copyright © 2002 by south-western 14–1 groups and teams synergysynergy when group performance...

Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 14–14–11

Groups and TeamsGroups and Teams

• SynergySynergy When group performance levels are greater than that When group performance levels are greater than that

achieved by employees working on their own.achieved by employees working on their own.

•GroupGroup Two or more people who interact with one Two or more people who interact with one

another to achieve a common objective.another to achieve a common objective. Membership group—a group that an Membership group—a group that an

individual belongs to by virtue of birth individual belongs to by virtue of birth or life circumstances.or life circumstances.

Reference group—any group we belong to, Reference group—any group we belong to, or aspire to belong to, and that we use to or aspire to belong to, and that we use to judge the adequacy of our behavior.judge the adequacy of our behavior.


Groups and Teams (cont’d)Groups and Teams (cont’d)

•TeamTeam Two or more people joined in a Two or more people joined in a

cooperative activity for work or play.cooperative activity for work or play. Team characteristics:Team characteristics:

Intensity with which they work togetherIntensity with which they work together Bonding and cohesion (“bondedness”)Bonding and cohesion (“bondedness”)——

the pthe perception of themselves as team memberserception of themselves as team members Overriding pursuit of a collectively shared goalOverriding pursuit of a collectively shared goal——

their esprit de corpstheir esprit de corps Work teamsWork teams

Small groups of individuals who work collaboratively Small groups of individuals who work collaboratively to their and their organization’s mutual benefit.to their and their organization’s mutual benefit.



•Types of groups and teamsTypes of groups and teams Formal group (team)—a group Formal group (team)—a group

consciously created to serve consciously created to serve an organizational objective.an organizational objective.

Informal group—a group not intentionally Informal group—a group not intentionally created, arising spontaneously out of created, arising spontaneously out of

people’s social needs, physical people’s social needs, physical proximity, common interests, proximity, common interests,

and mutual attraction.and mutual attraction.



Ver

tica

l T

eam

s

Horizontal Teams

Cross-functional Teams



•Types of groups and teams (cont’d)Types of groups and teams (cont’d) Work team—a group responsible for producing the Work team—a group responsible for producing the

organization’s goods or services.organization’s goods or services. Parallel team—a team that performs functions that the Parallel team—a team that performs functions that the

regular organization is equipped to perform well.regular organization is equipped to perform well. Project team—a team that is time-limited and formed to Project team—a team that is time-limited and formed to

work on a single task; when the task is completed the work on a single task; when the task is completed the team disbands.team disbands.

Management team—a team that manages (plans, Management team—a team that manages (plans, organizes, directs, and controls) organizational organizes, directs, and controls) organizational subunits and activities under their control.subunits and activities under their control.


Types of Groups and TeamsTypes of Groups and Teams

•Formal and Informal GroupsFormal and Informal Groups

Formal Groups/Teams Informal Groups/Teams

Vertical

Horizontal

Cross-functional

Quality control circles

Employee involvement

Standing committees

Ad hoc committees

Project teams

Task forces

Self-managing work teams

Friendship groups

Interest groups

TABLE 14TABLE 14–1–1


Self-managed Work TeamsSelf-managed Work Teams

•Key componentsKey components The team should be responsible for whole task.The team should be responsible for whole task. Assigned work should cause social and cooperative Assigned work should cause social and cooperative

interactions.interactions. All members should eventually learn all jobs related to All members should eventually learn all jobs related to

the task.the task. The team should be self-contained with the resources The team should be self-contained with the resources

and expertise necessary to complete the task.and expertise necessary to complete the task. The team should have the information necessary to The team should have the information necessary to

evaluate its own performance. evaluate its own performance.


Team PropertiesTeam PropertiesLevel of Employee Involvement

Authority/influence

Scope of work completed

Size Number of members

Norms Code of conduct; shared beliefs

and values

Collectively held expectations of member behavior

Roles Behaviors that characterize a

person in a social setting

Social Facilitation and Impairment

Increased and decreased performance due to the physiological and/or psychological arousal caused by the presence of others

Similarity/dissimilarity of values, demographics, time, goal, and interpersonal

Homogeneity/Heterogeneity Similarity/dissimilarity of values,

demographics, time, goal, and interpersonal orientations

Cohesiveness

How well the group members “hang together”

Spatial Arrangement and Team Structure



Levels of Employee InvolvementLevels of Employee Involvement

Level Action Primary Outcome

1. Information sharing Managers decide, then inform employees

Conformance

2. Dialogue Managers get employee input, then decide

Acceptance

3. Special problem solving Managers assign a one-time problem to selected employees

Contribution

4. Intra-group problem solving Intact group meets weekly to solve local problems

Commitment

5. Inter-group problem solving Cross-functional group meets to solve mutual problems

Cooperation

6. Focused problem solving Intact group deepens involvement in a specific issue

Concentration

7. Limited self-direction Teams at selected sites function full time with minimal supervision

Accountability

8. Total self-direction Executives facilitate self-management in an all-team company

Ownership

Source: J.D. Orsburn, L. Moran, E. Musselwhite, and J.H. Zenger. 1990. Self-directed work teams: The new American challenge. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin, 34. TABLE 14TABLE 14–3–3


The Maintenance Role of GroupsThe Maintenance Role of Groups

Maintenance Role: Activities that forward cohesiveness and morale

Getting people acquainted, introducing one another, having informal gatherings.

Meeting physical needs, temperature, rest breaks, food, and comfort.

Meeting emotional needs, letting people tell you their story, complimenting a person, showing sympathy.

Gatekeeping, helping bring others into discussion, encouraging everyone to participate.

Supporting, listening attentively, showing interest, encouraging more details.

Compromising, willing to give up one’s own ideas when group objectives require it.

Harmonizing, helping people reach agreement or understanding, reducing areas of conflict.

Reminding group of standards it has set, rights of individuals, etc.

Reducing emotional tension by humor, suggesting a break, etc.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–4a–4a


The Task Role of GroupsThe Task Role of Groups

TABLE 14TABLE 14–4b–4b

Task Role: Activities that facilitate task achievement for the group

Stating the problem clearly, pointing out problems that need attention, getting others to state problems.

Recognizing the need for information, facts, data and giving them and giving aid in securing them.

Recognizing the need for opinions or feelings and getting them.

Making suggestions, proposals for solving problems.

Evaluating solutions and suggestions, testing for practicality.

Summarizing group progress, or decisions, or disagreements.

Making procedural suggestions to help coordinate activities, subcommittees, buzz groups, role play, list suggestions on board, get group to assign priorities to agenda items, preventing “railroading.”

Calling attention to time limits, amount of time remaining to get the job done, and agenda still to be covered.

Serving as “group memory,” recording suggestions, decisions, being secretary.


Yes

No

If Easy Taskor

Familiar Task

Presenceof Others Arousal

PerformanceIncreases

PerformanceDecreases

How the Presence of Others Affects How the Presence of Others Affects PerformancePerformance

FIGURE 14FIGURE 14–1–1


Determinants and Consequences of Determinants and Consequences of Team CohesivenessTeam Cohesiveness

Threat/Competition(An Outside Enemy)

Success

Time Together

Small Size

Similarity

TeamAttractiveness

TeamCohesiveness

MemberSatisfaction withMembership

Low Absenteeism

Low Turnover

Motivation forTeam Goals

High Involvement

Productivity



Effects of Group Cohesiveness on Effects of Group Cohesiveness on PerformancePerformance

HighLow

Low

High

PoorPerformance

Below AveragePerformance

HighPerformance

MediocrePerformance

Group Cohesiveness

Alignment ofGroup Goals with

Organization’s Goals



Orientation

Low

High

Conflict Cohesion Delusion Disillusion Acceptance(Full Maturity)

Gro

up

Ma

turi

ty(E

ffe

cti

ve

ne

ss

)The Stages of Group (Team) DevelopmentThe Stages of Group (Team) Development

FIGURE 14FIGURE 14–4–4Source: Adapted from L. N. Jewell and H. J. Reitz. 1981. Group effectiveness in organizations. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 204.


Guidelines for Group DevelopmentGuidelines for Group Development

• Stage 1: OrientationStage 1: Orientation Ensure strong leadership—a willingness and ability to Ensure strong leadership—a willingness and ability to

structure and guide the group.structure and guide the group. Offer group members the opportunity to share, discuss, Offer group members the opportunity to share, discuss,

and exchange ideas and information.and exchange ideas and information. Assign or have the group develop specific goals.Assign or have the group develop specific goals.

Assign or have the group define Assign or have the group define group roles for each other.group roles for each other.

Provide answers to members’ Provide answers to members’ questions about the group.questions about the group.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5a–5a


Guidelines for Group Development Guidelines for Group Development (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Stage 2: ConflictStage 2: Conflict Accept conflict as necessary for further group Accept conflict as necessary for further group

development.development. Allow conflict to emerge.Allow conflict to emerge. Allow testing of group norms by members.Allow testing of group norms by members. Allow subgroups to form Allow subgroups to form

but maintain at least some but maintain at least some total group interactions.total group interactions.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5b–5b



• Stage 3: CohesionStage 3: Cohesion Provide a fair, nonpower-seeking leader who will work Provide a fair, nonpower-seeking leader who will work

for the good of the group.for the good of the group. Develop a system for addressing and resolving Develop a system for addressing and resolving

disagreements (conflict).disagreements (conflict). Encourage a sense of group identity.Encourage a sense of group identity. Encourage written and/or public statements from the Encourage written and/or public statements from the

group as a whole.group as a whole. Develop and formalize a permanent operating structure Develop and formalize a permanent operating structure

to guide group actions.to guide group actions.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5c–5c



• Stage 4: DelusionStage 4: Delusion Accept delusion as a normal stage necessary for further Accept delusion as a normal stage necessary for further

group development.group development. Avoid the onset of groupthink by watching for Avoid the onset of groupthink by watching for

symptoms and taking corrective action as needed.symptoms and taking corrective action as needed. Avoid prolonged continuation of delusion by Avoid prolonged continuation of delusion by

challenging the unrealistic bases for the delusion.challenging the unrealistic bases for the delusion.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5d–5d



• Stage 5: DisillusionStage 5: Disillusion Accept disillusionment as necessary for development.Accept disillusionment as necessary for development. Allow disillusionment to occur openly.Allow disillusionment to occur openly. Force development of disillusionment by identifying and Force development of disillusionment by identifying and

presenting group problems.presenting group problems. Allow subgroups to form, but maintain at least so total Allow subgroups to form, but maintain at least so total

group interactions.group interactions. If the existing group leader cannot manage conflicts, If the existing group leader cannot manage conflicts,

replace him/her with a directive leader.replace him/her with a directive leader. Emphasize how and why the group can mature effectively.Emphasize how and why the group can mature effectively.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5e–5e



• Stage 6: Guidelines for the Acceptance StageStage 6: Guidelines for the Acceptance Stage Provide a leader with good interpersonal skills.Provide a leader with good interpersonal skills. Encourage open, honest discussion of issues.Encourage open, honest discussion of issues. Discourage differences that focus on personalitiesDiscourage differences that focus on personalities Dissolve subgroups through rewards for commitment to Dissolve subgroups through rewards for commitment to

the total group.the total group. Identify to the group the unique qualities and Identify to the group the unique qualities and

contributions of each member.contributions of each member. Develop effective communication channels.Develop effective communication channels. Use issue-oriented decision-making strategies.Use issue-oriented decision-making strategies.

TABLE 14TABLE 14–5f–5f


Individual Differences and Group FitIndividual Differences and Group Fit

•The theory of work adjustmentThe theory of work adjustment The fit (relationship) between the individual and the The fit (relationship) between the individual and the

organization that exists when:organization that exists when: The needs of the individual are reinforced by the The needs of the individual are reinforced by the

benefits and opportunities (inducements) offered by benefits and opportunities (inducements) offered by the organization.the organization.

The needs of the organization are fulfilled by the skills The needs of the organization are fulfilled by the skills and abilities (contributions) of the employee.and abilities (contributions) of the employee.


Individual Differences and Group Fit Individual Differences and Group Fit (cont’d)(cont’d)

•Characteristics of Effective Team PlayersCharacteristics of Effective Team Players ExtroversionExtroversion ConscientiousnessConscientiousness AgreeablenessAgreeableness Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control Need for affiliationNeed for affiliation CollectivismCollectivism


Team PerformanceTeam Performance

• Individual performanceIndividual performance Individual Behavior = F [(Person) (Situation)]Individual Behavior = F [(Person) (Situation)]

•Group performanceGroup performance Group Behavior = F [(Group) (Situation)]Group Behavior = F [(Group) (Situation)]


The Determinants of Work The Determinants of Work Group/Team PerformanceGroup/Team Performance


Goal Difficulty

Goal Specificity

CollectiveEfficacy

Collective Senseof Empowerment

TeamPerformance

Capacity

Team’s PerformanceMotivation

Strategy

Context

Team’s Performance




Managing Team EffectivenessManaging Team Effectiveness

•Dimensions of team effectivenessDimensions of team effectiveness Customer satisfactionCustomer satisfaction Performance—quantityPerformance—quantity Performance—qualityPerformance—quality Member satisfactionMember satisfaction Member commitmentMember commitment CooperationCooperation AbsenteeismAbsenteeism TurnoverTurnover Citizenship behaviorCitizenship behavior



Impediments to Team EffectivenessImpediments to Team Effectiveness

Yes

No

Social Loafing

Diffusion ofResponsibility

Polarization

Escalation ofCommitment

PrematureClosure

Groupthink

Low Levelsof Team

Performance

GroupDynamics

Avoidance of TeamPerformance Impediments

High Levels of Team Performance



Employee Responses to Work TeamsEmployee Responses to Work Teams

• Immediate Group EffectsImmediate Group Effects

InformationalState

AffectiveState

BehavioralState

MotivationalState

Groups

Employee attitudes, motivations,

and behavior

FIGURE 14FIGURE 14–7–7Source: We draw extensively on the work of J. R. Hackman (1992; note 85) for this discussion.


Employee Employee Responses Responses to Groupsto Groups

Level ofParticipation

GroupCharacteristics:

GroupMember

Responses:

Goal Setting

Control

Structure

Processes

Culture

Context

Work Design

Stage ofDevelopment

Team Properties

Motivation

Attitudes

Behavior


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