV) interaction revealed that G-10 x S„ had the maximum NRA
both under normal and water stress conditions.
4.2.5.5 Proline content
The results pertaining to the proline content as affected
by potassium and water stress levels are presented in Table
40.
Both potassium and water stress enhanced the proline
content significantly at 60 and 90d of growth. It was also noted
that proline content increased with the age of plant.
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70
Comparing the mean values for potassium, it was noted
that potassium application enhanced the proline content by 24%
at 60d and 23% at 90d after sowing-
Varieties also differed with respect to their proline
content, G-10 had 32.8 , 24 and 19% higher proline content than
G-1, at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively. The increase
in proline content with water stress was noted to be 22.5 and
21.4% at 60 and 90d of growth respectively. The interaction
effect of potassium with variety showed that 40 kg K/h gave
the maximum proline content under both the levels of irrigation
at 90d stage.
Potassium and variety combination revealed that K.„ x
G-10 had the maximum proline content at both 60 and 90d of growth.
The interaction effect of irrigation and variety showed
that the combination G-10 x S, produced maximum proline and
G-1 X S„ showed minimum proline content at 60 and 90d of plant
age. The interaction effect (KxSxV) was also found to be signifi
cant at the later two stages of growth (60 and 90d).
4.2.5.6 Chlorophyll content
Chlorophyll in leaves was found to rise significantly
with potassium treatment at all the stages of growth (Table 41).
The maximum response was found at early growth stage (30d).
An increase in chlorophyll content of 41, 21.3 and 9.6% was
noted at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively.
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71
Water stress (S^) reduced the chlorophyll content by 11.2%
at 60d and 16.8% at 90d of growth compared with normal irrigation
(S„). Varietal differences with regard to their chlorophyll content
were also found significant. Spreading genotype (G-10) had 2.2,
9.4 and 50% higher chlorophyll content at 30, 60 and 90d of plant
growth respectively compared with G-1. Varieties differed in their
potassium requirement for maximum chlorophyll production. Bunch
genotype (G-1) responded most to K-^ while spreading type (G-10)
interacted best with K.„ for their maximum chlorophyll content
under both the irrigation levels.
The interaction effect (KxS) was found significant at later
stages of crop growth. KxV interaction was significant at all
the three growth stages. The interaction of variety with irrigation
showed that G-10 had higher chlorophyll content than G-1 under
both irrigation treatments. KxSxV interactions were found to have
significant effect at 60 and 90d of growth.
4.2.5.7 Nitrogen content
The effect of potassium on the concentration of leaf nitrogen
was significant at all the growth stages (Table 42). An increase
of 61% in leaf nitrogen concentration was noted from 30 to 60d
of age; but it decreased at 90d of age by 9.3%.
The comparison of means of potassium indicated that its
application brought about an increase of 25.8, 25.7 and 9.1% in
leaf nitrogen content at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively.
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72
The interaction effect of potassium with irrigation indicated
that KgQ X SQ had the highest concentration of nitrogen but it
was at par with K^Q X SQ. The combinations KQ X S and K x S
resulted in" the lowest nitrogen concentration.
Potassium x variety interaction was found significant at
30 and 60d of plant age. K^^ x G ^ had the maximum nitrogen content
at all the stages. Water stress decreased the nitrogen content
in leaves. However, the application of K-Q and K.„ in G-1 and G-10
respectively restored the drop in nitrogen content significantly
in leaves.
4.2.5.8 Phosphorus content
It is evident from Table 43 that the effect of potassium
on the leaf phosphorus content was not significant at any growth
stage. The effect of irrigation was found significant. Water stress
significantly reduced the leaf phosphorus content by 14.3 and 26.6%
at 60 and 90d of growth.
When varietal differences were taken into consideration,
G-10 was noted to have produced 12.4, 5 and 11.9% higher phosphorus
content at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively than G-1.
Phosphorus concentration decreased with increasing age of
plant in leaves by 12% at 60d and 19.8% at 90d of growth.
4.2.5.9 Potassium content
Like nitrogen, the potassium concentration in leaves was
found to increase significantly with the application of potassium
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73
at all the stages of growth (Table 44). On comparing the means
for potassium levels, 15.6, 26.4 and 24.2% increase over K„, in
leaf potassium content was observed at 30, 60 and 90d of growth
respectively with the application of potassium.
Water stress, in general, significantly enhanced the potassium
content and an increase of 11.9 and 15.4% was noted at 60 and 90d
of growth respectively.
Varietal differences were found significant only at early
growth stage (30d). Potassium x irrigation (KxS) interaction values
showed that the combination K._xS, exhibited the maximum leaf pota
ssium concentration at 60d in both the varieties. At 90d similar
result was noted in K,„xS,. These values were at par with that 50 1
of K.- . The potassium interaction with variety was significant
at all the stages of growth. G-10 had the higher potassium content
than G-1 with K._ at 30 and 60d of growth while, at 90 days of
growth K,„ x G-10 had the maximum concentration but was at par
with K.„ X G-10. Variety and irrigation interaction (VxS) revealed
that G-10 had the higher concentration of potassium under both
normal and water stress conditions at 60d of growth. KxSxV intera
ction were also found significant at the same stage of growth.
4.2.6 Yield characteristics
The amelerioting effect of potassium application varietal
differences, the effect of water stress and interactions (KxS,
KxV, SxV and KxSxV) on the marphophysiological characteristics
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was conspicously reflected in yield and quality attributes of the
crop. These effect are considered separately below:
4.2-6.1 Mature pods per plant
The number of mature pods per plant increased by 71.7% with
potassium application (Table 45). Water stress reduced the percen
tage by 28.1%.
The interaction effect of potassium with irrigation (KxS)
showed that K.„ produced 45.3 and 43% more mature pods under both
normal and water stress conditions compared with K^xS^. Potassium x
variety interaction revealed that K.„ x G-10 produced the maximum
mature pods. Bunch genotype responded better to K^^ and spreading
type to K.„. The interaction of irrigation with variety was found
significant. G-10 had higher mature pods than G-1 both under normal
and water stress conditions. The response of the crop to potassium
application with regard to number of mature pods under water stress
condition was 18% higher in G-1 compared to that in G-10.
4.2.6.2 Immature pod number
Considering the effect of potassium application, significantly
higher immature pods were recorded in control (K^) under normal
and water stress conditions. However, potassium application signi
ficantly reduced the number of immature pods per plant, (Table
45) and on comparing the mean values, the value was found to reduce
by 28.2%.
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75
Water stress also adversely affected pod maturity. On an
average, 36.2% more immature pods were recorded under conditions
of water stress. The genotype G-10 had 29.3% higher immature pods
than G-1. Potassium and variety interaction data showed that, in
both the varieties, lowest immature pods were produced by K.„.
The interaction effect of irrigation with variety revealed that
G-10 had the highest immature pods both under normal and water
stress conditions.
4.2.6.3 Mature/Immature pod ratio
Potassium application increased the mature/immature pod
ratio significantly by enhancing the number of mature pods per
plant (Table 45). The mean values of potassium effect revealed
an increase of 53.6% as a result of potassium application compared
with K„. Water stress significantly reduced the ratio by 44.1%.
Bunch genotype (G-1) had 23.6% higher mature/immature pod ratio
than G-10. The interaction effect of potassium with variety revealed
that K_„ X G-1 had the highest ratio. It further revealed that
spreading genotype G-10 recorded maximum ratio at K.„ bunch type
(G-1) at KpQ. Data on the interaction of potassium with irrigation
(KxS) revealed that, under normal irrigation, K.„ increased ratio
by 61.7% while response was higher under water stress condition.
Thus K_„ X S, combination gave 77% higher response. The intraction
effect of irrigation with variety was also found significant. Variety
G-1 had 145.7 and 89.6% higher mature/immature pod ratio under
76
normal and water stress condition respectively than variety G-10.
The interaction effect (KxSxV) was also found significant.
4.2.6.4 Shelling percent
Significant increase in shelling percent was noted with
increasing potassium levels in both the varieties under normal
and stress conditions (Table 46). G-10 was noted to exhibit 18.9%
higher shelling percent than G-1.
On comparing the means of potassium levels, K,„ showed 5.5%
higher percentage of shelling over control and was at par with
K.„ and K-,„. In general, water stress decreased the shelling percent
by 4.9%. The interaction effect of potassium with stress levels
was found significant. K.„ x S„ combination resulted in maximum
shelling percent. The interaction effect of potassium with variety
indicated that K.„ x G-10 had the maximum shelling percent. KxSxV
interaction was also found significant.
4.2.6.5 100 Seed weight
The increasing level of potassium significantly increase
the 100 seed weight. On an average 8.2% decrease in 100 seed weight
was recorded under water stress conditions (Table 46).
Spreading genotype (G-10) had 4.9% higher 100 seed weight
than G-1. The interaction effect of potassium with stress was also
found significant. K„xS combiantion had the highest seed weight.
Interaction of potassium with variety with regard to 100 seed weight
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77
were found significant. It is noteworthy, that the two genotypes
(G-1 and G-10) had different potassium optima. G-1 responded best
to K_„. While G-10 gave maximum 100 seed weight at K.„. For this
parameter KxSxV effect was also found significant.
The optimum potassium level sustained the deleterious effect
of water stress in 100 seed weight in G-1 at ^20' while that in
the case of G-10 was found to be at K.-.
4.2.6.6 Pod yield
It is evident from Table 47 that the application of potassium
significantly increased pod yield irrespective of varieties at
all the levels of water stress.
The reverse was true under water stress but the application
of potassium considerably off set the reduction in yield. Thus
where as it was two-third restored in variety G-1 at K^Q and one-
third in G-10 at K.„ level under normal condition, a still higher
degree of decrease in yield loss noted under water stress condition,
as a result of potassium application, being 148.7% in the bunch
variety (G-1) and 95.5% in G-10, the spreading variety. Out of
the two varieties, G-10 exhibited higher yielding ability under
both normal and water stress conditions compared to G-1. The values
at K_xS„ were recorded as 9.17 q/ha and 14.6q pods/ha respectively.
The KxV and SxV interactions were found significant. The deletarious
effect of water stress on pod yield was found to be higher in G-10
(31%) than in G-1 (25%).
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4.2.6-7 Biological yield
It is evident from Table 47 that potassium application
significantly increased the biological yield. On an average 9.9%
increase was recorded.
On comparing the means of irrigation effect, water stress
was noted to decrease the biological yield by 20%.
Varietal differences were also found significant. G-10
had 23.4% higher biological yield than G-1. KxS and KxV interac
tion effects were also found significant.
4.2.6.8 Harvest index
Unlike other parameters harvest index (HI) of pod signi
ficantly increased with potassium application (Table 47). In
general, decline in HI to an extent of 16.7% was noted under
stress condition. KxS, KxV and SxV interaction effects were found
significant. G-1 had the higher harvest index than G-10. The
maximum HI value was recorded in G-1 at K_^ level under normal
conditions. The minimum HI was also noted in G-1 at K„ level.
Bunch genotype G-1 showed highest HI at K_„ whereas that in case
of G-10 was found at K.^. SxV interaction revealed that S,xG-l
had lowest harvest index, on the other hand, G-10 had higher
HI value at the same level of stress.
79
4.2.6.9 Protein content
It is clear from Table 48 that potassium application signi
ficantly gave higher protein content than no potassium (control).
On an average potassium application augumented 7.5% higher protein
content.
Taking the effect of irrigation into consideration, it was
found that water stress reduced the protein content by 9.3%. Out
of two groundnut types, the lowest value was found in bunch
genotype (G-1). On considering the interaction effect of potassium
and stress, it emerged that K.„xS^ exhibited highest protein
content. However, the values were at par with K^^xS- and Kg^xS„.
KxV interaction indicated that K.„xG-10 had the highest protein
content. G-1 also responded to the same level of potassium for
its maximum protein the interaction effect of stress and variety
spreading genotype (G ,) had the higher protein content than
G-1 both under normal and stress conditions. The interaction effect
of KxSxV was also found significant.
4.2.6.10 Oil content
The oil content was found to increase by 7% at higher level
of potassium. Water stress slightly increased the oil percentage
with very narrow difference. Application of K_„ under stress condi
tion further enhanced the oil content in G-1. G-10 had 2.6% higher
oil percentage at K „ level than G-1. K._xG-l attained a maximum
level of oil content, but the values were at par with other combi-
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80
nations except K„xG-l and K-xG-10. Application of potassium under
stress condition helped to a great extent in retaining oil in seed.
However, G-1 responded better to potassium than G-10 under stress
condition (Table 48).
4.2.7 Energy harvesting efficiency (SI basis)
Significant genotypic differences in solar energy harvesting
efficiency were noted (Table 49). The highest solar energy harves
ting efficiency in case of G-10 was -recorded at K.„xS„ whereas,
in case of G-1, the highest energy harvesting efficiency was at
K2QXSQ.
Water stress depressed the energy harvesting efficiency to
an extent of 21.7%. On the contrary, comparing the average values
potassium application increased solar energy harvesting efficiency.
Further potassium application restored the drop in solar energy
harvesting efficiency significantly under stress condition. Variety
G,„ responded to K.„ application to a higher degree compared to
G-1 under water stress condition. The KxVxS interaction was signi
ficant.
4.2.7.1 Energy harvesting efficiency (PAR basis)
The data presented in Table 49 reveal that potassium appli
cation showed significantly higher energy harvesting efficiency
under both normal and stress condition compared to control. In
decline in efficiency was noted under water stress condition. G-1
c 10
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81
recorded optimum energy harvesting efficiency at K^^xS^ level whereas
similar values in case of G-10 were noted at K.„xS„, K„xG-l and
K^xG-10 showed the lowest energy value.
Considering the effect of potassium means potassium applica
tion significantly increases the energy harvesting efficiency
at PAR. The irrigation effect and varietal differences were found
significant. KxS interaction effect was also found significant.
82
Experiment 3
In this experiment, the effect of factorial combination
of 3 levels each of potassium (0, 20 and 40 kg K/ha) and water
stress (S^, S and S^) was studied, using only one variety G-1
(bunch type) as G-10 (spreading type) mature late and spoil in
the field due to early onset of monsoon. The parameters were same
as in Experiment 1 and 2. The data, summarised in Tables 54-71,
are briefly presented below.
4.3 Growth characteristics
Four growth parameters namely, plant height, leaf number,
leaf area and total dry weight were noted at 30, 60 and 90 DAS.
Most of the growth parameters were found to be affected signifi
cantly by potassium and water stress-Interaction effect of potassium
with water stress (KxS) on most attributes of growth at three
stages were also found significant. The individual effect of
potassium and water stress as well as their interaction are briefly
described below:
4.3.1 Height/plant
The effect of potassium was found non-significant on plant
height at all the stages of growth. On the other hand, at 50d
of growth, water stress in general reduced the plant height by
16.3 and 20.7% at S and S2 levels of water stress respectively.
Similarly, at 90d of growth the decrease in plant height was 10.6
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83
and 26.2% at S, and S_ levels respectively. KxS interaction was
also found non-significant (Table 54).
4-3.2 Leaf number/plant
Leaf number per plant was not affected by potassium at any
stage of growth (Table 55). The S_ level of water stress, however,
reduced the leaf number by 8.5% at 60 days of growth, S, having
no effect. At 90d of growth, reduction in leaf number was noticed
at both levels of stress (S, and S_),'being 10 and 16% respectively,
The interaction effect of potassium with irrigation (KxS) was
also found non-significant.
4.3.3 Area/leaflet
As is evident from data presented in Table 56, leaf area
of the plant was significantly affected by different potassium
levels. On comparing the means for potassium, it was found that
potassium application brought about 7.6, 11.5 and 9.7% increase -
in leaf area at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively. Water stress
significantly decreased the leaf area at 60 and 90d of growth,
by 10.9% at S2 level of stress at 60d of growth, while at 90d
of growth the depression was 5.8 and 5.4% at S, and S_ level of
stress respectively.
Considering the interaction effect of potassium with irriga
tion (KxS), it emerged that leaf area was significantly higher
than K„ at all the growth stages of plant, for example, at 60d
of growth K_„ proved beneficial by increasing the leaf area by
23.2, 8.4 and 13.7% at S-, S^ and S^ levels of irrigation
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respectively.
4.3.4 Dry weight/plant
There was a significant increase in dry matter accumulation
at all the stage of growth with the application of potassium.
Decrease in dry matter accumulation was noticed with increasing
level of stress. However, the application of potassium seemed
to compensate the decrease in dry matter accumulation to some
extent at both the leveJ^ of stress (Table 57). Comparing the means
for potassium application, it was recorded that, at 30 days of
growth, K-„ produced, 9.4% more dry matter and was at par with
K.„ in its effect. At the later two stages also, Kp„ proved optimum
and gave rise to 22.6 and 12.5% higher dry matter than K .. On
considering the effect of stress, a decrease in dry matter accumu
lation of 14 and 28% was recorded at S, and S-, levels of stress
respectively at 90d of growth. KxS interaction effect was found
significant. K^„xS„ produced maximum dry matter per plant which
was 16.9% higher than KQXSQ at 90d of growth. Expectedly, dry
matter accumulation increased with the age of plant, maximum dry
weight being noted at 90d of growth in all the treatments.Moreover,
K_^ maintained a beneficial effect on dry matter yield at all
the stages of growth even under water stress conditions.
4.3.5 Physiological characteristics
Like the effects noted on selected growth characteristics,
most of the physiological parameters studied were found to be
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85
significantly affected by levels of potassiumm, water stress and
KxS interactions. The more noteworthy of these data are briefly
considered in the following paragraphs separately:
4.3.5.1 Stomatal resistance
The effect of potassium and of its interaction with water
stress was found significant only at pod setting/pod development
stage of growth (60 days). On an average, it was found that potassium
application at the K2r^ level increased the stomatal resistance
by 61.8%. The increasing level of stress further, enhanced the
stomatal resistance by 25% at S, level of stress and 71% at S2
level of stress (Table 58).
The interaction effect of potassium with water stress (KxS)
was also found significant. K_-xS_ had the highest value which
was 51.8% higher than that for K„xS„. The lowest stomatal resistance
was recorded at K„xS^.
4.3.5.2 Transpiration rate
Differences in transpiration rate, as affected by different
levels of potassium and water stress, were found to be significant
at (60d) pod setting/pod development stage (Table 59).
On an average, potassium level K_„ decreased the transpira
tion rate by 45.3%. On the other hand, while comparing the means
for irrigation, it was noted that water stress levels S^ and S-
lowered the transpiration rate significantly by 19.9% and 46.6%
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86
ri'espectively than at normal irrigation. Considering the interaction
/effect of potassium with water stress (KxS), it was noted that i
K_„xS2 had the lowest transpiration rate, being 71% less than
that for KQXSQ and Al.1% below that of KQXS-.
4-3.5.3 Relative water content
The effect of potassium treatment on the relative water
content (RWC) was significant. Most of the potassium treatments
increased the relative water content considerably as compared
to control (Table 60). On an average the response was in the range
of 18.4 and 22.5% at both 60 and 90d of growth. Considering the
effect of irrigation, it was noted that higher levels of stress
proved deleterious. Comparing the means of irrigation it was noted
that irrigation at -0.6 bar (S,) and -0.9 bar (S-) decreased the
relative water content by 13.8 and 17.3% respectively at 60d of
growth when compared with irrigation at -0.3 bar (S„). While at
90d of growth, the drop was recorded to be 17.3 and 15.3% at S,
and S_ stress levels respectively. The interaction effect of
potassium with irrigation (KxS) was found significant at the later
two stages. Potassium application at all the levels of stress
enhanced the relative water content.
4.3.5.4 Nitrate reductase activity
In general potassium was found to increase nitrate reductase
activity (NRA) at all growth stages of the crop (Table 61). Average
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87
per cent increase in NRA at 30, 60 and 90d of growth as compared
to control values was of the order of 19.6, 19.8 and 24% respec
tively, irrespective of irrigation level. Increasing water stress
levels from S„ to S^ decreased nitrater reductase activity at the
later two stages of growth. Potassium effect on nitrate reductase
activity, however, persisted throughout plant growth with a tendency
to increase the activity at both levels of stress. The magnitude
of response of potassium at different irrigation levels in terms
of percentage was 15.3 at S^ (-0.3 'bar), 12.5 at S (-0.6 bar)
and 49 per cent at S^ (-0.9 bar) at 60d of growth. A similar
trend was noted at 90d of growth.
4.3.5.5 Proline content
Proline content in leaves increased significantly with
increasing levels of potassium, water stress and age of plant
(Table 62). Plants receiving potassium at the higher level stress
(S^) were found to have relatively higher proline concentration
as compared to S„ (normal). While comparing the means of potassium
levels irrespective of water stress levels, 3.3, 28.3 and 57.2%
increase in proline content was noted at 30, 60 and 90d of growth
respectively. The enhancement in proline content at S, and S2
was found to be 16.7 and 68% respectively over S„ at 60d of growth.
A similar trend was noted at 90d of growth. KxS interaction data
showed that K.»xS^ had the highest proline content but it was
at par with that of K_ x S^ at '60 of growth at later stages of
growth again proved optimum for higher rpoline K-^xS^.
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content. The lowest proline content was recorded in K-XSQ at
both the stages of growth.
4.3.5.6 Chlorophyll content
The over all effect of different potassium levels on
chlorophyll content was significant at all the stages of growth
(Table 63). Chlorophyll content decreased sharply with increasing
level of stress at 60 and 90d of growth. An increase in chlorophyll
content was noticed from 30 to 60d of growth but at 90d of growth
it decreased. On an average, increase with potassium application
was found to be 12.5, 19.6 and 26.7% at 30, 60 and 90d of growth
respectively. KxS interaction effect was also found significant
at 60 and 90d of growth. At 60d of growth, 10.5, 28.3 and 22.7%
increase in chlorophyll content was recorded at (-0.3 bar), S^
(-0.6 bar) and S^ (-0.9 bar) levels of stress respectively.
Similar, results were also recorded at 90d of growth.
4.3.5.7 Nitrogen content
Nitrogen content of leaf tissue increased significantly
with the increase in potassium level (Table 64). The overall
differences due to potassium and water stress were significant
at all the growth stages, except 30d of growth. Considering the
overall averages of potassium means, the nitrogen concentration
of leaves was found to increase by 12.0, 22.8 and 22.1% at 30,
60 and 90d of growth respectively. Water stress gradually decreased
nitrogen content from S„ to S_ at 60 and 90d of plant age. The
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89
decrease was found to be 13.7 and 22.8% at 60d growth and 9.0
and 17.5% at 90d of growth at the S, and S_ stress level respec
tively. Potassium effect on nitrogen concentration proved benefic
ial at all the level of water stress. K_„XSQ had 18.7% Kp„xS,,
10% and K2QXS-, 46.9% higher nitrogen content over their respective
control at 60d of growth. A similar trend was again noted at
the same level of potassium at 90d of growth.
4.3.5.8 Phosphorus content
No consistent differences were noted in phosphorus content
in respect of potassium application at any stage of growth
(Table 65). The effect of levels of potassium and their concen
tration was found non-significant on phosphorus content of leaves.
Phosphorus content in leaves gradually decreased with the age
of plant. The increasing level of water stress significantly
reduced the phosphorus content of leaves at 60 and 90d of growth.
The KxS interaction was found non^-signifleant.
4.3.5.9 Potassium content
Changes in potassium concentration in leaves were brought
about by the level of potassium applied. Potassium concentration
in leaves gradually increased with water stress and age of plant
(Table 66). On comparing the means for potassium application,
overall increase in potassium concentration of leaves was 44.8,
19.17 and 72.0% at 30, 60 and 90d of growth respectively. At
different levels of potassium the magnitude of response at 90d
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was more pronounced under water stress condition. The values
at S, and S_ level were found to rise by 76.8 and 79.4% respec
tively compared with S^. K-^ proved beneficial for maximum
potassium concentration at all the levels of stress.
4.3-6 Yield characteristics
The amelerioting effect of potassium application on stress
levels was conspicuously reflected in yield and quality attributes
of the crop. These effects are considered separately below:
4.3.6.1 Mature pod number/plant
Potassium stimulated the maturity of pods irrespective
of stress level. Data presented in Table 67 indicate that the
number of mature pods per plant were highest at K_„. Differences
in number of mature pods were also significant as level of water
stress was increased. In general, 19.5 and 49.7% depletion in
mature pod number was recorded at S (-0.6 bar) and S_ (-0.9
bar) respectively. Application of 20 kg K/ha offset the deleterious
effect of water stress, consequently it enhanced pod maturity
by 34.6, 34.1 and 32.0% over their respective control, at -0.3,
-0.6 and -0.9 bar of stress levels respectively.
4.3.6.2 Immature pod number/plant
Immature pod number decreased steadily by potassium appli
cation at all the levels of water stress. Water stress adversely
affected pod maturity. Overall 44.0, 21.6 and 20.0% decrease
c o
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91
in immature pods was recorded at K_„xS„, K_„xS, and K_-xS_ levels
respectively compared with their respective control (Table 67).
4.3.6.3 Mature/Immature pod ratio
Control plants receiving no potassium had lower mature/
immature pod ratio (Table 67). Both potassium as well as water
stress affected the mature/immature pod ratio significantly.
On an average, K r, increased the mature/immature pod ratio by
97.8%. On the other hand, water stress decreased this ratio by
8.8 and 50.4% at S, and S_ levels of stress respectively. Potassium
and irrigation interaction (KxS) enhanced the mature/immature
pod ratio by 48.2, 85.5 and 41.8% at -0.3 bar, -0.6 bar and-0'9
bar, i.e., S„, S, and S^ levels of stress respectively.
4.3.6.4 Shelling percent
As given in Table 68 the overall effect of potassium and
water stress on shelling per cent was significant. Shelling per
cent in general was superior at 20 kg K/ha.
Increasing the stress levels,, irrespective of potassiun^,
depressed shelling per cent, irrigation at -0.9 bar giving the
minimum shelling per cent. Application of potassium augumented
shelling per cent and the increase was 5.4, 5.8 and 2.4% at S„
(-0.3 bar), S, (-0.6 bar) and S- (-0.9 bar) irrigation respec
tively. The maximum shelling per cent was recorded in K-j„xS„
and the minimum in K»xS_.
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c C 3 0
TD C (U O -M
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92
4.3.6.5 100 seed weight
A significant effect of potassium and water stress
was recorded on 100 seed weight (Table 68). Apparently, potassium
treatment enhanced the 100 seed weight over K„. While, increasing
levels of stress depressed it compared with normal irrigation.
At normal irrigation with 20 kg K (K2QXSQ), the increase
was 15.6%. On the other hand, at the same level of potassium
increase was found to be 4.8 and 3:2% at -0.6 bar (K^QXS,) and
-0.9 bar (Kp„xS_) respectively.
4.3.6.6 Pod yield
Pod yield was found to increase significantly with
the application of potassium (Table 69). Highest average weight
(51.6%) was recorded in treatment K_„ than control. In general,
the effect of increasing the stress from S^ to S2 proved to
be much deleterious for pod yield. In term of percentage it
depressed the yield by 26.0 and 45.7 at S, and S_ stress levels
(irrigation at -0.6 and—0.9 bars) respectively compared with
normal irrigation S„. Application of potassium proved beneficial
in ameliorating the ill effect of water stress at all levels
of irrigation. Average per cent increase was 60.7, 57.5 and
32.7 at K-QXSQ, K-QXS, and K2QXS2 respectively compared with
their respective controls (K„xS_, K„xS^ and K^xS2)-
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93
4.3.6.7 Biological yield
Effect of potassium treatment on the average biological
yield per hectare was significant. The increase over K„(control)
was 16.3% in the case of 20 kg K/ha (Kpr.) irrespective of irriga
tion levels (Table 69).
In general, increasing levels of stress depressed the
biological yield by 12% at -0.6 bars irrigation (S,) and by
24.3% with irrigation at -0.9 bar (S2) compared with normal
irrigation. Considering the interaction effect of potassium with
stress, application of potassium enhanced biological yield at
all the levels of stress. Under normal irrigation and combination
K__xS„ gave 20.0% higher biological yield than K„xS„. Irrigation
at -0.6 bar and -0.9 bar gave 13.6 and 14.5% higher biological
yield with 20 kg K/h of (K-, ) when compared with K„xS^ and K„xS_.
4.3.6.8 Harvest index
Harvest index (HI) was found to increase significantly
with the application of potassium, 20 kg K/ha favoured harvest
index most (40.0% increase). However, considering the effect
of water stress, it was noted that irrigation at -0.6 (S-) and
-0.9 bar (S^) reduced the HI by 16.7 and 26.6% respectively
than the irrigation at -0.3 bar (S„) (Table 69).
Considering the interaction effect, it was evident
that higher level of stress produced a significant change in
harvest index. The minimum harvest index was recorded at K„xS_.
94
However, potassium application enhanced the harvest index by
47.8, 41.2 and 28.7% with the combination K2QXSQ, K- XS^ and
KJQXS- respectively compared with their respective controls
(KQXSQ, KQXSJ^ and K„xS2).
4.3.6.9 Protein content
Protein content of seed was found to increased with
potassium application. 20 kg K/ha favoured protein content by
27.8% compared to K„. The effect of water stress, on protein
content was also found significant. The S_ level of stress gave
6.9% lower value compared with the normal irrigation (Table 70).
Interaction effect of potassium with irrigation (KxS)
was also found significant. The maximum protein content was
recorded in the treatment K2QXSQ which was 30.9% higher than
in K„xS,. As mentioned earlier. Water stress decreased the protein
content. However, application of 20 kg K/ha increased the protein
content even under stress condition by 23.9 and 28.3% at -0.6
bar and -0.9 bar irrigation (K2QXS, and K2QXS2) respectively.
4.3-6.6.10 Oil content
Differences in oil content due to potassium application
were significant (Table 70). K-^ increased the oil content by
4.1%. Irrigation had a differential effect with regard to oil
accumulation in seeds. The effect of water stress on oil content
was found non-significant. Among interactions, K2QXSQ, K2QXS^
and K2QXS2 had 6.1, 4.4 and 2.0% higher oil content compared
with their respective controls (K„xS, and K„xS2).
4.3.7 Energy harvesting efficient (SI basis)
Average energy harvesting efficiency was significantly
increased with the application of potassium (Table 71). As
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95
compared with no potassium control ( n)» maximum energy
harvesting efficiency was obtained with treatment K_„.
Decrease in energy harvesting efficiency due to water
stress was significant and the average depression in energy
harvesting efficiency was found to be in the order of about
11.2 and 27.4% at S and S^ stress levels compared with normal
irrigation S„.
The combination K-QXS^ showed the maximum energy harvest
ing efficiency. On the other hand, the combination Kp„xS, and
K_„xS-j was found to increase the energy harvesting efficiency
over their respective controls.
4.3.7.1 Energy harvesting efficiency (PAR basis)
Effect of potassium treatment on the average energy harve
sting efficiency on PAR basis was found significant as on SI
basis. Treatments K__ and K.„ increased energy harvesting
efficiency considerably as compared to control (Table 71).
Increasing water stress level, from S„ to S_ in general decreased
the energy harvesting efficiency. This effect was most pronounced
at S^ level of stress. The average decrease was found to be
11.1 and 27.7% at -0.6 bar (S^) and -0.9 bar (S^) irrigation
respectively. Maximum energy harvesting efficiency was recorded
in the combination K2QXSQ.
All the combinations K_„xS„, K_„xS^ and K-^xS^ had higher
energy harvesting efficiency than their respective control
combinations (K„xSp, KQXS^ and K-,xS_).
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CHAPTER - 5
DISCUSSION
CONTENTS
PAGE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Growth characteristics
5.3 Physiological characteristics
5.4 Biochemical characteristics
5.5 Yield and quality characteristics
5.6 Protein content
5.7 Oil content
5.8 Energy partitioning and energy harvesting efficiency
96
98
100
102
107
109
110
111
CHAPTER - 5
DISCUSSION
5-1 Introduction
Environmental water deficits have long been recognised
as the chief limiting factors for crop production in many areas
of the world. Water stress directly or indirectly affects mineral
uptake and through it almost every morpho-physiological and
chemical processes in the pla'nt, and. thus has profound influence
on growth, development and yield. The degree of reduction in
these processes due to water stress varies with soil and climate.
The effect of stress on plant development manifests itself to
varying degree in different species and even genotypes within
the same species show variable response to the stress. The degree
of tolerance in plants is, therefore, believed to be governed
genetically with some genotypes showing less damage than others.
However, if the stress is prolonged, the effects become clearly
visible in all plants. Barras and Klepper (1968) pointed out
that low leaf water potential could be developed in an hour
as a result of transpiration exceeding the absorption of water
from the soil. The situation is attained very soon if water
stress condition prevails, resulting in severe damage to crops.
True, that groundnut is grown largely under rainfed conditions
in our country, during the monsoon season, plants experience
an intermittent moisture stress, thus suffering from drought
periods once or twice during their life cycle. Groundnut is
97
also raised under conditions where well water is used for
irrigation which being inadequate is analogous to rainfed condi
tion. This accounts for low productivity of this crop in our
country which does not keep pace with the demand. Unfortunately,
neither the magnitude of the stress nor its duration is
predictable. Hence, the type of stress tolerance required in
such a situation must be of a general nature with emphasis on
regeneration in a normal soil moisture regime. Therefore, it
is imperative to devise a methodology which could reduce the
severity of water stress and ensure higher yield of groundnut.
Crop, soil and water management could be improved by
increasing root penetration, regulating transpiration and improv
ing water use efficiency. This could be expected to increase
and stabilize yields under conditions of drought (Saxena, 1985)
Generally, the water use efficiency in plants tends to be high
as an adaptation under stress conditions. This adaptation remains
effective until stress conditions are severe or prolonged.
Potassium, however, is reported to be valuable in ameliorating
the ill effects of water stress on crops. First, potassium
nutrition to plants stimulates root growth and hence efficient
exploration of soil water. Secondly, potassium application
decreases the loss of soil moisture through reducing transpiration
and increasing the retention of water in plants (Brag, 1972;
Christensen, 1976).
Keeping these facts in view, feasibility of potassium
nutrition in augmenting the performance of two genotypes of
98
groundnut was tested by the present author under rainfed (natural
drought) and induced drought conditions. It may be pointed out
that potassium supply promoted various physio-morphological, .
biochemical, growth and yield characteristics as well as energy
harvesting ability of the crop under the conditions which are
categorically discussed below.
5.2 Growth characteristics
Inorganic nutrients and water are the most vital
component for plants. Their imbalance disturbs morphological,
physiological and biochemical processes as if they become limi
ting. The growth activities are, thus, affected adversely which
finally leaves an ill impact on crop yield both qualitatively
and quantitatively. However, various genotypes within a species
exhibit variable response to such adversaries. This fact became
evident as GAUG-10 exhibited more profuse vegetative growth
than GAUG-1 in both rainy and winter season. It may be due to
well developed canopy and deep feeding root of GAUG-10. But
a well developed canopy becomes disadvantage in summer season
when this results in the so called "transpirational burst" leading
to water deficit in plant as well as in soil. This accounts
for genetic differences in response to potassium and water stress
which were more pronounced in GAUG-10 (spreading) than GAUG-1
(bunch). That is why GAUG-1 with erect canopy, proved well
adapted in summer season. Another factor suited for adaptation
of GAUG-1 in summer season is that it is a short duration crop
99
which matures before rainy season starts. The present experiments
were conducted with these facts in view. The results obtained
therein revealed that potassium has significant impact on leaf
area and dry weight under normal and water stress conditions
in both genotypes of groundnut tested in all seasons
(Tables 12, 13, 34, 35, 56, 57). Since potassium has been reported
to augment•cell division and cell expansion (Marschner and
Possingham 1975; Mengel, 1977; 1978), the increase in leaf area
is plausible. This may automatically augment solar energy harves
ting ability. As a result, enhancement in the production of
photosynthates and their subsequent translocations vis-a-vis
total dry matter production are favoured by potassium (Mengel,
1983). The beneficial effect of potassium is of particular
importance in tropical crops, since potassium reduces water
loss by reducing transpiration (Brag, 1972; Saxena, 1985) and
thereby leading to elevated dry matter prouction (Blanchet
et al., 1962; Linser and Herwig, 1968; Marschner and Possingham,
1975; Mengel and Kirkby, 1980, 1982; Beringer, 1982; Saxena,
1985) . In addition, potassium application compensated for the
ill effects of water stress on both the genotypes to a large
extent. It may be added that GAUG-1 and GAUG-10 require 20 and
40 kg K/ha respectively for their maximum leaf area and dry
matter production at all the stress levels.
100
5.3 Physiological characteristics
Morphological, physiological and biochemical attributes
regulate chemi-osmotic potential and thereby sustain plant growth
under stress environment (Morgan, 1984). Response to drought
seems to be mainly by avoidance through physio-morphological
adaptation. Stomatal resitance, transpiration rate, relative
water content, nitrate reductase activity, proline accumulation,
ABA content, organic acid content and changes in pH of cell
sap have been very well documented in various crops as contribu
ting factors and or index for drought resistance (Mengel and
Kirkby, 1982, Dwivedi et a3 1986aTb).In general, it has been assumed
that nutrition affects the response of a plant to stress. For
example, roots penetrate deeper when provided adequat potassium
fertilizer, thereby getting access to additional water present
in the root zone (Edward, 1981). In fact, stress tolerance has
been defined as a plant adaptation and survival mechanism by
which a thermodynamic equilibrium is established with the
unfavourable environment in terms of osmoregulation (Levitt,
1972).
The data presented in Tables 14, 36, 58 indicate that
stomatal resistance was low at S„ normal irrigation, plants
subjected to stress, however, showed greater resistance. As
a result, transpiration was found to decline under water stress
conditions. It is interesting to note that potassium application
at the rate of 20 and 40 kg K/ha in GAUG-1 and GAUG-10
101
respectively brought down transpiration not only at S^ (normal)
level but also at S, and S_ levels of stress. This was apparently
because of the fact that stomatal resistance in potash• applied
(K-Q.K.QjKgg) plants was higher than in KQ plants (Tables 14,
36,58). Similar observations have also been recorded by Khanna-
Chopra et al. (1980) in other crops. Based on our findings,
it may be further emphasised that under rainfed conditions when
the gap between the irrigation at sowing and the rain was 30
days (Table 1), at the early stage of growth (30 DAS), the trans
piration rate in both the varieties was rather low and corres
ponded reciprocally to the stomatal resistance of these plants
(Tables 14,15,36,37,58,59). Such a relationship was not noted
at the later stage of growth (60 DAS) because the rainfall
interval coincided with normal irrigation. Thus, it seems
plausible that potassium decreased transpiration rate under
water stress conditions by raising stomatal resistance. In the
present investigation accumulation of potassium in leaves was
found to be clearly related to potassium application (Tables 22,
44,66). This might have resulted in the retention of water by
plants through the well known role of potassium in the organisa
tion and hydration of protoplasm. This view is in agreement
with the work of Christensen, 1976 and Beringer and Trolldenier,
1978. Hence increase in stomatal resistance due to potassium
application and subsequent delcine in transpiration rate in
groundnut noted in the present study appears to be understandable.
102
An increase in relative water content (RWC) at various
potassium levels under water deficit condition was noted during
all seasons (Tables 16,38,60)". Water stress decreased the RWC
significantly, in both the varieties, which was alleviated by
potassium under water stress conditions through better water
retention by plants (Christensen, 1976). The increase in relative
water content may be due to as concomitant increase in the chemi-
osmotic potential through the accumulation of proline, organic
acids, sugars and organo-metallo complexes (Dwivedi et al.,
1986Q, b).These molecules might raise leaf water content and make
it available for succeeding steps in plant metabolism. It may,
therefore, be concluded that the beneficial effects of potassium
noted above help in maintaining normal plant growth and survival
under stress environment. Rajagopal, (1985) and Saxena (1985)
have also attributed a noteworthy role of potassium in achieving
water economy among plants. Thus, adequate potassium nutrition
improves the resistance to water stress.
5.4 Biochemical characteristics
5.4.1 Nitrate reductase activity
Nitrate reductase (E.G. 1.9.6.1) activity (NRA) regulates
the utilisation of nitrogen in the plant system (Afridi and
Hewitt, 1962; McKee, 1962). It was found that water stress
resulted in depression of leaf NRA level (Tables 39,61). Similar
observations have also been reportd by Afridi (1960), Khanna-
Chopra e_t ail. (1980) Mengel and Kirkby (1982). It is interesting
103
to note that potassium application helped in offsetting the
decrease in NRA under stress condition (Khanna-Chopra et al.,
1980). In the present investigation, it was noted that potassium
nutrition elevated NRA level in both genotypes which declined
under stress condition in all seasons (Tables 17,39,61). However,
the mechanism by which potassium maintains NRA level under drought
conditions is not known. It appeared that potassium helped in
greater assimilation of NO" by enhancing NRA and that it could
also help in greater recovery of the enzyme after stress. On
the other hand, it may be assumed that potassium being respon
sible for water retention in the cell may check the dehydration
of the enzyme system, which subsequently induced and stablized
the NRA level (Hewitt and Afridi, 1959; Afridi and Hewitt, 1962).
Khanna-Chopra et ail. (1980) also reported the restoration of
NRA level as a result of potassium nutrition in maize under
water stress condition; but similar studies in groundnut are
lacking. The NRA was found to be higher in spreading genotype
(GAUG-10), as compared to that of GAUG-1 (bunch type) even under
water stress conditions. This may be due to higher RWC noted
in the former variety (Tables 16,38,60). Since potassium improves
RWC, the higher NRA level noted under stress condition in its
presence is quite feasible. When water supply is inadequate,
NRA activity is normal but it drops drastically with reduced
water content. Thus, differeces in NRA in the two varieties
are to be mainly attributed to higher RWC and higher potassium
content (Tables 16,22,38,44,60,66).
104
5.4.2 Proline content
It has been well documented that proline accumulates
in .plant .when they face adverse conditions, including abundance
of salts or xeric environment. During a period of water deficit,
a range of amino acids accumulates to a greater or lesser degree
but the most frequent and extensive response is an increase
in the concentration of proline (Palfi et ^ . , 1973; Singh et al.,
1973; Rajagopal _et al., 1977; Sinha, 1978;(Pleg and Aspinall,
1981' Mengel and Kirkby, 1982; Dwivedi et al. , 1986a,b).Its accumu
lation is supposed to decrease the osmotic potential of the
cell so as to maintain a positive gradient for water uptake
and to reduce water loss from the cell during water stress condi
tion (Singh et al. , 1972; Sinha and Nicholas, 1981; Mengel and
Kirkby, 1982).
In the present investigation, potassium application was
found to increase the proline content in the plant further at
all levels of water stress (Table 18,40,62). Kirshnasastry (1985)
reported that potassium increases proline in fingermillet and
groundnut under water stress conditions as a result of promotion
in proline biosynthesis via potassium mediated arginase activity.
Similar results have also been reported in bean (Marcano, 1981).
Similarly, an increase in the proline content due to potassium
application was evident on the perusal of the data of rainfed
experiments in which proline content showed an increase in treat
ments KjQ and K.^ over the control (Table 18) at the 30 DAS
105
stage of growth when the rains failed for 30d (Table 1). This
could mean that the role of .potassium in maintaining osmotic
potential of the plant under water stress condition was compli
mented by the accumulation of proline and two together ensured
plant survival better under stress conditions.
5.4.3 Chlorophyll content
Chlorophyll content was found to decrease as the plant
advanced in age and the severity of water. It was also dependent
upon of the cultivar and its potassium nutrition (Tables 19,41,63)
In general, water stress caused a decrease in chlorophyll content
in both genotypes of groundnut. Depression in chlorophyll content
as a result of water stress has also been reported by Sastry
(1979), and Khanna-Chopra et ^ . (1980) in groundnut and maize
respectively. However, applied potassium was found to increase
the chlorophyll content although the concentration of potassium
in the leaf was not proportional to the leaf chlorophyll content
(Tables 19,22,41,44,63,66). It may be emphasised that potassium
application was also noted to offset the fall in chlorophyll
content under water stress conditions. That chlorophyll content
could be maintained at normal level is also born out the findings
of Bark and Chein (1983), who noted an increase in chlorophyll
content and alleviation in iron chlorosis by potassium applica
tion. Presumably, potassium application promoted the uptake
of such nutrients as S0~ , Fe^ and Mg* that are known to be
106
associated with the synthesis of chlorophyll. Edward (1981)
reported that potassium enhanced the" root growth and increased
the uptake of nutrients for better growth and development. This
is perhaps oiTe of the reasons why the (GAUG-10) with wider root
zone was observed by the author less to show chlorosis in Junagadh
fields in general than the bunch variety (GAUG-1).
5.4.4 Leaf N. P and K content
Leaf N, P and K contents showed slight variation under
different stress conditions in the three field experiments under
taken. Leaf nitrogen and potassium (but not phosphorus) accumulate
due to potassium application at all levels of water stress
(Tables 20,22,42,44,64,66).
Nitrogen is one of the more mobile elements and is known
to be absorbed and accumulated at a fast rate in the presence
of potassium. This is achieved by potassium acting as counter
ion of NO" in which form nitrogen is normally absorbed in nature
and translocate from root to shoot (Dijkshoorn, 1958; Ben-zioni
et al., 1971). In addition, potassium has been reported to
increase nodulation and thereby the nitrogen content of legume
(Marschner, 1983). These findings would probably account for
the observation of significant increase in the nitrogen content
of the crop and the significant difference between the two geno
types with regard to nitrogen accumulation in leaves at all
levels of stress due to potassium application (Tables 20,42,64).
107
It may not be out of place to reiterate that GAUG-10, the spread
ing variety showed, better root spread and higher nodulation
than GAUG-1, the bunch variety (Kulkarni et al. , 1986) and is,
therefore, better equipped for enhanced nutrient uptake and
consequent accumulation.
The observed increase in the accumulation of potassium
in leaves on the application of potassium could be due to an
increase of available potassium in the soil which was already
medium with regard to this nutrient (Table 4). Potassium accumu
lation under water stress is well established (Sinha , 1978)
and thus it maintains a balance between the osmotic potential
of the plant and its surroundings (Jones et ^ . , 1979).
5.5 Yield characteristics
Yield is the final manifestation of several complex
morphological, physiological and biochemical traits of a crop.
However, these traits are, in turn, dependent upon various
environmental factors including availability and proper balance
of water and essential nutrients. Among the later, applied
potassium is known to have a positive influence on the plants
capacity to adjust itself to adverse environmental conditions,
particularly water stress. Potassium functions in two ways:
(i) it influences some of the essential biophysical processes
e.g. turgor pressure and osmoregulation and (ii) it accelerates
important biochemical processes activated by proton pumps like
108
photosynthesis and phloem loading on the one hand and potassium
activated enzyme systems on the other.These, according to Beringer
(1982) explains the role "of potassium in maintaining or enhancing
the productivity of crops under normal and adverse conditions
as noted in the present study. Potassium application was noted
to affect a number of leaf characteristics for example, it
enhanced stomatal resistance (Tables 14,36,58) relative water
content (Tables 16,38,60) NRA (Tables 17,39,61) and chlorophyll
(Tables 19,41,63) and proline content (Tables 18,39,61), the
cumulative effect of which manifested itself in significantly
reduced rate of transpiration (Tables 15,37,59) inspite of
increased leaf area (Tables 12,34,56). The observed enhancement
in these parameters coupled with reduction in water loss
expectedly increased the energy harvesting efficiency of the
cultivars. Since an increase in leaf area, chlorophyll contents,
NRA and turgidity are mainly responsible for dry matter accumula
tion, the observed increase in dry weight of groundnut as a
result of potassium application is understandable.
Changes in ratio of mature/immature pods (Table 23,4 5,67),
shelling percentage and 100 seed weight (Table 24,46,68) as
a result of potassium application both under normal and stress
conditions were recorded. The above mentioned multifold favourable
effect of potassium application of various yield attributes
reflected expectedly in the enhanced pod yield and thereby,
harvest index (Tables 25,4 7,69) of the two varieties of groundnut
109
studied. These data also explain clearly the differential
response of the two genotypes to various levels of potassium
and differential effect of the latter under various degree
of water stress (Gopalaswamy _et _al. , 1976; 1978; Reddy et al. ,
1977; Beringer and Trolldenier, 1978; 1981; Steineck and Haeder,
1978; Lauchli and Pfliiger, 1978; Mengel, 1978; Beringer, 197S;
Sinha, 1978; Beringer, 1980; Mengel and Kirkby, 1980; 1982;
Rao £t ^ . , 1980; Beringer and Haeder, 1981; Nair et £l., 1981;
Beringer, 1982; Mengel, 1983; 1984; 1985; Saxena, 1985; Kulkarni,
£t_al., 1986; Dwivedi ^ ail. 1985a,b; 1987; Dwivedi 1988).
5.6 Protein content
In all experiments conducted, potassium application
enhanced the protein content of seed at all levels of stress
(Tables 26,48,70). It is well established that potassium not
only facilitates the uptake and assimilation of nitrogen into
simple amino acids and amides (Sodek et _al. , 1980) but also
favoures peptide synthesis leading to protein synthesis (Evans
and Sorger, 1966; Evans and Wildes, 1971; Wyn Jones and Pollard 19
S3;Belvins, 1985). In addition, the observed variations in protein
accumulation in seed, specially the high protein cotent in winter
season is interesting. The relatively low temperature of winter
months would ensure reduced loss of carbohydrates through
respiration. As a result, the availability of carbon skeleton
for amino acid synthesis leading to protein synthesis would
be expected to be increased. Hence the higher protein content
110
of seed noted in GAUG-1 as well as GAUG-10 when grown in the
"Rabi" seasons (October-March) as compared with two varieties
when cultivated in"Kharif "i.e. from June to October.
5.7 Oil centent
It is noteworthy that, although water stress had no effect
on the oil content of seed of the two cultivars of groundnut
potassium application increased the oil content significantly
irrespective of water stress levels (Tables 26,48,70).
Potassium is known to be associated with the biosynthesis
and accumulation of malate and oxaloacetate as an activator
of the malic enzyme (E.G. 1.1.1.40) and malic dehydrogenase
(E.C.1.1.1.37) respectively. Potassium ions are also required
by two enzymes in the pathway of fatty acid biosynthesis. The
first (acetyl COA synthetase E.G. 6.2.1.1.), condenses oxaloace
tate and COA to acetyl GOA and the second (acetyl-GOA carboxylase
E.G. 6.4.1.2) which adds GO- to acetyl-GOA to form malonyl GOA
Weber, (1985). Hence it could be concluded that potassium appli
cation accelerates the synthesis and translocation of the
precursors of fatty acids (malate, oxaloacetate, GOA etc.) and
enhances the synthesis of the esters at the oil synthesising
site (seed).
This may be one of the reasons why even under water stress
conditions plants receiving potassium had higher oil content
in the seed. The G:H ratio in fats • in higher compared with
Ill
carbohydrates. Potassium is known to maintain a higher flux
equilibrium of hydrogen in the plant system. Consequently ample
availability of hydrogen would result in more rapid oil synthesis.
This could be another reason for the significant improvement
in oil content observed under water stress condition when pota
ssium is applied to the crop Pande et jil. (1971) and Nair et^ al.
(1981) have also recorded similar observation in groundnut.
5.8 Energy partitioning and energy harvesting efficiency
Higher energy values in leaf, stem, root, seed and shell
were noted in the potassium applied plants of both varieties
of groundnut compared with the respective plant parts in the
no-potassium control. The data (Tables 28,29,30,31,50,51,52,
53,72,73,74,75 appendix) reveal that the most favourable, parti
tioning of energy was noted in the order such as seed > leaves>
stem > shell > root. Some of the reasons for this augumentation
in energy conservation due to potassium application have been
considered on p. 110 but this aspect certainly merits more detailed
investigation.
Inspite of the fact that groundnut is a C-. plant, it
has a number of plus points (like soyabean) as far as energy
harvesting ability is concerned. Its pinnately compound leaves
are photosentive, adjusting themselves to the source and intensity
of radiation. In addition they do not over shadow each other
to the some extent as is the case in many other plants with
simple leaves. The leaflets remain folded during the night and
112
during mid-day which decreases the rate of transpiration and
thereby reduces frequent fluctuations in leaf temperature. All
these attributes results cumulatively in the higher energy harve
sting efficiency of groundnut compared with other C^ plants.
Water stress results in a drastic decline in energy harvesting
efficiency. This might be due to (i) loss of turgidity at the
site of energy fixations, (ii) decreased duration of exposure
of leaves to light because of automatic folding during mid day
(iii) closing of stomata and steep -rise in stomatal resistance
and (iv) increase in leaf temperature. It is paradoxical that
closing of stomata under stress conditions is beneficial for
the water economy of the plant but as it simultaneously impedes
the entry of carbon dioxide in control (K„) plants, it further
reduces their energy content. >
It is noteworthy that potassium helps maintain turgidity
in the leaves as a result of which folding of leaves during
day time, due to stress, is delayed. This enhances the period
of solar energy perception and harvest and thereby increases
the efficiency of the crop during the entire growth period.
Potassium application increases the availability of metabolites
for consumption by the rhizobia in root nodules of legumes.
This enhances their nitrogen fixation efficiency. The additional
nitrogen thus made available to the host consequently results
in higher amount of solar energy conversion to chemical energy
of organic substances and thus enhanced accounts for the energy
harvesting ability of the host plant. This is also evident from
113
the data, showing higher energy content of different part of
potassium treated plants compared with the no-potassium control
(Tables 28,29,50,51,72,73 appendix). Since potassium • helps in
better root growth, increased supply of water might be ensured
at the site of energy harvest and thus enhance the energy
efficiency in potassium treated plants compared to K„ plants
under stress condition. Dwivedi _et _al. (1985) also reported
that groundnut has higher energy harvesting efficiency under
rainfed conditions when potassium was applied. It may also be
due to the observed increase in leaf area and chlorophyll content
in the treated plants(p.99-105). Potassium, thus, has an important
role in the utilisation of light by promoting the relative water
content of leaf, turgor has an important influence on its
alignment and affects light utilisation (Stoy, 1962; Amberger,
1968; Smid and Peaslee, 1977; Steineck and Haeder, 1978).
A higher energy efficiency in PAR was recorded under
rainfed conditions (Table 27). Relative humidity during this
season was found to be higher than in summer and winter season
(Table 1,2,3). It has been reported that humid conditions favour
the utilisation efficiency of light, dry matter production and
conservation of energy (Dwivedi et al. 1985; Dwivedi, 1988).
Hence, higher energy efficiency during "Kharif" season in PAR
is plausible.
Groundnut being a tropical plant, the light saturation
point has been reported to be very high (Dwivedi et al. , 1985;
114
Dwivedi, 1985). Therefore, maintenance of turgidity due to
potassium application during summer season where abundant light
is avialable should be expected to. lead to better harvest of
solar energy. The energy harvesting efficiency under total irra
diation (SI) and PAR differed markedly (Table 27,49,71). These
values were comparable with those recorded wheat, Cynodon dactylon
Pers. and groundnut (Dwivedi, 1975a,b and Dwivedi e_t al. , 1985).
Higher energy efficiency in GAUG-10 than in GAUG-1 during various
seasons under stress and non-stress conditions may be due to
higher potassium content in plant tissue in the former, resulting
in low transpiration, higher RWC, energy harvest and conserva
tion. Thus it may be pointed out that potassium application helps
indirectly, in more than one way, the energy harvesting parti
tion efficiency in both cultivars of groundnut under normal
(irrigated), rainfed (un-irrigated) and varying levels of water
stress (induced drought) conditions.
Of the information contained in the thesis, the following
are some of the important new additions to the literature on
the growth, development and water and potassium requirements
of groundnut. These have been studied and recorded for the first
time:
( 1) Significant differences in various morpho-physiological
attribute of varieties GAUG-1 (bunch type) and GAUG-10
(spreading type) in relation to potassium nutrition and
water stress have been noted.
115
(2) The standing official recommendation and earlier farm practice
of ignoring potash as a fertiliser for groundnut cultivation
in Gujarat has been proved wrong. The optimum potassium
requirement of GAUG-1 and GAUG-10 for various seasons has
been established to be 20 kg and 40 kg K/ha respectively.
(3) Detailed information about the water relation of the crop
under field conditions, particularly with respect to growth;
stomatal resistance; transpiration rate, RWC; NRA; proline,
chlorophyll and NPK contents, yield, quality and energy
harvesting efficiency, has been collected.
(4) The crop has been successfully cultivated in the "Rabi" season
as a result of potassium application. It requires reduced
irrigation compared to the normal practice of growing the
crop in summer. Moreover, the risk of viviparous germination
of seeds in the standing crop (due to unexpected early monsoon
rains) leading to substantial losses, could be offset. "Rabi"
cultivation would, therefore, change the entire oilseeds
scenario of the country by utilising profitably the thousands
of hectares left traditionally fallow in winter.
(5) For farmers who may not be persuaded to change their cropping
pattern, GAUG-1 has been found to be the suitable variety
to be cultivated with the proper dose of applied potassium
to reduce the frequency of irrigations required for maximum
productivity
116
(6) Potassium has been invariably noted to ameliorate the ill
effect of water stress and to increase drought tolerance.
It has also been found to enhance the energy harvesting
efficiency of groundnut both under normal as well as water
stress conditions.
Thus, notwithstanding the potassium status of the soil,
potassium application may be exploited commercially for enhanced
production of groundnut grown in semiarid regions.
CHAPTER
SUMMARY
Chapter-6
SUMMARY
The importance of the problem "Potassium nutrition of
groundnut under rainfed and irrigated conditions" has been
considered in brief. The effect of various levels of potassium
and water stress on universally accepted parameters of growth,
water relations, metabolism, nutrient composition, protein, oil,
pod yield and energy conservation in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea
L.) were studied. Justification has -been put forward for under
taking the present work emphasising the originality of the problem
(Chapter 1).
The available information pertaining to the potassium
nutrition of groundnut has been reviewed with special reference
to the work done in India. A number of lacunae in our present
knowledge about the morphophysio-biochemical basis of the drought
resistance in groundnut particularly in relation to potassium
nutrition have been pointed out (Chapter 2).
The details of the material and methods employed for
the three field experiments have been given with relevant meteoro
logical and edaphic data (Chapter 3).
In brief Experiment 1 was a field trial conducted according
to factorial randomised block design during rainy ("Kharif")
season to study the effect of four doses of basal potassium (0,20,
40 and 60 kg K/ha) under raifed conditions on groundnut varieties
GAUG-1 and GAUG-10.
118
Experiment 2 was also conducted in the field on the same varieties
of groundnut (GAUG-1 and GAUG-10) according to factorial randomised
block design during winter ("Rabi") season under irrigated
condition to study the combined effect of four levels of potassium
(0, 20, 40 and 60 kg K/ha) and two levels of water stress (S„
and S,) in sixteen possible combinations.
Experiment 3 was conducted during summer ("Zaid") season according
to factorial randomised block design on only the bunch (GAUG-1)
cultivar of groundnut in the field as the other cultivar (GAUG-10)
spreading variety mature late and spoil in the field due to onset
of rain. The aim of this field trial was to study the role of
potassium (0, 20 and 40 kg K/ha) in ameliorating the ill effects
of induced water stress (S„, S, and S^) under irrigated condition.
On the statistical analysis the data mostly found
significant at P < 0.05 (Chapter 4). These have been discussed
in the light of the findings of earlier workers (Chapter 5).
The important findings are summarised below:
I. The two groundnut cultivars showed differential response
to potassium application under both rainfed condition and
at all levels of water stress while the bunch variety (GAUG-1)
responded best to 20 kg K/ha, spreading variety (GAUG-10)
showed optimum response to 40 kg K/ha in all the seasons
and at all the levels of stress. Almost all the parameters
studied responding significantly.
119
2. Spreading genotype (GAUG-10) exhibited more profuse vegetative
growth than the bunch cultivar (GAUG-1) in rainy season and
winter. This could be due to difference in the genetic -make
up of'the two cultivars and could account for the differences
in the response to potassium and water stress, which was
expressed more clearly in GAUG-10 than in GAUG-1.
3. Potassium had significant impact on leaf area and dry weight
under normal and water stress conditions in both cultivars
tested for various seasons. Water stress decreased the leaf
area and dry weight, however, the application of potassium
compensated for the ill effect of water stress on both the
varieties to some extent in all the seasons.
4. Water stress in general depressed the transpiration rate
and increased the stomatal resistance in all the seasons.
Thus, it was noted that, at normal irrigation (S . level of
stress), stomatal resistance decreased which subsequently
increased when plants were subjected to stress. Based on
present findings, it may be further emphasised that under
rainfed conditions when the gap between two rains was about
30 days, at early stage of growth, the transpiration rate
in both the cultivars declined corresponding with the increase
in stomatal resistance. Equally noteworthy is the observation
that potassium application decreased transpiration by increas
ing stomatal resistance at all levels of stress in all the
seasons.
120
5. Water stress decreased the relative water content in both
varieties which was alleviated by potassium application under
stress conditions through better water retention by plants
in all the seasons.
6. Water stress resulted in depression of nitrate reductase
activity in all the seasons. Potassium application helped
in maintaing higher NR levels under stress conditions during
all the season on both varieties.
7. Increased proline accumulation was recorded under water stress
conditions in both varieties tested in all the seasons.
Potassium application was found to increase the proline
content further at all level of stress. Proline accumulation
helped suppress water loss during water stress conditions,
playing its well established role under adverse environmental
conditions, including water stress.
8. Water stress caused a decrease in chlorophyll content in
both genotypes of groundnut. However, potassium application
increased the chlorophyll content and checked deterioration
in chlorophyll under stress condition.
9. Leaf, N, P and K contents were affected and difference was
noted under stress conditions. Nitrogen and potassium showed
accumulation due to potassium application at all levels of
water stress. Water stress further increased K accumulation
in leaves.
121
10. Potassium application enhanced the protein and oil content
in seed irrespective of water stress levels in all the
seasons in both genotypes of groundnut.
11. Reduction in yield characteristics, including pod yield,
was -recorded due to water stress. Potassium application
was found to ameliorate this ill effect of water stress
and to improve final yield through its augmenting effect
on various yield characteristics in all the seasons.
12. Water stress decreased the energy harvesting efficiency
of the crop due to decreased moisture availability at the
site of energy fixation. Plants supplied with adequate
potassium exhibited higher solar energy harvesting efficiency
than control plants even under water stress conditions.
13. Potassium helped plants in achieving water economy and in
maintaining proper osmotic potential. It thus improved the
resistance of plants to water stress and thereby led to better
plant survival. This inturn, resulted in differential dry
matter, output under different experimental conditions.
Finally, the present chapter gives the summary of the
thesis and is followed by an up-to-date bibliography.
R E F E R E N C E S
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